Networking concepts 375

CHAPTER 15

Networking concepts

OBJECTIVES

 To understand uses of networking.

 Various types of networking.
 To understand various devices used in networking.
 Applications used for networking
 How and methods of networking security.
376 Networking concepts

15.1 Introduction
A Network is an inter-connection of autonomous computers. Two computers
are said to be interconnected if they are capable of exchanging the information.
Central to this definition is the fact that the computers are autonomous. This
means that no computers on the network can start, stop or control another.
15.1.1 Network Goals:
The network goals are as listed below.
(i) Resource Sharing: The aim is to make all the programs, data and
peripherals available to anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location
of the resources and the user.
(ii) Reliability: A file can have copies on two or three different machines, so if
one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be used. For military, banking
and many other applications it is great of importance.
(iii) Cost Factor: Personal computers have better price/performance ratio than
micro computers. So it is better to have PC’s, one per user with data stored on
one shared file server machine.
(iv) Communication Medium: Using a network, it is possible for managers,
working far apart, to prepare financial report of the company. The changes at
one end can be immediately noticed at another and hence it speeds up co-
operation among them.
15.1.2 Need of Networking:
1. File sharing provides sharing and grouping of data files over the network.
2.Print sharing of computer resources such as hard disk and printers etc.
3. email tools for communication with the e-mail address.
4. Remote access able to access data and information, around the globe.
5.Sharing database to multiple users at the same time by ensuring the intergrity.
15.2.1 ARPANET
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was one of the
world’s first operational packet switching networks, the first network to implement
TCP/IP, and the progenitor of what was to become the global Internet. The network
was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later
DARPA) within the U.S. Department of Defense for use by its projects at
universities and research laboratories in the US. The packet switching of the
 Networking concepts 377

ARPANET, together with TCP/IP, would form the backbone of how the Internet
works.
15.2.2 OSI Reference Model
Layer Name of unit exchanged
Host A Host B

7 Application Application APDU

6 Presentation Presentation PPDU

5 Session Session SPDU

4 Transport Transport TPDU

3 Network Network Packet

2 Data Link Data Link Frame

1 Physical Physical Bit

Figure 15.1 OSI Layers

The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel. It also deals with mechanical, electrical and timing
interfaces.
The Data Link Layer
The main function of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer.
The Network Layer
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. The main function
is to determine how packets are routed from source to destination.
The Transport Layer
The basic function of transport layer is to accept data from above layer and
split it up into smaller units if needed, and pass these to the network layer and
ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. It also determines
type of services to provide to the session layer.
378 Networking concepts

The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions
between them. It includes dialog control, token management and
synchronization.

The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted concerned with moving bits around the layer.

The Application Layer

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly
needed by the user. For example, HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) which is
the bases for the World Wide Web (WWW) to access web pages.

15.2.3 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP is a layered set of protocols. This protocol assumes that there is a
way to communicate reliably between the two computers. Mail, like other
application protocols, simply defines a set of commands and messages to be
sent. TCP is responsible for making sure that the commands get through to the
other end. It keeps track of what is sent, and retransmits anything that did not
get through.

Figure 15.2 TCP/IP Layers

 Networking concepts 379

TCP/IP is the base communication protocol of the internet. The part of

TCP/IP uses numeric IP addresses to join network segments and TCP part of
TCP/IP provides reliable delivery messages between networked computers. It is
based on the “catenet model”. This model assumes that there are a large number
of independent networks connected together by gateways. The user should be
able to access computers or other resources on any of these networks. Datagram
will often pass through a dozen different networks before getting their final
destination. The routing needed to accomplish this should be completely invisible
to the user. As far as the user is concerned, all he need to know is "Internet
address", in order to access another system. This is an address that looks like
128.64.194.1. It is actually a 32 bit number. However it is normally written as 4
decimal numbers, each representing 8 bits of the address. (The term “octet” is
used by Internet documentation for such 8 bit chunks. The term “byte” is not
used, because TCP/IP is supported by some computers that have byte sizes
other than 8 bits).

Generally the structure of the address gives you some information about
how to get to the system. We normally refer to systems by name, rather than by
Internet address. When we specify a name, the network software looks it up in a
database, and comes up with the corresponding Internet address. Most of the
network software deals strictly in terms of the address. TCP/IP is built on
“connection less” technology. Information is transferred as a sequence of “data
grams”.

Each of these datagrams is sent through the network individually. There are
provisions to open connections (i.e., to start a conversation that will continue for
sometime). However at some level, information from those connections is broken
up into datagrams, and those datagrams are treated by the network a completely
separate. For example, suppose you want to transfer a 15000 octet file. Most
networks can’t handle a 15000 octet datagram. So the protocols will break this
up into something like thirty 500 octet datagrams each. Each of these datagrams
will be sent to the other end. At that point, they will be put back together into
the 15000 octet file. However while those datagrams are in transmit, the network
doesn’t know that there is any connection between them. It is perfectly possible
that datagram 14 will actually arrive before datagram 13. It is also possible that
somewhere in the network, an error will occur, and some datagram won’t get
through at all. In that case, that datagram has to be sent again. Note by the way
that the terms datagram and packet often seem to be nearly interchangeable.
Technically, data gram is the right word to use when describing TCP/IP.
380 Networking concepts

A data gram is a unit of data, which is what the protocols deal with.

A packet is a physical thing, appearing on an Ethernet or some wire.

In most cases a packet simply contains a data gram, so there is very little
difference. However they can differ at times.
OSI TCP/IP

Application Application

Presentation

Session Transport

Transport

Network Internet

Data Link Host–to-Network

Physical

Figure 15.3 OSI and TCP comparetive layers

15.3.1 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-level protocol with

the lightness and speed necessary for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems. HTTP allows an open-ended set of methods to be used to
indicate the purpose of a request. It builds on the discipline of reference provided
by the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), as a location URL or name (URN) for
indicating the resource on which a method is to be applied. Messages are passed
to HTTP in a format similar to that used by internet mail and Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).

The HTTP has various built-in request methods which allow users to read
a web page, or to read a web page’s header, or to store a web page, or to append
to a named resource or to remove the web page or to connect two existing resources
or to break an existing connection between two resources.
 Networking concepts 381

15.3.2 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

One of the original services on the internet was designed to allow for
transferring files from one system to another. It goes by the name ftp which
stands for file transfer protocol. Files of any type can be transferred, although
you may have to specify whether the file is an ASCII or Binary file. They can be
transferred to any system on the internet provided that the permissions are set
accordingly.
Advantages of FTP
(i) It is very useful to transfer the files from one network to another.
(ii) It is an effective way to get a geographically dispersed group to co-operate
on a project.
(iii) It is popular way to share information over the internet. FTP works as a
client/server process.

15.3.3 SLIP/PPP (Serial Line Internet Protocol)

Serial line IP (SLIP) was the first protocol for relaying the IP packets over
dial-up lines. It defines an encapsulation mechanism, with little ease. There is
no support for dynamic address assignment, link testing or multiplexing different
protocols over a single link. SLIP has been largely supplanted by PPP.

PPP (Point to Point Protocols)

PPP is the internet standard for transmission of IP packets over serial

lines. The PPP is currently the best solution for dial-up internet connections,
including ISDN. PPP is a layered protocol, starting with a link control protocol
(LCP) for link establishment, configuration and testing. Once the LCP is
initialized, one or many of several network control protocols (NCPs) can be used
to transport traffic for a particular protocol suite. The IP Control Protocol (IPCT),
permits the transport of IP packets over a PPP link. PPP supports both
synchronized and unsynchronized lines.

15.4.1 THE INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks that evolved

from the first network ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects Agency network).
The internet is made up of many networks each run by a different company and
interconnected at peering points. It is an interconnection of large and small
382 Networking concepts

networks around the globe. The common use of Internet standards allows users
connected to one network to communicate with users on another network.

15.4.2 THE INTERSPACE

InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users

to communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D
environments. InterSpace provides the most advanced form of communication
available on the Internet today.

15.4.3 Elementary Terminology of Networks

Let us have a look at some typical hardware components of network.
(i) Nodes (Workstations)

The term nodes refer to the computer that are attached to a network
and are seeking to share the resources of the network. Of course, if
there were no nodes, there would be no network at all.
(ii) Server

Servers can be of two types: (1) non-dedicated servers and (2) dedicated
servers
15.4.4 Types of Servers
Non-dedicated Servers
On small networks, a workstation that can double as a server is known as
non-dedicated server since it is not completely dedicated to the cause of serving.
Such servers can facilitate the resource-sharing among the work stations on a
proportionately smaller scale. Since one computer works as a work station and
as well as server, it is slower and requires more memory. The networks using
such a server are known as PEER-TO-PEER networks.
Dedicated Servers
On bigger network installations, there is a computer reserved for server’s
job and its only job is to help workstations access data, software and hardware
resources. It does not double-up as a workstations and such a server is known
as dedicated server. The networks using such server are known as MASTER-
SLAVE networks.
On a network, there may be several servers that allow the workstations to
share specific resources. For example, there may be a server exclusively for
serving files related request like storing files, deciding about their access privileges
and regulating the amount of space allowed for each user. This server is known
as file server. Similarly there may be printer server and modem server. The
 Networking concepts 383

printer server takes care of the printing requirements of a number of

workstations and the modem server helps a group of network users use a
modem to transmit long distance messages.

15.4.5 TYPES OF NETWORKS

A computer network means a group of networked components, i.e., computers

that are linked by means of a communication system. A network can mean a
small group of linked computers to a chain of a few hundred computers of different
types (e.g., PCs, minis, mainframes, etc) spread around the world. Thus, networks
vary in size, complexity and geographical spread. Mostly, computers are classified
on the basis of geographical spread and on this basis, there can be 3 types of
networks:

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

Local Area Networks (LANs)

Small computer networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g., an

office, a building or a factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs). The key
purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resource sharing. The hardware as well
as software resources are shared through LANs. For instance, LAN users can
share data, information, programs, printer, hard disks, modems, etc.

In a typical Lan configuration, one computer is designated as the file server.

It stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that
can be shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected
to the file server are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful
than the file server and they may have additional software on their hard drives.
On most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each
computer.
384 Networking concepts

Fig 6.1
Figure 15.4 LAN topology
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) are the networks spread over a city.
For example, cable TV networks that are spread over a city can be termed as
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of
the hardware and the software resources among its users.

Wide Area Networks (WANs) Figure 15.5 MAN topology

The networks spread across the countries are known as WANs. A Wide
Area Networks (WANs) is a group of computers that are separated by large
distances and tied together. It can even be a group of LANs that are spread
across several locations and connected together to look like one big LAN. The
 Networking concepts 385

WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at

lesser cost and higher speeds.

Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks (WANs) are often connected

through public networks, such as the telephone system. Sometimes they can be
connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the
internet.

Figure 15.6 WAN topology

Difference between a LAN and a WAN

The next task is to distinguish between LANs and WANs. LANs are different
in the following important respects.

1. The distance between the nodes is limited. There is an upper limit of

approximately 10Kms and a lower limit of 1 meter.

2. While WANs usually operate at speeds of less than 1 mbps (one mega bits
per second), LANs normally operate at between 1 and 10 mbps. Using
optical fiber technology, it is possible to achieve space of the order of
hundreds of mbps.
386 Networking concepts

3. Because of the short distances involved, the error rates in LANs are much
lower than in WANs. LANs error rate is thousand times lower than in
WANs, so are normal.

4. The distance limitations involved in LANs normally mean that the entire
network is under the ownership and control of a single organization. This
is in sharp contrast to WANs, where the network is normally operated by
the countries post and telecommunications authorities rather than by its
users.
LAN WAN
1 Diameter of not more than a few Span entire countries.
kilometers.
2 A total data rate of at least Data rate less than one mbps.
several mbps.
3 Complete ownership by a single Owned by multiple organizations.
organization.
4 Very low error rates. Comparatively higher error rates.

15.4.6 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES: The actual appearence or layout of

networking
 Networking concepts 387

The Star Topology

This topology consists of a central node to which all other nodes are
connected by a single path. It is the topology used in most existing information
networks involving data processing or voice communications.

Figure 15.7 STAR topology with hub

Advantages of the Star topology

1. Ease of service. The star topology has a number of concentration points

(where connections are joined). These provide easy access for service or
reconfiguration of the network.
2. One device per connection. Connection points in any network are inherently
prone to failure. In the star topology, failure of a single connection typically
involves disconnecting one node from an otherwise fully functional network.

The Bus or Linear Topology

Another popular topology for data networks is the linear. This consists of a
single length of the transmission medium (normally coaxial cable) onto which
the various nodes are attached. The topology is used in traditional data
communication network where the host at one end of the bus communicates
with several terminals attached along its length.

The transmission from any station travels the length of the bus, in both
directions, and can be received by all other stations. The bus has terminators at
either end which absorb the signal, removing it from the bus.
388 Networking concepts

Data is transmitted in small blocks, known as packets. Each packet has

some data bits, plus a header containing its destination address. A station wanting
to transmit some data sends it in packets along the bus. The destination device,
on identifying the address on the packets, copies the data on to its disk.

Advantages of the linear topology Figure 15.8 Linear topology

1. Short cable length and simple wiring layout. Because there is a single
common data path connecting all nodes, the linear topology allows a very
short cable length to be used. This decreases the installation cost, and
also leads to a simple, easy to maintain wiring layout.

2. Resilient Architecture. The LINEAR architecture has an inherent simplicity

that makes it very reliable from a hardware point of view. There is a single
cable through which all the data propagates and to which all nodes are
connected.

3. Easy to extend. Additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus

network at any point along its length. More extensive additions can be
achieved by adding extra segments connected by a type of signal amplifier
known as repeater.
Disadvantages of the linear topology
1. Fault diagnosis is difficult. Although simplicity of the bus topology means
that there is very little to go wrong, fault detection is not a simple matter.
Control of the network is not centralized in any particular node. This
means that detection of a fault may have to be performed from many
points in the network.
 Networking concepts 389

2. Fault isolation is difficult. In the star topology, a defective node can easily
be isolated from the network by removing its connection at the center. If a
node is faulty on the bus, it must be rectified at the point where the node
is connected to the network.

3. Repeater configuration. When BUS type network has its backbone

extended using repeaters, configuration may be necessary.

4. Nodes must be intelligent. Each node on the network is directly connected

to the central bus. This means that some way of deciding who can use the
network at any given time must be performed in each node.

The Ring or Circular topology

The third topology that we will consider is the ring or the circular. In this
case, each node is connected to two and only two neighboring nodes and is
transmitted onwards to another. Thus data travels in one direction only, from
node to node around the ring. After passing through each node, it returns to the
sending node, which removes it.

It is important to note that data gets through rather than travels past each
node. This means that the signal may be amplified before being repeated on the
outward channel. node to node around the ring. After passing through each
node, it returns to the sending node, which removes it.

Figure 15.9 Ring topology

390 Networking concepts

Figure 15.10 Ring topology

Advantages of the Ring topology

1. Short cable length. The amount of cabling involved in a ring topology is

comparable to that of a bus and is small relative to that of a star. This
means that less connections will be needed, which will in turn increase
network reliability.

2. No wiring closet space required. Since there is only one cable connecting
each node to its immediate neighbors, it is not necessary to allocate space
in the building for wiring closet.

3. Suitable for optical fibers. Using optical fibers offers the possibility of very
high speed transmission. Because traffic on a ring travels in one direction,
it is easy to use optical fibers as a medium of transmission.
 Networking concepts 391

Disadvantages of the Ring topology

1. Node failure causes network failure. The transmission of data on a ring

goes through every connected node on the ring before returning to the
sender. If one node fails to pass data though itself, the entire network has
failed and no traffic can flow until the defective node has been removed
from the ring.

2. Difficult to diagnose faults. The fact that failure of one node will affect all
others has serious imprecations for fault diagnosis. It may be necessary to
examine a series of adjacent nodes to determine the faulty one. This
operation may also require diagnostic facilities to be built into each node.

3. Network reconfiguration is difficult. It is not possible to shut a small section

of the ring while keeping the majority of it working normally.

The Tree Topology

A variation of bus topology is the tree topology. The shape of the network
is that of an inverted tree with the central root branching and sub branching to
the extremities of the network.

Transmission in this topology

takes place in the same way as in the
bus topology. In both cases, there is
no need to remove packets from the
medium because when a signal
reaches the end of the medium, it is
absorbed by the terminators. Tree
topology is best suited for the
applications which have a hierarchical
flow of date and control. Since the tree
topology is a modification of a pure
network topology, bus topology, it is a
hybrid topology.

Figure 15.11 Tree topology

392 Networking concepts

Graph Topology

In this topology, nodes are connected together in an arbitrary fashion. A

link may or may not connect two or more nodes. There may be multiple links
also. It is not necessary that all the nodes are connected. But if a path can be
established in two nodes via one or more links is called a connected graph.

Mesh Topology

In this topology, each node is connected to more than one node to provide
an alternative root in the case the host is either down or too busy. It is an
extension to P-P network.

The mesh topology is excellent for long distance networking because it

provides extensive backup, rerouting and pass throu gh capabilities.
Communication is possible between any two nodes on the network either directly
or by passing through. This function is needed in the event of a line or node
failure anywhere in the network. The mesh topology is commonly used in large
internetworking environments with stars, rings and buses attached to each node.
This is also idle for distributed networks.

Figure 15.12 Mesh topology

When in a network each host is connected to other directly i.e., there is

a direct link between each host, then the network is said to be fully connected.
This characteristic is termed as full connectivity.
 Networking concepts 393

15.4.8 TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

By transmission media or communication channels of network, it is meant
that the connecting cables or connecting media are being talked about. The
cables that connect two or more workstations are the communication channels.
TWISTED PAIR CABLE
The most common form of wiring in data communication application is the
twisted pair cable. As a Voice Grade Medium (VGM), it is the basis for most
internal office telephone wiring. It consists of two identical wires wrapped together
in a double helix.
Problems can occur due to differences in the electrical characteristics
between the pair (e.g., length, resistance, and capacitance). For this reason,
LAN applications will tend to use a higher quality cable known as Data Grade
Medium (DGM).
Different types and categories of twisted-pair cable exist, but they all have two
things in common:
a. The wires come in pairs

b. The pairs of wires are twisted around each other

ADVANTAGES:
1. It is simple and physically flexible.

2. It can be easily connected.

3. It is easy to install and maintain.

4. It has a low weight.

5. It is inexpensive.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its low bandwidth capabilities make it unsuitable for broadband
applications.

2. Because of high attenuation, it is incapable of carrying a signal over long

distances without the use of repeaters.

3. It supports maximum data rates 1 Mbps without conditioning and 10 Mbps

with conditioning.

Types of Twisted Pair Cables

There are two types of twisted pair cables available. These are
394 Networking concepts

(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: UTP cabling is used for variety
of electronic communications. It is available in the following five
categories:
Type Description
CAT1 Voice-grade communications only; No data
transmission
CAT2 Data-grade transmission up to 4 Mbps
CAT3 Data-grade transmission up to 10 Mbps
CAT4 Data-grade transmission up to 16 Mbps
CAT5 Data-grade transmission up to 1000 Mbps

The UTP cables can have maximum segment length of 100 meters.

Figure 15.13 UTP cables

Figure 17.13 UTP cables
(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: This type of cables comes with
shielding of the individual pairs of wires, which further protects it
from external interference. But these also, like UTP, can have
maximum segment length of 100 meters. The advantage of STP over
UTP is that it offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk
due to shielding.
But it is definitely
heavier and
costlier than UTP
and requires
proper grounding
at both the ends.
Figure 15.14 STP cable

Types of Coaxial Cables

The two most commonly used types of coaxial cables are Thicknet and
Thinnet.
 Networking concepts 395

(i) Thicknet: This form of coaxial cable is thicker than thinet. The
thicknet coaxial cable segments can be upto 500 meters long.

(ii) Thinnet: This form of coaxial cable is thinner and it can have
maximum segment length of 185 meters i.e, using this cable, nodes
having maximum distance of 185 meters can be joined.

Optical Fibers
Optical Fibers consist of thin strands of glass or glass like material which
are so constructed that they carry light from source at one end of the fiber to a
detector at the other end. The light sources used are either light emitting diodes
(LEDs) or laser diodes (LDs). The data to be transmitted is modulated onto the
light beam using frequency modulation techniques. The signals can then be
picked up at the receiving end and demodulated. The bandwidth of the medium
is potentially very high. For LEDs, this range between 20 and 150 mbps and
higher rates are possible using LDs.

Figure 15.15 OPTICAL Fibers

Advantages:
1. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e., noise in any form
because the information is travelling on a modulated light beam.

2. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.

3. It guarantees source transmission and has a very high transmission

capacity.

4. Fiber optic cables can be used for broadband transmission where several
channels (i.e., bands of frequency) are handled in parallel and where it is
396 Networking concepts

2. Signals from one signal antenna may split up and propagate by slightly
different paths to the receiving antenna. When these out of phase signals
recombine, they interfere, reducing the signal strength.
3. Microwave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder
storms, etc.
4. Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited.
5. The cost of design, implementation and maintenance of microwave links
is high.
Radio Wave
The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave
transmission.
Any radio setup has two parts:

 The transmitter
 The receiver
The transmitter takes some sort of message (it could be the sound of someone’s
voice, pictures for a TV set, data for a radio modem or whatever), encodes it onto
a sine wave and transmits it with radio waves. The receiver receives the radio
waves and decodes the message from the sine wave it receives. Both the
transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Radio-wave transmission offers mobility.

2. It proves cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables and maintaining
repeaters and cables if cables get broken by a variety of causes.

3. It offers freedom from land acquisition rights that are required for laying,
repairing the cables.

4. It offers case of communication over difficult terrain.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Radio-wave communication is an insecure communication.

2. Radio-wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder

storms, etc.
 Networking concepts 397

Security of such communication links is almost nonexistent. Even so, the

equipment has many advantages and is widely used by taxi repair, courier and
delivery services.
Satellite (Satellite Microwave)
Radio wave can be classified by frequency and wave length. When the
frequency is higher than 3 GHz, it is named microwave. Satellite communication
is special case of microwave relay system. Satellite communication use the
synchronous satellite to relay the radio signal transmitted from ground station.
In recently, the use of wireless communication has gained more popularity.
Compared to the traditional fixed wire terrestrial networks, satellite and microwave
communications network features the time saving, fast implementation and broad
coverage characteristics. It provides voice, fax, data and video services as well as
email, file transfer, WWW internet applications. When fixed wire terrestrial
communication networks are crushed by a disaster, the satellite and microwave
system as a emergency backup facility will be stressed.
In satellite communication the earth station consists of a satellite dish
that functions as an antenna and communication equipment to transmit and
receive data from satellites passing overhead.
A number of communication satellites, owned by both government and
private organizations, have been placed in stationary orbits about 22,300 miles
above the earth’s surface. These satellites act as relay stations for communication
signals. The satellites accept data/ signals transmitted from an earth station,
amplify them, and retransmit them to the other side of the earth in only one
step.
Most communication satellites have multiple, independent reception and
transmission devices known as transponders. In a commercial communication
satellite, a single transponder is usually capable of handling a full-colour,
commercial television transmission, complete with audio. Transponders for data
transmission may be even larger. Some firms that market satellite communication
service own a satellite. Others lease a portion of a satellite and provide transmission
facilities in smaller units to ultimate users. The security in satellite transmission
is usually provided by the coding and decoding equipment. Satellite
communication has a number of advantages.
ADVANTAGES:
1. The area coverage through satellite transmission is quite large.
2. The laying and maintenance of intercontinental cable is difficult and
expensive and this is where the satellite proves to be the best alternative.
3. The heavy usage of intercontinental traffic makes the satellite commercial
attractive.
398 Networking concepts

4. Satellites can cover large areas of the earth. This is particularly useful for
sparsely populated areas.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Technological limitations preventing the deployment of large, high gain
antennas on the satellite platform.
2. Over-crowding of available bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
3. The high investment cost and insurance cost associated with significant
probability of failure.
4. High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit carries frequencies.
Other Unguided Media
Apart from microwaves, radio waves and satellites, two other unguided media
are also very popular. These are infrared and laser waves.
1. Infrared
This type of transmission uses infrared light to send the data. The infrared light
transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a room (bouncing
off surfaces), but will not penetrate walls. The infrared transmission has become
common in PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) e.g., hand held devices like palm
pilots etc. The infrared transmission is considered to be secure one.
2. Laser
The Laser transmission requires direct line-of-sight. It is unidirectional like
microwave, but has much higher speed than microwaves. The laser transmission
requires the use of a laser transmitter and a photo-sensitive receiver at each
end. The laser transmission is point-to-point transmission, typically between
buildings. But lasers have a certain disadvantage, which is: it can be adversely
affected by weather.
15.4.9 SWITICHING TECHNIQUES
Different types of switching techniques are employed to provide communication
between two computers. These are circuit switching, message switching and
packet switching.
Circuit Switching
In this technique, first the complete physical
connection between two computers is established and
then data are transmitted from the source computer
to the destination computer. That is, when a computer
places a telephone call, the switching equipment
within the telephone system seeks out a physical
copper path all the way from sender telephone to the
receiver’s telephone. The important property of this
Figure 15.16 Circuit
 Networking concepts 399

switching technique is to setup an end to end path (connection) between

computers before any data can be sent.
Message Switching
Figure 15.17 Message
In this technique, the source computer sends the
data or the message to the switching office first,
which stores the data in the buffer. It then looks
for a free link to another switching office and then
sends the data to this office. This process is
continued until the data is delivered to the
destination computers. Owing to its working
principle, it is also known as store and forward.
That is, store first (in switching office), forward later, one jump at a time.
Packet Switching
With message switching, there is no limit on block
size, in contrast, packet switching places a tight
upper limit on block size. A fixed size of packet which
can be transmitted across the network is specified.
15.4.10 Communication Modes Figure 15.18 Packet
The communication mode defines in which data can flow depending upon
the type media used. They are Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex.

Simplex
On this panel there is only one interface that is a transmitter and all other
interfaces is a receiver. The full bandwidth is completely for signals travelling
across transmitter to receiver or receivers. On this channel transmitting interface
cannot receive and receiving interface cannot transmit. For example Radio, TV,
etc uses Simplex channels.

Half Duplex
On this channel each interface works as transmitter and receiver, but only one
interface can transmit at a time. The full bandwidth of a channel is available to
the transmitting interface which will not receive while transmitting. Generally it
is used in Walkie-Talkies, Marine/Aviation, etc use Half Duplex channel.

Full Duplex
This channel has two ends, each serving as transmitter and receiver. Each
interface can transmit and receive at the same time. The modern telephone
system use Full Duplex channels. It is more expensive due to hardware for
increased number of channels and bandwidth.
400 Networking concepts

15.4.11 NETWORK DEVICES

In functioning of networks, many devices play important roles. Here, in
this section we are going to discuss a few of them.
Modem (Modulator and Demodulator)
Modems allow you to combine the power of your computer with the global
reach of the telephone system.
Because ordinary telephone lines cannot carry digital information, a modem
changes the digital data from your computer into analog data, a format that can
be carried by telephone lines. In a similar manner, the modem receiving the call
then changes the analog signal back into digital data to the computer. This shift
of digital data into analog data back again, allows two computers to communicate
with one another, called modulation or demodulation.
With a modem you can send faxes to the office or important customers
without leaving your computer. And with an online or internet connection, you
can share recipes with fellow gourmets catch up on the latest news, view a
weather map from Singapore, keep in touch with distant friends by electronic
mail, the World Wide Web and much more.
Working on Modem
Modem converts digital signals to A/F (audio frequency) tones which are
in the frequency range that the telephone lines can transmit and also it can
convert transmitted tones back to digital information.
After the power is turned On in DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and
DCE (Data Communication Equipment), the terminal runs for self check, it asserts
the Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal to tell the modem that it is ready.
When modem is powered up and ready to transmit data, the modem will
assert the Data Set Ready (DSR) signal to the terminal. Under the manual or
terminal control the modem dials up the computer on the other end. If the
computer is available it will send back a specified tone.
Now when the terminal has a character ready to send, it will assert the
Request-To-Send (RTS) signal to the modem. The modem assert its Carrier Detect
(CD) signal to the terminal to indicate that it has established contact with the
computer. When the modem is fully ready to transmit the data it asserts Clear-
To-Send (CTS) signal back to the terminal. The terminal then sends serial data
characters to the modem. When the terminal has sent all the characters, it
needs to make its RTS signal high. This causes the MODEM to unasserted its
CTS signal and stop transmitting. Similar handshakes occur between modem
and computers on other side also.
Modems are of two types :
1.Internal modems: The modems that are fixed within the computer.
 Networking concepts 401

2.External modems: The modems that are connected externally to a computer

as other peripherals are connected.
Ethernet Card
As mentioned earlier, Ethernet is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox
Corp in association with DEC and Intel. Ethernet uses bus or star topologies
and can support data transfer rates of up to 10 Mbps.
The computers that are part of Ethernet have to install a special card called
Ethernet card.
An Ethernet card contains connections for either Coaxial or Twisted
pair cables (or both). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be
BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some
Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial,
twisted pair or fiber optic cables to an Ethernet card. When this connection is
used, there is always an external transceiver attached to the workstation. These
days many computers include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet Card.

Hub
A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together.
A hub that contains multiple independent but connected modules of network
and internetworked equipment. A similar term is concentrator. A concentrator
is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted pair wire is run from each
workstation to a central concentrator.
Basically, hubs are multi slot concentrators into which a number multi
port cards can be plugged to provide additional access as the network grows in
size.
Hubs can be either passive or active.
1.Active Hubs: Electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one connected
device to another. Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extent
the length of a network.
2. Passive Hubs: Allow the signals to pass from one computer to another
without any change.
Hubs usually can support 8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports. These are often used
in a star or star wired ring topology and requires specialized software for port
management.
Switch
A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub
networks called subnets or LAN segments. Segmenting the network into smaller
subnets prevents traffic overloading in a network.
402 Networking concepts

A switch is responsible for filtering

i.e., transforming data in a specific way and
for forwarding packets (a piece of message
being transmitted) between LAN segments.
Switch support any packets protocol.
LANs that are segmented through
switches are called switched LANs. In the case
of Ethernet LANs, they are called switched
Figure 15.19 Modem with systemsEthernet LANs.
How a switch functions
To insulate the transmission from the other ports, the switch establishes
a temporary connection between the source and destination and then terminates
the connection once the conversation is done.
Repeater
A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the
network. It is used in long network lines, which exceed the maximum rated
distance for a single run.
Over distance, the cables connecting a network lose the signal transmitted.
If the signal degrades too much, it fails to reach the destination. Or if it does
arrive, the degradation of the message makes it useless. Repeaters can be installed
along the way to ensure that data packets reach their destination. Repeaters are
of two kinds: amplifier and signal repeater. The first merely amplifies all incoming
signals over the network. However, it amplifies both the signal and any concurrent
noise. The second type collects the inbound packet and then retransmits the
packet as if it were starting from the source station.
Bridge
A bridge is a device that lets you link two networks together. Bridges are
smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the bridge, so they
allow only those messages that need to get to the other side of the bridge. As a
packet arrives at the bridge, the bridge examines the physical destination address
of the packet. The bridge then decides whether or not to let the packet cross.

Router
A device that works like a bridge but can handle different protocols is
known as a router. For example, a router can link Ethernet to a mainframe.
If the destination is unknown to a router it sends the traffic (bound to
unknown destination) to another router (using logical addresses) which knows
the destination. A router differs from a bridge in a way that former uses logical
addresses and the latter uses physical addresses.
 Networking concepts 403

How a Router functions

Compared to the hubs and switches, routers are smarter. Routers use a
more complete packet address to determine which router or workstation should
receive each packet next. Based on a network road map called a routing table,
routers can help ensure that packets are travelling the most efficient paths to
their destinations. If a link between two routers fails, the sending router can
determine an alternate route to keep traffic moving.

15.5.1 Gateway
A Gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. A gateway operates
at the highest layer of network abstraction. It expands the functionality of routers
by performing data translation and protocol conversion. It is needed to convert
Ethernet traffic from the LAN, to SNA (Systems Network Architecture) traffic on
a legacy system. It then routes the SNA traffic to the mainframe. When the
mainframe answers, the reverse process occurs.
A gateway is actually a node on a network that serves as an entrance to
another network. In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes the
traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is serving the web pages.
In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.
In enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server (a machine
that is not actually a server but appears as a server) and a firewall (a system
designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network). The gateway
is also associated with both a router, which use headers and forwarding tables
to determine where packets are sent, and a switch, which provides the actual
path for the packet in and out of the gateway.

Wireless Vs Mobile Computing

Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between a

computing device, such as Personal Data Assistant (PDA) and a data source,
such as an agency data base server, without a physical connection. Wireless
communication is simply data communication without the use of the physical
connectivity. Not all wireless communications technologies are mobile.

Mobile simply describing a computing device that is not restricted to a

desktop. A mobile device may be a PDA, a small cell phone or web phone, a
laptop computer or any other of numerous other devices that allow the user to
complete the computing task without being tethered, or connected to a network.
404 Networking concepts

Mobile computing does not necessarily require wireless communication. Infact,

it may not require communication between devices at all.

Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of

landlines. This may involve cellular telephone, two way radio, fixed wireless,
LASER or satellite communications. Here the computing device is continuously
connected to the base network.

Mobile or untethered, computing means that the computing device is not

continuously connected to the base or central network. Mobile devices include
PDAs, Laptop computers and many of today’s cell phones. These products may
communicate with a base location with or without a wireless connection.

GSM

GSM is short for Global System for Mobile communications, which is one
of the leading digital cellular systems. The GSM standard for digital cell phones
was established in Europe in the mid 1980s.

In covered areas, cell phone users can buy one phone that will work
anywhere where the standard is supported. To connect to the specific service
providers in these different countries, GSM uses simply switch Subscriber
Identification Module (SIM) cards. SIM cards are small removable disks that slip
in and out of GSM cell phones. They store all the connection data and
identification numbers you need to access a particular wireless service provider.

GSM uses narrow band (TDMA), which allows eight simultaneous calls on
the same radio frequency. TDMA is short for (Time Division Multiple Access), a
technology for delivering digital wireless service using Time Division Multiplexing.
TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then allocating
slots to multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can support multiple,
simultaneous data channels. GSM operates in the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
bands.

15.6.1 What is a SIM card?

The SIM – Subscriber Identity Module – is a chip card, the size of a postage
stamp. A SIM is a tiny computer chip that gives a cellular device its unique
phone number. It has memory, a processor and the ability to interact with the
 Networking concepts 405

user. Current SIMs typically have 16 to 64 Kb of memory, which provides plenty

of room for storing hundreds of personal phone numbers, text messages and
other data.

CDMA

CDMA is short Code Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology

that uses spread spectrum techniques. Unlike competing systems, such as GSM,
that use TDMA, CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead,
every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are
encoded with a pseudo random digital sequence. CDMA is a form of spread
spectrum, which simply means that data is sent in small pieces over a number
of the discrete frequencies available for use at any time in the specified range.
All of the users transmit in the same wide band chunk of spectrum. Each user’s
signal is spread over the entire bandwidth by a unique spreading code. At the
receiver end, that same unique code is used to recover the signal.

WLL (Wireless in local loop)

Wireless in local loop (WLL or WILL), is meant to server subscribers at

homes or offices. Wireless in local loop is analogous with local telephone service,
but much more capable. A WLL system serves a local area by deploying multiplicity
of multi channel transmit/receive bases stations (transceivers) that are within
line of site of the intended customers. Each customer is equipped with a mini
station of low power, into which the telephone is connected. The WLL unit consists
of a radio transceiver and the WLL interface assembled in box. Two cables and a
telephone connector are the only outlets from the box; one cable connects to a
directional antenna and a phone receptable to connect to a common telephone
set. Example, a fax or modem could also be connected for fax or computer
communication.

When calls are made from the telephone, it signals the base station for a
connection, which is subsequently established through a switch center, exactly
as in conventional telephony. An incoming call is identified at the switch center
and rooted to the base station assigned to serve the telephone being called. The
wireless connection is then made, and the call is completed in a conventional
manner.
406 Networking concepts

The WLL system can operate with GSM handsets/mobile units, as well as
with GSM compatible subscriber units. The system is transparent to the central
office and subscribers, and interfaces with the most standard central office
switches and subscriber telephone equipment.

Advantages of WLL

(i) WLL facilities do not significantly suffer from weather damage, vandalism
and accidents.
(ii) WLL system offers better bandwidth than traditional telephone systems.
(iii) WLL system has much better bandwidth, superior customer service
features and quality can be provided.

15.7.1 GPRS

GPRS is the abbreviation for General Packet Radio Service. GPRS is used
for wireless communication using a mobile device. With this service you can
access the internet, send emails and large data, real time news, download games
and watch movies.
How does GPRS work?

You must be aware of how files are transferred from one location to another
on your computer. They are broken down into packets and sent across. Similarly
GPRS also uses the same function to transfer data through a network. The
information is split into the smaller units or packets and sent through the network
and is reassembled at the receiving end. GPRS provides a high speed data transfer,
typically between 56 kilo bits per second to 114 kilo bits per second. A user of
the GPRS network is charged only on the amount data is sent or received as
opposed to the duration of the connection.

1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G Networks

The “G” in wireless networks refers to the “generation” of the underlying

wireless network technology. Technically generations are defined as follows.

1G Networks:

(NMT,C-Nets, AMPS, TACS) are considered to be the first analog cellular

systems, which started early 1980s. There were radio telephone systems even
 Networking concepts 407

before that. 1G networks were conceived and designed purely for voice calls with
almost no consideration of data services.

2G Networks:

(GSM, CDMAOne, D-AMPS) are the first digital cellular systems launched
early 1990s, offering improved sound quality, better security and higher total
capacity. GSM supports circuit switched data (CSD), allowing users to place
dial-up data calls digitally, so that the networks switching station receives actual
ones and zeros rather than the screech of an analog modem.

2.5G Networks: (GPRS, CDMA2000 1x) are the enhanced versions of 2G networks
with theoretical data rates upto about 144k bit/s. GPRS offered the first always
on data service.

3G Networks:

(UMTS FDD and TDD, CDMA 2000 1x EVDO, CDMA 2000 3x, TD-SCDMA,
EDGE) are newer cellular networks that have data rates of 384k bit/sec and
more. The UN’s IMT – 2000 standard requires stationary speeds of 2Mbps and
mobile speeds of 384kbps for a “true” 3G.

3G is a specification for the third generation (analog cellular was the first
generation, digital PCS the second) of mobile communications technology. 3G
promises increased bandwidth, up to 384 Kbps when a device is stationary or
moving at pedestrian speed, 128 Kbps in a car and 2Mbps in fixed applications.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) is a broadband, packet–
based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates
up to and possibly higher than 2 megabits per second (Mbps).

4G Network:

Based on the requirements for seamless interaction between networks,

4G is characterized by the following key attributes:

(i) Support for Multiple Applications and Services — Efficient support for
unicast, multicast and broadcast services and the applications that rely
on them. Prompt enforcement of Service Level Agreements (SLA) along
408 Networking concepts

with privacy and other security features. Minimally, service classes include
delay sensitive, loss sensitive, delay and loss sensitive and best effort.
(ii) Quality of Service — Consistent application of admission control and
scheduling algorithms regardless of underlying infrastructure and operator
diversity.
(iii) Network Detection and Network Selection — A mobile terminal
that features multiple radio technologies or possibly uses software- defined
radios if economical, allows participation in multiple networks
simultaneously, thereby connecting to the best network with the most
appropriate service parameters (cost, QoS and capacity among others) for
the application. This requires establishing a uniform process for defining
eligibility of a terminal to attach to a network and to determine the validity
of link layer configuration.

5G Network:

The cellular concept was introduced in 5G Technology stands for 5th

Generation Mobile technology. 5G technology has changed the means to use
cell phones within very high bandwidth. User never experienced ever before
such a high value technology. Nowadays mobile users have much awareness of
the cell phone (mobile) technology. The 5G technologies include all type of
advanced features which makes 5G technology most powerful and in huge
demand in near future.
A new mobile generation has appeared every 10th year since the first 1G
system (NMT) was introduced in 1981, including the 2G (GSM) system that
started to roll out in 1992, 3G (W-CDMA/FOMA), which appeared in 2001, and
“real” 4G standards fulfilling the IMT-Advanced requirements, that were ratified
in 2011 and products expected in 2012-2013. Predecessor technologies have
occurred on the market a few years before the new mobile generation.

KEY CONCEPTS OF 5G:

• Real wireless world with no more limitation with access and zone issues.
• Wearable devices with AI capabilities.
• Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6), where a visiting care-of mobile IP address is
assigned according to location and connected network.
• One unified global standard.
• Pervasive networks providing ubiquitous computing: The user can
simultaneously be connected to several wireless access technologies and
 Networking concepts 409

seamlessly move between them. These access technologies can be a 2.5G, 3G,
4G or 5G mobile networks, Wi-Fi, WPAN or any other future access technology.
In 5G, the concept may be further developed into multiple concurrent data transfer
paths.
• Cognitive radio technology, also known as smart-radio: allowing different radio
technologies to share the same spectrum efficiently by adaptively finding unused
spectrum and adapting the transmission scheme to the requirements of the
technologies currently sharing the spectrum. This dynamic radio resource
management is achieved in a distributed fashion, and relies on software defined
radio.
• High Altitude stratospheric Platform Station (HAPS) systems.

Features of 5G Technology:

• 5G technology offer high resolution for crazy cell phone user and bi-directional
large
bandwidth shaping. The advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology makes
it more attractive
and effective.
• 5G technology also providing subscriber supervision tools for fast action.
• The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.
• 5G technology is providing large broadcasting of data in Gigabit which supporting
almost
65,000 connections.
• 5G technology offer transporter class gateway with unparalleled consistency.
• The traffic statistics by 5G technology makes it more accurate.
• Through remote management offered by 5G technology a user can get better
and fast solution.
• The remote diagnostics also a great feature of 5G technology.
• The 5G technology is providing up to 25 Mbps connectivity speed.
• The 5G technology also support virtual private network.
• The new 5G technology will take all delivery service out of business prospect
• The uploading and downloading speed of 5G technology touching the peak.
• The 5G technology network offering enhanced and available connectivity just
about the world.

EDGE
410 Networking concepts

The new EDGE air interface has been developed specifically to meet the
bandwidth needs of 3G. Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) are a
ratio based mobile high speed data standard. It allows data transmission speeds
of 384 kbps to be achieved when all eight time slots are used. In fact, EDGE was
formerly called GSM384. This means a maximum bit rate of 48 kbps per time
slot. Even higher speed may be available in good ratio conditions. EDGE is
considered an intermediate step in the evolution to 3G WCDMA (Wideband CDMA),
although some carriers are expected to stop short of that final step.

15.8.1 Applications in networking

SMS
Short Message Service (SMS) is the transmission of short text messages to
and from a mobile phone, fax machine and/or IP address. Messages must be no
longer than some fixed number of alpha-numeric characters and contain no
images or graphics. Once a message is sent, it is received by a Short Message
Service Center (SMSC), which must then get it to the appropriate mobile device.
To do this, the SMSC sends a SMS request to the home location register
(HLR) to find the roaming customer. Once the HLR receives the request, it will
respond to the SMC with the subscriber’s status: (1) inactive or active (2) where
subscriber is roaming.
Chat
Chatting : Realtime communication between two users via computer. In
telephone conservations, you say something, people hear it and respond, and
one can hear their responses on the spot and can reply instantly. In the same
manner, in chatting, you type a message on your screen, which is immediately
received by the recipient; then the recipient can type a message in response to
your message, which is received by you instantly.
Video Conferencing
A video conference is a live, visual connectio between two or more perople residing
in seprate locations for the purpose of communication. People who have a
multimedia PC with camera and video compression hardware, access to internet
over an ordinary telephone line, and videophone software can see each other
while talking, which is what is called Video conferencing.
15.8.2 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi refers to Wireless Fidelity, which lets you connect to the internet
without a direct line from your PC to the ISP. For Wi-Fi to work, you need:
 Networking concepts 411

 A broadband internet connection.

 A wireless router, which relays your Internet connection from the “wall” to
the PC.
 A laptop or desktop with a wireless internet card or external wireless
adapter.
Transmitting computer data without wires makes your data especially
susceptible to hackers, computer users who can intercept your connection and
steal your data. If you decide to use Wi-Fi at home, be sure that the network you
set up is security enabled.

Wi-Fi Hotspots
A hotspot is a venue that offers Wi-Fi access. The public can use a laptop,
Wi-Fi phone or other suitable portable devices to access the internet through a
WiFi Hotspot. Hotspots are public locations (such as libraries, hotels, airports,
etc) with free or fee-based wireless internet access. There are Wi-Fi hotspots in
thousands of locations around the world.

WiMax
WiMax is a wireless digital communications system. WiMax can provide
Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) up to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations and
3-10 miles (5-15 km) for mobile stations. WiMax requires a tower called WiMax
Base Station, similar to a cell phone tower, which is connected to the Internet
using a standard wired high-speed connection. But as opposed to a traditional
Internet Service Provider (ISP), which divides that bandwidth among customers
via wire, it uses a microwave link to establish a connection. In other words,
WiMax does not depend on cables to connect each end-point, the internet
connectivity to an end-user is provided through microwave link between the
tower and the user-endpoint, known as WiMax Subscriber unit.

15.9.1 Network Security

The networking offers endless possibilities and opportunities to every user
of it, alone with convince. But this convinces and endless benefits are not free
from risks as there are many a risks to network security.
While ensuring network security, the concerns are to make sure that only
legal or authorized user and programs gain access to information resources like
databases. Also, certain control mechanisms are setup to ensure that properly
authenticated users get access only to those resources that they are entitled to
412 Networking concepts

use. Under this type of security, mechanisms like authorization, authentication,

encrypted smart cards, biometrics and firewalls, etc are implemented.
The problems encountered under network security can be summarized as follows:
1. Physical security holes. When individuals gain unauthorized physical
access to a computer and temper with files. Hackers do it by guessing
passwords of various users and then gaining access to the network systems.
2. Software security holes. When badly written programs or ‘privileged’
software are compromised into doing things that they should not be doing.
3. Inconsistent usage holes. When a system administrator assembles a
combination of hardware and software such that the system is seriously
flawed from a security point of view.
PROTECTION METHODS
1. Authorization: It determines whether the service provider has granted access
to the web service to the requestor. Basically, authorization confirms the service
requestors credentials. It determines if the service requestor is entitled to perform
the operation, which can range from invoking the web service to executing a
certain part of its functionality. Authorization is performed by asking the user a
legal login ID. If the user is able to provide a legal login ID, he/she is considered
an authorized user.
2. Authentication: It ensures that each entity involved in using a web service–
the requestor, the provider and the broker (if there is one) – is what it actually
claims to be. Authentication involves accepting credentials from the entity and
validating them against an authority.
Authentication also termed as password protection as the authorized user
is asked to provide a valid password and if he or she is able to do this, he or she
considered to be an authentic user.
3. Encrypted Smart Cards: Passwords in a remote login session generally pass
over the network in unencrypted form; any hacker can simply record it and can
use it later maliciously to corrupt data/files or to harm anyone etc. To counter
such threats newer approaches are suggested such as encrypted smart cards.
An encrypted smart card is a hand held smart card that can generate a token
that a computer system can recognize. Every time a new and different token is
generated, which even though cracked or hacked, cannot be used later.
4. Bio Metric Systems: They form the most secure level of authorization. The
Biometric systems involve some unique aspects of a person’s body such as finger
prints, retinal patterns, etc to establish his/her identity.
5. Firewall: A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network is called firewall. They can be implemented in both hardware
and software or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent
 Networking concepts 413

unauthorized internet users from accessing private networks connected to the

internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass
through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do
not meet the specified security criteria.
There are several types of firewall techniques.
(i) Packet Filter: Looks as each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user defined rules. It is fairly effective and
transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In addition, it is
susceptible to IP spoofing.
(ii) Application gateway: It apples security mechanisms to specific applications,
such as FTP and Telnet Servers. This is very effective, but can impose
performance degradation.
(iii) Circuit Level Gateway: It applies security mechanisms when a connection
is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can flow
between the hosts without further checking.
(iv) Proxy Server: It intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.
15.10.1 Cookies
Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser so that a web
server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site.
Hackers and Crackers
The Crackers malicious programmers who break into secure systems where
as Hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems
and possibly using this knowledge for play full pranks.
Cyber Law
Cyber Law is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory
aspects of internet and the WWW.
India’s IT Act
In India the cyber laws are contained in the information technology act,
2000 which was notified on 17 October 2000. It is based on the United Nations
Commission for International Trade Related Laws (UNCITRAL) model law.
The IT act aims to provide the legal infrastructure for ecommerce in India
by governing the transactions through the internet and other electronic medium.
15.11.1 Viruses
Computer Virus is a malicious program that requires a host and is designed
to make a system sick, just like a real virus. Viruses can spread from computer
to computer and they can replicate themselves. Some viruses are categorized as
harmless pranks, while others are far more malicious. Broadly three types of
viruses are:
414 Networking concepts

1. File Infectors – These types of viruses either infect executable files or

attach themselves to a program file and create duplicate files.
2. Boot Sector Viruses – Install themselves on the beginning tracks of a
hard drive or the Master Boot Record or simply they change the pointer to
an active boot sector.
3. Macro Viruses – Infect data files like electronic spreadsheets or databases
of several software packages.
4. Network Viruses – These virus use protocols and commands of computer
network to spread themselves on the network. Generally they use email
or any data transfer files to spread themselves on the network.

Most viruses are spread by email attachment and warn them to be suspicious
of any files attached to unsolicited messages.
The following are characteristics of a computer virus.
1. It is able to replicate
2. It requires a host program as a carrier
3. It is activated by external action
4. Its replication ability is limited to the system.

Virus Prevention
Virus Prevention is not a difficult task. All you need to be is extra careful and
ensure to follow the following guidelines to lead virus free computing life.
1.Never use a “Foreign” disk or CD without scanning it for viruses.
2.Always scan files downloaded from the internet or other sources.
3.Never boot your PC from a floppy unless you are certain that it is virus free.
4.Write protect your disks.
5.Use licensed software.
6.Password protect your PC to prevent unattended modification.
7.Install and use antivirus software.
8.Keep antivirus software up to date.
Some of the antivirus are Kaspersky , Quick heal, K7, Norton 360, Micro trend
titanium, AVG, Panda, ESET Nod32, Avast.McAFee etc.,
Cloud tecnology: Cloud technology or cloud computing as it is more commonly
known today is a computing platform widely used by Information Technology
(IT) Service Companies.

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