Cambridge

IGCSE
®

Chemistry
STUDY AND REVISION GUIDE

David Besser

i
Author’s dedication
To Martha, Sarah and Joseph. Thank you for everything.

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Contents
Introduction iv
1 The particulate nature of matter 1 ■
2 Elements, compounds and experimental techniques 7 ■
3 Atomic structure, bonding and structure of solids 14 ■
4 Stoichiometry: chemical calculations 26 ■
5 Electricity and chemistry 37 ■
6 Chemical energetics 43 ■
7 Chemical reactions 47 ■
8 Acids, bases and salts 57 ■
9 The Periodic Table 64 ■
10 Metals 69 ■
11 Air and water 78 ■
12 Sulfur 84 ■
13 Inorganic carbon chemistry 87 ■
14 Organic chemistry 1 90 ■
15 Organic chemistry 2 98 ■
16 Experimental chemistry 110 ■
Answers to exam-style questions 112
Index 121
 Introduction
Welcome to the Cambridge IGCSE® Chemistry Study and Revision Guide.
This book has been written to help you revise everything you need to know
for your Chemistry exam. Following the Chemistry syllabus, it covers all the
key content as well as sample questions and answers, practice questions and
examiner tips to help you learn how to answer questions and to check your
understanding.

● How to use this book

Key objectives
The key skills and knowledge covered in the chapter. You can also use this as a checklist to
track your progress.

● Key terms
Definitions of key terms you need to know from the syllabus.

● Sample exam-style questions

Exam-style questions for you to think about.

Student’s answers
Typical student answers to see how the question might have been answered.

Examiner’s comments
Feedback from an examiner showing what was good, and what could be improved.

Examiner’s tips
Advice to help you give the perfect answer.

Common errors
● Mistakes students often make and how to avoid them.

● Extended
Content for the extended syllabus is shaded green.

Exam-style questions
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Practice questions for you to answer so that you can see what you have
learned.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Exam technique

● How to revise
This book is not intended to give detailed information about the chapters you
are required to study for the IGCSE Chemistry course. Instead it is meant to
give concise information concerning the things that you are likely to come
across in your examinations. You have probably been using a more detailed
textbook over the two years of your course. This book is intended for use
over the six weeks just before the examinations.
No two people revise in the same way. It would be foolish to give precise
instructions to anyone about how they should prepare for examinations.
However, I intend to make some suggestions about the different approaches
that are available, so that you can choose the methods that are most suitable
for you.
The only thing I would strongly recommend about revision is that it should
involve writing as well as reading. Those who read through notes or books as
their only means of revising often find that they become distracted and start
thinking about other things. Writing things down helps you to focus on what
you are trying to learn.
Another way to help you learn is to highlight key words and phrases that
you wish to draw attention to. Highlighting makes you focus on things that
you may have had problems with up to now.
After highlighting, you could rewrite the highlighted parts, leaving out the
less important parts. It may also be a good idea to leave out those parts that
you already know. If you know that transition elements are all metals, there is
no point in writing it down, because you do not need to revise it. Just focus
on the parts that you are not so familiar with. Your notes will be more concise
and more personal than the information in the book. You may prefer to write
down the information in a more eye-catching form, such as in a diagram. The
important thing is that it is personal to you and helps your revision.
When you have made notes of this type, try writing them out. Again just
focus on the important key words and phrases. When you can write them out
without looking at your notes, you may be confident that you have learned
this particular chapter. You can test yourself by answering the ‘Exam-style
questions’ sections of the book as well as looking at past paper questions
or questions you have attempted during the course. If you come across a
problem, always go back to your notes and other sources of information.
There is no need to attempt timed questions under exam conditions until
much nearer the exam.

● Exam technique
The most important pieces of advice that anyone can give about how to
approach an exam are not new. However, it is well worth repeating them,
because the points made below are still major causes of avoidable losses
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of marks.
● Write clearly. If examiners cannot read what you have written, they cannot
award marks, despite their best efforts to decipher your work. In this
technological age, when handwriting is not used as much as it was in the
past, it is essential that your answers can be read.
● Use correct spellings. Technical terms used in Chemistry must be written
correctly. Incorrect spellings do more than create a bad impression of a
candidate’s work. If a word is incorrectly spelt, it often changes the whole

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 INTRODUCTION

meaning of the word. An example is using the word ‘alkane’ instead of

‘alkene’. This is not only a spelling mistake, but it replaces one word with
an entirely different word which has an entirely different meaning.
● Read the questions carefully. Do not just glance at a question and pick
out a few words. Read the whole question and when you have read it,
read it again. A question may look like another one you have seen during
your revision, but if you read it more carefully, you may realise that there
are differences which mean that a different approach is required to answer
the question.
● Check your answers. When you have finished each question, read through
it to make sure it makes sense and that it answers the question.
● Do not spend too long on any questions. If you spend too long on some
questions, you may find you do not have the necessary amount of time to
answer some of the others. It is important to answer all the questions.
Some common phrases that you will see in questions, and their meanings,
include:
● Define the term/what is meant by the term means give a definition of
a word or phrase which only applies to that word or phrase. For example,
‘Define the term isotope’ means give a statement that tells someone exactly
what an isotope is. Definitions are found in the ‘Key terms’ section at the
start of each chapter.
● State means give a brief statement. No explanation of the statement is
required. For example, ‘State the name of the acid that is used to make
magnesium sulfate’.
● Explain/give a reason or reasons. This sometimes follows the command
word ‘state’, i.e. ‘state and explain’ or ‘state and give a reason’. This means
you should give a piece of information followed by a brief explanation of
why you chose this information.
● Outline means a brief description is required.
● Predict means you are meant to make a prediction, not based on any
knowledge that you have remembered, but by making a logical connection
between other pieces of information referred to in the question.
● Deduce also means you are not required to give an answer based on
what you have remembered, but to suggest a logical connection based on
information in the question.
● Suggest may mean there is more than one possible answer. It may also
mean you are required to apply your knowledge of Chemistry to a ‘novel’
situation, e.g. an experiment or a reaction you have not come across before.
In such examples, you will be supplied with sufficient information to make a
reasonable suggestion.
● Calculate/determine means carry out a calculation based on data that is
provided.
How would you …? means give a brief description of an experiment that
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●
you would carry out. Many exam candidates answer this type of question
with too much theoretical information rather than brief experimental detail.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 1 The particulate nature of matter

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● have an understanding of Brownian motion
● be able to describe and explain diffusion
● know the different properties of solids, liquids and gases
● be able to describe the structure of solids, liquids and ● be able to explain changes of state in terms of the kinetic
gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and theory
types of motion ● be able to describe and explain Brownian motion in terms
● know what is meant by melting, boiling, evaporation, of random molecular bombardment and state evidence
freezing, condensation and sublimation for Brownian motion
● be able to describe the effect of temperature on the ● be able to describe and explain dependence of rate of
motion of gas particles diffusion on relative molecular mass.

● Key terms 
Melting The process that occurs when a solid turns into a liquid
Melting point The temperature at which a substance melts. Each substance has a specific melting point
Boiling The process that occurs when a liquid turns into a gas
Boiling point The temperature at which a substance boils. Each substance has a specific boiling point
Evaporation The process that occurs at the surface of a liquid as it turns into a gas. Evaporation can
occur at temperatures lower than the boiling point of a liquid
Freezing The process that occurs when a liquid turns into a solid
Freezing point The temperature at which a substance freezes. This has the same value as the melting
point
Condensation The process that occurs when a gas turns into a liquid
Sublimation The process that occurs when a solid turns into a gas without first turning into a liquid
Brownian motion The random motion of visible particles caused by bombardment by much smaller particles
Diffusion The process that occurs when particles move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration

● Solids, liquids and gases 

Differences between solids, liquids and gases are shown in Figure 1.1.

Solid Liquid Gas

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Figure 1.1 (a) Solid, (b) liquid, (c) gas

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 1 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Examiner’s tip
When asked to draw diagrams of the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids
and gases, solids and gases are usually drawn quite well, but the particles in liquids
are usually drawn too far apart. In reality, the majority of particles in a liquid are
touching.

The differences between the properties of solids, liquids and gases, along
with the reasons (based on kinetic theory) for the differences, are shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Surface boundary Shape

Solid Property Solids have a surface boundary Solids have a fixed shape
Reason Strong forces of attraction between particles Strong forces of attraction between particles in solids mean that
prevent particles from escaping the particles are held together in a fixed shape. The particles
vibrate about fixed positions but do not move from place to place
Liquid Property Liquids have a surface boundary Liquids take the shape of the container that they are present in
Reason The forces of attraction between the particles The forces of attraction between particles in a liquid are weaker
in a liquid are strong enough to prevent the compared to solids. Therefore the particles slowly move from
majority of the liquid particles from escaping place to place meaning that a liquid can change its shape to fit
and becoming a gas the container
Gas Property Gases have no surface boundary Gases fill the container they are held in. They have no fixed shape
Reason Gas particles move at high speeds. The particles The forces of attraction between gas particles are extremely weak.
have only very small forces of attraction The gas particles move at very high speeds therefore gases move
between them to fill the container

● Changes of state 
Figure 1.2 summarises the changes in state that occur between solids, liquids
and gases.
melting boiling
SOLID LIQUID GAS
freezing condensation

sublimation

Figure 1.2 Changes of state

Common error
● There is often confusion between boiling and evaporation. Boiling
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only takes place at the boiling point of a liquid, but evaporation occurs
at temperatures below the boiling point. Puddles of water evaporate
on a sunny day. This means that the water turns into water vapour at
temperatures well below the boiling point of water. The water in the
puddles does not reach 100 °C!

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Heating and cooling curves

● Heating and cooling curves 

A heating curve shows the changes of state occurring when the temperature
of ice is gradually increased. A similar (but not the same) curve results when a
gas is cooled gradually until it forms a solid. This is known as a cooling curve.

110
100
liquid and all
gas (liquid gas
water and
temperature/C

water vapour)

all
liquid
(liquid
0 all solid and liquid water)
–15 solid (ice and liquid
(ice) water)
time/minutes
Figure 1.3 Graph of temperature against time for the change from ice at −15 °C to water to steam

The process begins with ice at a temperature below 0 °C. The temperature
gradually increases until it reaches 0 °C, which is the melting point of ice. At
this point ice and water exist together. The temperature does not change until
all the ice has changed into water which is why the line is horizontal. A sharp
melting point (at one specific temperature) is an indication that any solid
is pure.
The temperature then begins to increase again until it reaches 100 °C which
is the boiling point of water. The temperature does not change until all the
water has changed into water vapour which is why the line is horizontal for
a second time. When all the water has boiled, the temperature begins to rise
again as the particles in the gaseous state gain more energy.

● Kinetic theory 
When heat energy is given to a solid, the heat energy causes the particles
to vibrate faster and faster about a fixed position until the particles have
sufficient energy for melting to occur. At the melting point the energy
gained by the particles is sufficient to overcome the attraction between
particles in the solid. The ordered arrangement of particles then breaks
down as the solid turns into a liquid. As this is occurring, there is no further
increase in temperature until the ordered arrangement has completely
broken down and all the solid has turned into a liquid. The energy given to
the particles then causes them to move faster from place to place until they
have sufficient energy for boiling to occur. At the boiling point the energy
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gained by the particles is sufficient to completely overcome the attraction

between them in the liquid state. The particles then move as far away from
each other as possible as the forces of attraction between them are almost
completely overcome. Again there is no increase in temperature until the
liquid has turned completely into a gas. In the gaseous state, the gas particles
gain more and more energy and move at increasing speeds.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 1 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

● Brownian motion 
When Robert Brown used a microscope to observe pollen grains on the
surface of water in 1827, he noticed that the pollen grains moved in a random
manner. This random movement is known as Brownian motion. The
same thing can be observed if smoke particles in air are observed through a
microscope.

Brownian motion is caused by the larger particles (pollen grains or smoke

particles) being bombarded by smaller particles (water molecules or air
molecules). The smaller particles move in straight lines until they collide
with the larger particles. Because more of the smaller particles may collide
on one side of the larger particles than the other, the movement of the larger
particles is random and unpredictable.

Pollen Brownian motion

particle being causes the random
bombarded motion of the
by water visible particle
molecules

Figure 1.4 Brownian motion

● Diffusion 
Particles in solids do not move from one place to another. However, particles
in liquids move slowly and particles in gases move much faster.
Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration is known as diffusion. It can be demonstrated
experimentally in liquids and in gases.

Diffusion in liquids
If crystals of a coloured solid, such as nickel(II) sulfate, are placed in a liquid
such as water, the colour of the nickel(II) sulfate spreads throughout the
liquid in a matter of days, producing a solution with a uniform green colour.
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water nickel(II)
sulfate solution bromine
nickel(II) sulfate (green solution) gas
(green crystals)
Figure 1.5 Diffusion in a liquid gas jars
gas jars

Diffusion in gases
If bromine liquid is placed in the bottom of a gas jar with another gas bromine
jar on top, the liquid evaporates and the brown colour of bromine gas liquid
fills both gas jars after a short time. Figure 1.6 Diffusion in gases

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Sample exam-style questions

When gaseous molecules diffuse, the rate at which they diffuse is inversely
related to the relative molecular mass of the gas. Therefore, molecules in
gases with lower relative molecular mass will diffuse faster than molecules in
gases with higher relative molecular mass. This is because lighter molecules
move faster than heavier molecules.

● Sample exam-style questions 

1 A compound has a melting point of −30 °C and a boiling point of 85 °C.
What is its physical state at 25 °C? Explain your answer.

Student’s answer
1 Liquid.
The melting point is below 25 °C and the boiling point is above 25 °C.

Examiner’s comments
There are two common errors in a question of this type.
● Some students ignore the negative sign in −30 °C, which gives them the impression
that −30 °C is higher than 25 °C, which means they think the compound is a solid.
● Some students know that the substance is a liquid, but only state that the
melting point is below 25 °C without mentioning the boiling point. Such candidates
get some credit but not maximum credit.

2 When the apparatus shown in Figure 1.7 is set up, concentrated ammonia
releases ammonia gas, NH3, and concentrated hydrochloric acid releases
hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.

bung glass tube white solid bung

cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked in

in concentrated ammonia concentrated hydrochloric acid
Figure 1.7

When ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas, a white solid is
produced according to the equation:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

a What is the name of the white solid?

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b Name the process by which the two gases move through the glass tube.
c Explain why the white solid forms nearer the concentrated hydrochloric
acid end of the glass tube rather than the ammonia solution end.

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 1 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Student’s answer
2 a Ammonium chloride
b Diffusion
c Molecules of ammonia and hydrogen chloride diffuse through the glass
tube. Because ammonia, NH3, has a lower relative molecular mass (17)
than hydrogen chloride, HCl (36.5), ammonia molecules diffuse faster than
hydrogen chloride molecules. Therefore, the gases meet and react nearer
the hydrochloric acid end.

Examiner’s comments
a Ammonium compounds are often mistakenly referred to as ammonia compounds.
Similarly ammonia is often referred to as ammonium. Students should make sure
that they are aware of the difference between ammonia, NH3, and the ammonium
ion, NH4+, which is part of all ammonium salts such as ammonium chloride.
b This is the correct answer.
c It is common to see statements about ammonia moving faster than hydrogen
chloride because ammonia is lighter than hydrogen chloride. This would gain
very little (if any) credit. Answers must refer to ammonia and hydrogen chloride
molecules and also state that ammonia has a smaller relative molecular mass than
hydrogen chloride which is why ammonia molecules diffuse faster.
Students should calculate relative molecular masses, using relative atomic
masses in the Periodic Table, if they are not provided in the question.

Exam-style questions

1 A substance has a melting point of 85 °C and a boiling point of 180 °C.

What is the physical state of the substance at 50 °C?
Explain your answer. [Total: 2 marks]
2 Use the letters A, B, C and D to answer the questions under the table.
Substance Distance between particles Arrangement of particles Movement of particles
A very far apart ordered vibrate about fixed position
B fairly close together irregular move slowly
C very close together ordered vibrate about fixed position
D very far apart random move at high speeds

Which substance out of A, B, C and D is

a a solid [1]
b a liquid [1]
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c a gas [1]
d unlikely to represent a real substance? [1]
[Total: 4 marks]

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Elements, compounds and
2 experimental techniques

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● dissolving, filtration and crystallisation (see also
Chapter 8)
● know the difference between elements, mixtures and
● (simple) distillation
compounds
● fractional distillation (see also Chapter 14)
● know that elements can be classified as metals and non-
metals ● be able to interpret simple chromatograms, including use
● know and understand how to use the following methods of locating agents (which do not need to be named) and
of separation and purification use of Rf values (see Chapter 15).
● chromatography (see also Chapter 15)

● Key terms 
Element A substance that cannot be decomposed into anything simpler by chemical means. It is a
substance made up of atoms all of which have the same atomic number (see also Chapter 3)
Compound A substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions by mass
Mixture Contains two or more substances (elements or compounds) which can be present in variable
proportions
Substance A general term that refers to elements, mixtures and compounds
Solution A liquid which contains a substance or substances dissolved in it
Solvent A pure liquid
Solute The dissolved substance in a solution

● Elements 
The periodic table consists of elements only. Each element has a chemical symbol. Examiner’s tip
Elements are classified as metals and non-metals as shown in Table 2.1 below. Elements cannot be
decomposed into
Table 2.1 Classification of elements
anything simpler by
Property Metal Non-metal chemical means. Students
sometimes use the
Physical state at room temperature Solid (except mercury) Solid, liquid (bromine only) or gas
word smaller instead of
Malleability Good Poor, usually soft or brittle simpler, which is an error.
Ductility Good Poor, usually soft or brittle For example, a piece of
sulfur can be broken with
Appearance Shiny (lustrous) Usually dull
a hammer into several
Melting point/boiling point Usually high Usually low smaller pieces of sulfur,
Density Usually high Usually low but this is not breaking
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Conductivity (electrical and thermal) Good Poor (except graphite) it into anything simpler.
The act of breaking
with a hammer is a
physical process and not
● Compounds  a chemical process. Thus
sulfur is an element.
Compounds have a chemical formula which shows them to contain two or
more elements which are chemically combined.
Examples of compounds are:
● sodium chloride, NaCl
● carbon dioxide, CO2
● copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

A compound, iron(II) sulfide, has the formula FeS. The relative atomic
masses (Ar) of iron (Fe) and sulfur (S) are 56 and 32, respectively. Therefore, Examiner’s tip
the relative molecular mass (Mr) of iron(II) sulfide is 56 + 32 = 88. The If a compound is present
percentages of iron and sulfur in iron(II) sulfide are: in an aqueous solution,
the aqueous solution
Fe = (56 ÷ 88) × 100 = 63.6% is a mixture because it
S = (32 ÷ 88) × 100 = 36.4% contains two substances
which are not chemically
This means that all samples of iron(II) sulfide contain 63.6% iron and 36.4% combined. For example,
sulfur by mass. sodium hydroxide
This is what is meant by the statement that compounds contain elements solution (also referred
chemically combined in fixed proportions by mass. to as aqueous sodium
hydroxide) is a mixture,
not a compound.
Examiner’s tip It contains sodium
Students may state that compounds contain two or more elements, but often do not hydroxide and water, two
mention that the elements are chemically combined (which means that the elements substances that are not
are joined by ionic or covalent bonds). chemically combined.

● Mixtures 
Mixtures contain two or more elements and/or compounds in variable
proportions. Mixtures do not have a chemical formula.
Air is an example of a mixture. Air contains nitrogen and oxygen with
smaller amounts of other gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and
argon. Polluted air may also contain other gases such as carbon monoxide,
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
Air has different percentages of its constituent gases in different places
due to, for example, the amounts of pollutant gases which are lower in the
countryside than in industrial areas. However, the different samples are all
called ‘air’, thus showing that the composition of a mixture can vary.
Air does not have a chemical formula because it contains several chemical
substances as opposed to one substance.

Examiner’s tip
Many students are under the impression that a mixture containing two substances,
such as salt and sand, must contain equal amounts of each substance. This is not the
case. If we had a mixture of salt and sand which contained equal amounts of each
substance and we added more salt to it, it would still be called a mixture of salt and
sand. Therefore, a mixture of salt and sand can contain more salt than sand, or more
sand than salt or equal amounts of salt and sand. This is different to the composition
of a compound as shown in the case of iron(II) sulfide above.

● Separation of mixtures 
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Chromatography
Chromatography can be used to separate the components of solutions which
contain several dissolved substances. The substances are often coloured, but
may be colourless.
Paper chromatography can be used to separate the dyes in ink.
● A spot of the ink is placed on the chromatography paper.
● The paper is placed in a suitable solvent in a beaker. If the solvent is volatile
(vaporises easily) it is necessary to put a lid on the beaker to prevent the
vapour from escaping.
● As the solvent rises, the dyes in the ink separate.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Separation of mixtures

Chromatography can also be used to identify the components of a mixture as chromatography

well as separate them. paper

● A mixture of dyes is placed on chromatography paper in the position

marked X.
● Four dyes whose identities are known are placed in positions marked A,
B, C and D, as shown (Figure 2.2). These four dyes are referred to as
black ink
standards. spot
● Chromatography is then carried out and the chromatography paper (also before

known as a chromatogram) is removed from the beaker and dried.

● The paper is then labelled to show what mixture X contains, as described
below. beaker

solvent
soaks
up the
paper solvent
during

A B X C D
Figure 2.2 Before chromatography

D after
Figure 2.1 Paper chromatography
B

A B X C D

Figure 2.3 After chromatography

The results of the experiment show:

● X is composed of three dyes because the mixture has been separated into three.
● The three dyes are A, B and D. We know this because the three dyes in
mixture X have travelled the same distances as the three standards A, B and
D whose identities are known.
● We can also conclude that mixture X does not contain dye C, because none
of the components of X travelled the same distance as dye C.

Chromatography can also be used to identify colourless substances. The

experimental technique is the same, but because the components of the
mixture are colourless, the spots on the chromatography paper are invisible.
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After drying, the paper is sprayed with a locating agent which reacts with
the components of the mixture to produce coloured spots. In Chapter 15
which looks at the separation of amino acids by chromatography, the
chromatography paper is sprayed with ninhydrin which is a locating agent
that produces blue coloured spots with amino acids.
Instead of using standards as described in the above experiment,
components of a mixture can be identified by their Rf values.
Chromatography is carried out and after the chromatography paper is
dried, the distance that the solvent has travelled and the distance that the
component of the mixture has travelled are both measured as shown in
Figure 2.4.

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

solvent front
Examiner’s tip
When asked what is meant by Rf value, students are advised to
write down the equation given here, rather than trying to explain
Rf value in the form of a sentence, which is much more difficult.
The correct equation would score all the available marks.
This illustrates the fact that answers need not always be expressed
b in words, sentences and paragraphs alone to get full credit.
Diagrams, equations, sketch graphs and formulae are often much
more appropriate than sentences.

original position of mixture

distance travelled by component a

Rf = =
distance travelled by solvent b
Figure 2.4 Calculating Rf

When the Rf value is calculated, the component of the mixture can be

identified by comparison with Rf values in a data book. Rf values can be
determined for all the components of the mixture.

Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation

Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation are methods used to separate a
mixture of two solids, one of which is soluble in a given solvent and the other
of which is insoluble.
This method can be used to separate a mixture of common salt and sand
and produce pure samples of both solids.
● If the mixture is not powdered it should be ground into a powder using
a mortar and pestle. The powder should be added to water
in a beaker. The common salt dissolves and the sand remains glass rod
undissolved. beaker
● The mixture is then transferred to the filtration apparatus. The sand salt solution
(residue) remains in the filter paper and the salt solution (filtrate) sand
passes through into the conical flask. This process is called filtration.
● To obtain pure sand, distilled water should be passed through the filter paper filter funnel
filter paper (this is known as washing the residue) and then the filter sand (residue)
paper should be removed and dried in a low oven or on a warm
windowsill. conical flask
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The final two stages are known as crystallisation: salt solution

(filtrate)
● To obtain salt crystals, the salt solution should then be heated in
an evaporating dish until about half of the water has been removed
(alternatively, when crystals form on a glass rod placed in the hot evaporating dish
solution and withdrawn, it is time to stop heating). salt solution
● The hot saturated salt solution should then be allowed to cool
down slowly. Crystals of salt should then form.
● If there is any liquid left, it should then be separated by filtration. HEAT
The salt crystals should then be washed with a small amount of
cold distilled water and then dried in a low oven or on a warm Figure 2.5 Dissolving, filtration and
windowsill. crystallisation

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 Separation of mixtures

Common errors
Filtration (often spelt wrongly as filteration) can also be called filtering.
There are other common errors when describing the process:
● The words residue and filtrate are often used the wrong way round.
● Filtrate is often used as an incorrect alternative to filtered as in ‘he filtrated
the solution’. The word filtrated does not exist!
● The filtrate should not be heated until all the water evaporates to dryness.
This does not lead to the production of good crystals. In addition, some
crystals contain water of crystallisation which would be driven off by too
much heat (see Chapter 8).
● If the crystals are dried with too much water they will dissolve, which
defeats the purpose. The water should ideally be ice cold to minimise the
amount that dissolves.

(Simple) distillation
(Simple) distillation is a method of separating a pure liquid from a solution.

thermometer

water
out Liebig
condenser

distillation flask

sodium cooling
chloride water in
solution

HEAT
water (distillate)

Figure 2.6 Simple distillation

The flask is heated. The water in the sodium chloride solution evaporates and
water vapour/steam enters the Liebig condenser, where it condenses as water.
The water drips out of the end of the Liebig condenser and collects in the
beaker. The water is pure and can be called distilled water. Sodium chloride
does not vaporise or even melt because it has a very high melting point, and
therefore it remains in the distillation flask.

Fractional distillation
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Fractional distillation is a method of separating two (or more) miscible

liquids with different boiling points. It can be carried out in the laboratory
or on an industrial scale as in the fractional distillation of liquid air
(see Chapter 11) or fractional distillation of petroleum (see Chapter 14).
In the laboratory ethanol and water can be separated by fractional
distillation using the apparatus shown in Figure 2.7.

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 2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

thermometer

Liebig
condenser cooling
water in

cooling
water out

fractionating column
with short lengths
of glass rod inside
(increases surface area)

distillation conical
flask flask
ethanol +
water ethanol
(distillate)
HEAT support

Figure 2.7 Apparatus for fractional distillation

Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 °C and water has a boiling point of 100 °C.
The flask is heated and ethanol vapour enters the fractionating column.
However, some water also evaporates (below its boiling point) and enters
the fractionating column as water vapour/steam. The water vapour/
steam condenses in the fractionating column and drips back down into the
distillation flask. When the temperature reaches 78 °C, the ethanol vapour
reaches the top of the fractionating column and enters the Liebig condenser
where it condenses. Finally, liquid ethanol collects as the distillate and all the
water remains in the distillation flask.

● Summary: Methods of separation of mixtures 

Method of separation Example of mixture that is separated Property that the method depends on
Paper chromatography Dyes in ink Adsorption by paper/solubility in solvent
Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation Sand and salt Solubility
(Simple) distillation Sodium chloride solution Boiling point
Fractional distillation Ethanol and water Boiling point
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● Sample exam-style question 

1 State whether the following are elements, mixtures or compounds.
a silver d water
b bronze e bauxite
c sea water f aluminium oxide

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 Exam-style questions

Student’s answer
1 a element
b mixture
c mixture
d compound
e mixture
f compound

Examiner’s comment
a Metals can be elements, but alloys are mixtures of metals. Silver is an element. It is the
element with atomic number 47 in the Periodic Table. If you are not sure if a substance
is an element you should know that the Periodic Table only contains elements.
b Bronze is an alloy (see Chapter 10) and, as such, it is a mixture of metals. Bronze
contains copper, tin and other metals in variable proportions.
c Sea water is water (which is a compound) containing many substances, in variable
proportions, dissolved in it.
d Water has the formula H2O. Any substance with a formula that shows more than
one element is a compound. Although water is found in many forms such as tap
water, sea water and distilled water, the term water refers to the pure compound.
e Bauxite is a metallic ore from which aluminium is extracted (see Chapter 5).
The word ore refers to an impure substance. Metallic ores are mixtures.
f Aluminium oxide has the formula Al2O3. Bauxite contains the compound aluminium
oxide with impurities.

Exam-style questions

1 State the name of the process(es) that you would use to obtain
a sugar crystals from a mixture of sugar and sand
b pure water from an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate
c liquid octane (boiling point 126 °C) from a mixture of liquid octane and
liquid decane (boiling point 174 °C)
d pure silver chloride from the precipitate formed when aqueous silver
nitrate is added to dilute hydrochloric acid.
In some cases, only one process is required, but others may require
more than one. [Total: 8 marks]
2 A student was told to make pure crystals of copper(II) sulfate from an
aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate. Describe how the student should
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carry this out. [4 marks]

3 A student is given a mixture of two amino acids. The amino acids are
both colourless solids that are soluble in water. Give full experimental
details of how you would separate and identify the amino acids present
in the mixture using paper chromatography. You are provided with all
the necessary apparatus and a suitable locating agent. [5 marks]

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 Atomic structure, bonding and
3 structure of solids

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● relate the structures of graphite and diamond to their
uses
● know the relative charges and approximate relative masses
of protons, neutrons and electrons ● know why isotopes have the same chemical properties
● know the definition of proton number (atomic number) ● be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between
and nucleon number (mass number) other metallic and non-metallic elements
● know that proton number is the basis of the Periodic Table ● be able to determine the formulae of ionic compounds
● know the definition of isotopes and that isotopes are from the charges on the ions present
radioactive and non-radioactive ● know that a giant ionic lattice is a regular arrangement of
● know one medical and one industrial use of radioactive positive and negative ions
isotopes ● be able to describe the formation of more complex
● know the build up of electrons in shells for the first 20 covalent molecules, such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2
elements in the Periodic Table ● be able to explain the differences in melting point and
● know the difference between metals and non-metals boiling point between ionic compounds and covalent
● know that ions are formed when atoms lose and gain substances with both giant structures and simple
electrons molecular structures in terms of attractive forces between
● be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between particles
elements from Groups I and VII ● know the structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)
● be able to describe the formation of single covalent bonds ● be able to describe the similarity in properties between
in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3, HCl diamond and silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) related to
● be able to describe the difference in volatility, solubility their structures
and electrical conductivity between ionic compounds and ● be able to describe metallic bonding as a force of
covalent substances with both giant structures and simple attraction between positive ions and a mobile sea of
molecular structures electrons
● know the giant covalent structures of graphite and ● know how the structure of metals can be used to explain
diamond malleability and conduction of electricity.

● Key terms 
Proton number The number of protons in one atom of an element
(atomic number)
Nucleon number The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in one atom of an element
(mass number)
Isotopes Atoms of the same element containing the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons, or
Atoms of the same element with the same proton number (atomic number) but different
nucleon number (mass number)
Lattice A regular arrangement of particles present in a solid. The particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) are arranged in a repeated pattern
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● Atomic structure 
Atoms are made from smaller particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Examiner’s tip
Table 3.1 The properties of protons, neutrons and electrons Make sure you learn the
information in Table 3.1.
Particle Relative mass/atomic mass units Relative charge You need to know the
Proton 1 +1
differences between
relative mass and relative
Neutron 1 0 charge of a proton,
Electron 1/1837 (negligible) −1 neutron and electron.

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 The arrangement of electrons in atoms

The protons and neutrons exist in the centre of the atom in a dense region Examiner’s tip
called the nucleus. The electrons move around the nucleus and exist in In some books, the
electron shells at increasing distances from the nucleus. two numbers may be
Atoms are often represented as shown in Figure 3.1. reversed. It is a good
idea to remember that
nucleon number 31 the nucleon number is
(mass number)

proton number
(atomic number)
15 P always higher than the
proton number (with the
exception of hydrogen,
in which case both
Figure 3.1
numbers are 1 in the
The proton number is the number of protons in one atom of the element. most abundant isotope).
Because atoms do not have a charge, the number of protons in an atom is
always equal to the number of electrons.
The nucleon number is the number of neutrons and protons added together
in one atom of an element.
Therefore
Proton number = number of protons in one atom = number of electrons
in one atom
Number of neutrons = nucleon number − proton number
In the example given in Figure 3.1:
Number of protons = proton Number of electrons = number Number of neutrons = (nucleon
number of protons number − proton number)
15 15 31 − 15 = 16

Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Examples of isotopes of argon are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Examples of isotopes of argon

Isotope Number of protons in Number of neutrons in Number of electrons in

one atom one atom one atom

40
18 Ar
18 (40 − 18) = 22 18

38
18 Ar
18 (38 − 18) = 20 18

36
18 Ar
18 (36 − 18) = 18 18

Some isotopes are radioactive and some are non-radioactive. Radioactive

isotopes decay (which means give off radiation) and usually change into other
elements. Radioactive isotopes are also known as radioisotopes.
Radioactive isotopes/radioisotopes can be used
● in medicine (e.g. cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy treatment)
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● in industry (e.g. uranium-235 is used as a source of power in nuclear reactors).

Common error
● Many students think of isotopes as referring only to radioactive isotopes,
but some are also non-radioactive.

● The arrangement of electrons in atoms 

Electrons are arranged in electron shells at increasing distances from the
nucleus. These shells can hold up to a maximum number of electrons, as
shown in Table 3.3.
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 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

Table 3.3 Maximum number of electrons per shell number

Shell number Maximum number of electrons

1 2
2 8
3 8*
*Shell 3 can, in fact, hold up to 18 electrons, but this does not need to be
considered at this level and only becomes relevant in higher-level courses.

Some examples of arrangement of electrons in shells are shown Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Arrangement of electrons in shells

Element Number of electrons in one atom Arrangement of electrons in shells

Helium, He 2 2
Carbon, C 6 2,4
Phosphorus, P 15 2,8,5
Potassium, K 19 2,8,8,1

Students are expected to be able to write down and draw the electron
arrangement of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.

Isotopes of the same element all have the same number of electrons, and
therefore all have the same number of electrons in their outer shells. This
means that isotopes of the same element all have the same chemical properties.
The chemical properties of elements depend on the number of electrons
in the outer shell of their atoms.

● The Periodic Table 

Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing proton
number. This means that as we move from one element to the next element,
the atoms have one extra proton in the nucleus and one extra electron. The
extra electron goes into the outer shell until the outer shell is full. The next
shell then begins to fill up.
Elements in the same group all have the same number of electrons in
the outer shell of their atoms. This applies beyond the first 20 elements.
Examples are:
● All Group (I) elements have 1 electron in the outer shell.
● All Group (II) elements have 2 electrons in the outer shell.
● All Group (VII) elements have 7 electrons in the outer shell.
● All Group (0) elements have a full outer shell.
● Most metallic elements have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shell.
● Most non-metallic elements have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shell
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(or a full outer shell in the case of Noble gases).

● Ionic bonding 
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds containing metallic elements combined
with non-metallic elements.
Metal atoms (with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shells) lose an electron
or electrons in order to achieve a full outer shell and form positive ions
(cations).

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 Ionic bonding

Non-metal atoms (with 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shells) gain an

electron or electrons in order to achieve a full outer shell and form negative
ions (anions). An example occurs in sodium chloride.
Sodium atoms contain 11 protons and 11 electrons and chlorine atoms
contain 17 protons and 17 electrons. Because both contain equal numbers of
protons and electrons both atoms are uncharged.
An electron moves from the outer shell of a sodium atom to the outer shell
of a chlorine atom so that both atoms achieve a full outer shell.
nucleus containing nucleus containing
11 protons 17 protons

sodium atom chlorine atom (Cl)

(Na)

electron electron
arrangement arrangement
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7
Figure 3.2 Movement of electrons between a sodium atom and a chlorine atom

After the transfer of electrons, sodium forms a positive sodium ion and
chlorine forms a negative chloride ion.
nucleus containing nucleus containing
11 protons 17 protons



sodium ion chloride ion

(Na+) (Cl–)

electron electron
arrangement arrangement
2, 8 2, 8, 8
11 protons = 11+ 17 protons = 17+ Examiner’s tip
10 electrons = 10– 18 electrons = 18–
Overall charge = +1 Overall charge = –1 Remember that atoms
have equal numbers of
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Figure 3.3 The electron arrangements of the resulting sodium and chloride ions
protons and electrons,
and are therefore
The sodium ion still has 11 protons but only 10 electrons, therefore it has 1+ uncharged.
charge and is written Na+. The chloride ion still has 17 protons but now has Positive ions (cations)
18 electrons; therefore it has 1− charge and is written Cl −. have more protons than
In sodium chloride, the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions is 1:1 and thus electrons and are therefore
the formula of sodium chloride is NaCl. In all examples in which Group (I) positively charged.
elements combine with Group (VII) elements, the ratio of ions is always 1:1. Negative ions (anions)
Other examples occur in which atoms do not combine in the ratio 1:1. This have more electrons than
applies when the number of electrons lost by one metal atom is not equal to protons and are therefore
the number of electrons gained by one non-metallic atom. negatively charged.

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 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

fluorine atom, F

magnesium atom, Mg
movement of
electrons


nucleus
containing
9 protons
 electron arrangement 2,7

nucleus
nucleus fluorine atom, F containing
movement of
containing 9 protons
electrons
12 protons

electron arrangement 2,8,2



electron arrangement 2,7

fluoride ion, F −
 nucleus
containing
9 protons
magnesium ion, Mg2+

nucleus
2
containing
12 protons


electron arrangement 2,8

fluoride ion, F −

 nucleus
electron arrangement 2,8 containing
9 protons


electron arrangement 2,8

Figure 3.4 Magnesium fluoride

Because the ratio of magnesium ions to fluoride ions is 1:2, the formula of
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magnesium fluoride is MgF2.

The formulae of ionic compounds

The formulae of ionic compounds can be deduced from knowledge of the
charges on the ions. Examples of common ions are shown in Table 3.5.

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 Ionic bonding

Table 3.5 Examples of common ions

Examiner’s tip
Charge Example Charge Example Table 3.6 shows the
+ − charges on ions in
1+ Lithium, Li 1− Fluoride, F
Sodium, Na+ Chloride, Cl− different groups in the
Potassium, K+ Bromide, Br− Periodic Table.
Silver, Ag+ Iodide, I−
Table 3.6
Ammonium, NH4+
−
Hydroxide, OH
Nitrite, NO2–
Group Charge on ion
Nitrate, NO3–
I 1+
2+ Magnesium, Mg2+ 2− Oxide, O2−
Calcium, Ca2+ Sulfide, S2− II 2+
Barium, Ba2+ Carbonate, CO32–
III 3+
Zinc, Zn2+
Sulfate, SO42–
Iron(II), Fe2+ V 3−
Copper(II), Cu2+ Sulfite, SO32– VI 2−
Lead, Pb2+
VII 1−
3+ Aluminium, Al3+ 3− Nitride, N3−
3–
Iron(III), Fe3+ Phosphate, PO4 In other cases, e.g. the
transition elements, it is
Bold type denotes polyatomic ions. These are ions which have more than not possible to use the
one capital letter in the formula (see rule 4 below). Periodic Table to deduce
the charges on ions. In
Examples of how to determine formulae of ionic such cases, the charges
must be learned by heart.
compounds
The most important thing to know is that all compounds have no overall
charge; therefore in the case of ionic compounds the number of positive
charges is equal to the number of negative charges.
To work out the formula of a compound you should:
1 Write down the formulae of the positive and the negative ions.
2 Count the number of positive charges and the number of negative
charges.
3 If the charges are not equal, add more positive ions, more negative ions or
both until the charges are equal.
4 If more than one of a polyatomic ion is required, the whole formula of the
ion must go in a bracket and the number of ions goes outside the bracket
as a subscript, e.g. (NO3)2.
Write down the formulae of the following compounds.
Sodium carbonate + 2–
1 Ions Na CO3

+ 2–
2 Charges Na CO3
1+ 2–
+
3 Add 1 extra Na to make the charges equal
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+ 2–
Na CO3
+
Na
2+ 2–
2–
4 There is only one (CO3 ) therefore a bracket is not required

5 Formula Na2CO3

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 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

Magnesium hydroxide 2+
1 Mg OH –

2 Mg 2+ OH –
2+ 1–

3 Mg 2+ OH –
OH –
2+ 2–

− −
4 OH has two capital letters. Since 2OH ions are
required, OH must go in a bracket with the 2
outside the bracket as a subscript.

5 Mg(OH)2

Aluminium oxide 1 Al 3+ O 2–

2 Al 3+ O 2–
3+ 2–

3 Al 3+ O 2–
O 2–
Al 3+
O 2–
6+ 6–

4 There are no polyatomic ions, therefore

brackets are not required.
5 Al2O3

Iron(III) sulfate 2–
1 Fe 3+ SO4

2–
2 Fe 3+ SO4
3+ 2–
2–
3 Fe 3+ SO4
2–
Fe 3+ SO4
2–
SO4
6+ 6–
2–
4 Because (SO4 )
has two capital letters, we need to put SO4
in a bracket with 3 outside the bracket as a subscript.

Common errors
Some common incorrect answers using the formula of iron(III) sulfate as an
example are
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● FeSO4: The number of charges has not been made equal. (This is the
Examiner’s tip
correct formula of iron(II) sulfate.)
You should be able
● Fe2(SO)3: The 4 is left out of the formula of sulfate. to write formulae of
compounds containing
● (Fe)2(SO4)3: A bracket is not required around Fe as it only has one all possible combinations
capital letter. of positive and negative
ions in Table 3.5.
● Fe2(SO)4: The 4 is left out of the formula of sulfate and placed incorrectly
outside the bracket.

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 Covalent bonding

● Covalent bonding 
Covalent bonding occurs in elements and compounds containing non-metallic
elements only.
Covalent bonds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared. A shared
pair of electrons is known as a single (covalent) bond.

Double bonds (two shared pairs of electrons) and triple bonds (three shared
pairs of electrons) also exist.

Atoms which form a covalent bond join together to form uncharged

molecules. All the atoms involved achieve a full outer shell of electrons.
Examples of covalent molecules containing single bonds only are shown in
Figure 3.5. Only the outer electron shells are shown.
hydrogen, H2 chlorine, Cl2 water, H2O

H H Cl Cl H O H

H H Cl Cl H O H

methanol, CH3OH
methane, CH4 ammonia, NH3 hydrogen chloride, HCl

H H

H C H H N H H Cl H C O H

H H H

H H

H C H H N H H Cl H C O H

H H H

Figure 3.5 Covalent molecules containing single bonds

Examples of covalent molecules containing double and triple bonds are

shown in Figure 3.6. Only the outer electron shells are shown.
nitrogen, N2 ethene, C2H4 carbon dioxide, CO2

H H
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N N C C O C O

H H

H H

N N C C O C O

H H
Figure 3.6 Covalent molecules containing double and triple bonds

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 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

● Structure of solids 
Solids have four different types of structures as shown below.

Giant ionic structure

Sodium chloride is an example of a giant ionic structure. It is held together
by strong forces of attraction between oppositely charged sodium ions and
chloride ions (called ionic bonds) which are present in a giant ionic lattice.

Cl–

Na+

Na+ surrounded Cl– surrounded

by 6Cl– ions by 6Na+ ions
Figure 3.7 The structure of sodium chloride

Giant covalent structure (macromolecular structure)

Diamond is an example of a giant covalent structure. It is held together by
strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Graphite is another example of substance with a giant covalent structure,
although it has many differences when compared to diamond (see pages 23–24).

Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2, is another example of a giant covalent structure. It

has similar properties to diamond due to a similar structure.

Giant metallic structures

All metallic elements have giant metallic structures. They contain positive
ions surrounded by a mobile sea of electrons. Metals are held together by
the strong forces of attraction between positive ions and the mobile sea of
electrons known as metallic bonds.

Examiner’s tip
In exam questions which
ask for the meaning of
metallic bonding, students
usually describe the
giant metallic structure
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but do not mention the

strong forces of attraction
between positive ions and
the mobile sea of electrons,
known as metallic bonds.

Figure 3.8 Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons

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 Diamond and graphite

Simple molecular structures

Iodine is an example of a substance with a simple molecular structure. It has
strong covalent bonds between the atoms within the molecules (intramolecular)
but weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules.
The properties of different types of solid, related to their structures, are
shown in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Properties of different types of solid, related to their structures

Giant ionic structure Giant molecular Giant metallic structure Simple molecular structure
structure
Example Sodium chloride, NaCl Diamond, C Copper, Cu Iodine, I2
Silicon dioxide, SiO2
Particles present Positive and negative ions Atoms Positive ions and mobile sea Simple molecules
of electrons
Bonding Strong forces of Strong covalent Strong metallic bonds Weak forces of attraction
attraction between bonds between between positive ions and (intermolecular forces) between
oppositely charged ions atoms the mobile sea of electrons uncharged molecules
known as ionic bonds
Solubility in Usually soluble Insoluble Insoluble. Note: some metals Usually insoluble
water react with water
Melting point/ High because all the High because all the High because all the bonds Low because intermolecular forces are
boiling point bonds are strong ionic bonds are strong are strong metallic bonds weak and these are the bonds that
bonds covalent bonds break when these substances melt and
boil, not the covalent bonds
Conduction of Only conduct when Non-conductors Good conductors when solid Non-conductors because they do not
electricity molten or dissolved in (except graphite) because they contain mobile contain mobile electrons or ions and
water, but not when solid because they do electrons (see Chapter 5) consist of uncharged molecules
(see Chapter 5) not contain mobile
electrons or ions
Malleability/ Not malleable or ductile Not malleable or Malleable and ductile Not malleable or ductile
ductility ductile because rows of positive ions
can slide over each other
(see Chapter 10)

Common errors
● In exam questions which ask why substances with simple molecular
structures have low melting points and boiling points, it is very commonly
said that this is because covalent bonds are weak. This is a bad error. All
covalent bonds are strong bonds.
● The correct answer is that intermolecular forces are weak which is why
substances with simple molecular substances are either solids with low melting
points such as iodine, liquids such as water or gases such as carbon dioxide.

● Diamond and graphite 

Both diamond and graphite have giant covalent (macromolecular) structures,
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but because there are differences in their structure and bonding, these lead to
differences in properties and uses.

Figure 3.9 The structure of diamond

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 3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

showing how the layers fit together one layer

Figure 3.10 The structure of graphite

Table 3.8 Differences in structure and bonding between diamond and graphite

Diamond Graphite
Number of carbon atoms covalently 4 3
bonded to each carbon atom
Arrangement of atoms Tetrahedrally In layers (made of rings containing 6 carbon atoms)
Bonding All covalent Covalent between atoms within layers
Weak van der Waals forces between layers
Mobile electrons None. All outer shell electrons used in One electron from each atom exists in the spaces in
bonding between the layers as mobile electrons
Hardness Hard because all bonds are strong and Soft because weak van der Waals forces between layers
directional allow layers to slide over each other
Conduction of electricity Non-conductor because there are no Good conductors due to mobile electrons between layers
mobile electrons
Use In cutting tools due to high strength As a lubricant because layers can slide
As a conductor in motors

● Silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) 

Silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) has a giant covalent
(macromolecular) structure.
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms.
The bonds are directed tetrahedrally. Each oxygen atom is
covalently bonded to two silicon atoms. O
All the bonds in silicon(IV) oxide are strong covalent bonds.
Si
There are no mobile electrons present. Because of its structure
and bonding, silicon(IV) oxide is strong, hard, has a high melting
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and boiling point and is a non-conductor of electricity. These

properties are like those of diamond which has a very similar
structure and the same bonding. Figure 3.11 The structure of silicon(IV) oxide

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions

1 Complete the following table

Particle Number of protons Number of electrons Electronic configuration Charge on particle
A 20 18
B 9 10 2,8
C 10 2,8 0
D 8 10 2,8
[Total: 5 marks]
2 Draw dot and cross diagrams showing the arrangement of outer shell electrons in the following
covalent molecules.
H P H
a oxygen, O2 d phosphine, PH3
H
H
Cl

b methanol, CH3OH H C O H e carbonyl chloride, COCl2 C O [Total: 5 marks]

Cl
H

c hydrogen cyanide, HCN H C N

3 Deduce the formulae of the following ionic compounds.

a magnesium hydroxide f calcium carbonate
b calcium chloride g aluminium nitrate
c ammonium phosphate h potassium sulfite
d lithium sulfide i zinc sulfate
e lead nitrate j ammonium sulfate [Total: 10 marks]
4 Use the table to answer the questions that follow. Consider room temperature to be 25 °C.
Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C Conduction of electricity when solid Conduction of electricity when molten
A −40 35 Non-conductor Non-conductor
B 50 150 Non-conductor Non-conductor
C 801 1500 Non-conductor Conductor
D 1500 2500 Conductor Conductor
E 2500 5000 Non-conductor Non-conductor
F −75 −35 Non-conductor Non-conductor

a Which substance or substances are solid at room temperature? [1 mark]

b Which substance or substances are liquid at room temperature? [1 mark]
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c Which substance or substances are gaseous at room temperature? [1 mark]

d Which substance could have a giant metallic structure? [1 mark]
e Which substance has a giant ionic structure? [1 mark]
f Which substance has a giant molecular structure? [1 mark]
[Total: 6 marks]

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 4 Stoichiometry: chemical calculations
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● be able to define the mole and the Avogadro constant and
be able to use the molar gas volume (taken as 24 dm−3
● be able to construct word equations and simple balanced at room temperature and pressure)
equations ● be able to calculate reacting masses, volumes of gases and
● be able to define relative atomic mass, Ar solutions and concentrations of solutions
● be able to define and calculate relative molecular mass, Mr ● define and calculate empirical formulae and molecular
● be able to construct equations with state symbols, formulae
including ionic equations ● be able to use the idea of limiting reactants
● be able to deduce a balanced equation for a chemical ● calculate percentage yield and percentage purity.
reaction given relevant information

● Key terms 
Stoichiometry The calculation of the relative quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction
Relative atomic mass The average mass of one atom of an element on a scale where one 12C atom has 12
units of mass exactly, Ar
Relative molecular The sum of the relative atomic masses, Mr
mass
Empirical formula The smallest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element in a compound
Molecular formula The number of atoms of each element in one molecule of a substance
Mole The same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope
Avogadro constant The number of particles in one mole of a substance. It is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles

● Stoichiometry 
Stoichiometry means the calculation of the relative quantities of reactants
and products in a chemical reaction.

Word equations
Word equations give the names of the reactants and products which take part
in a chemical reaction. When hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water the
word equation is:
hydrogen + oxygen → water

Symbol equations
Symbol equations give the correct formulae of the reactants and products in
a reaction. Symbol equations are balanced when the number of atoms of each
element is the same on both sides of the equation.
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Steps for writing balanced equations

1 Write down the word equation (this can be omitted with experience).
2 Write down the correct formulae of reactants and products.
3 Count the number of atoms of each element on both sides.
4 If the number of atoms of each element on both sides is not the same,
put numbers in front of the formulae so that the number of atoms of each
element on both sides is the same.
5 Put state symbols after the formulae, i.e. (s) = solid, (l) = liquid, (g) = gas,
(aq) = aqueous solution. This can be done after steps 2 or 3 if preferred.

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 Worked Example

● Worked Example 
H2 + O2 → H2O
Number of atoms
of each element H2 H2
on both sides O2 O1
Because the number of atoms of oxygen is not the same on both sides, the
first step is to put 2 in front of H2O. This multiplies everything that comes
after it.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Number of atoms
of each element H2 H4
on both sides O2 O2
In balancing the oxygen, we have unbalanced the hydrogen. Therefore we
need to put a 2 in front of H2. The equation is then balanced.
State symbols can be inserted.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
Number of atoms
of each element H4 H4
on both sides O2 O2

Common errors
● Students often use incorrect formulae, e.g. H instead of H2 or O instead
of O2, or change formulae such as changing H2O into H2O2. This would
make the number of atoms of each element the same on both sides, but
H2O2 is not the correct formula for water (in fact, it is the formula for
hydrogen peroxide). The only way to balance equations is to put numbers
in front of the formulae.

● Worked Example 
aluminium + chlorine → aluminium chloride
Unbalanced: Al + Cl2 → AlCl3
Al 1 Al 1
Cl 2 Cl 3
The aluminium is balanced. To balance the chlorine, we put 2 in front of
AlCl3 and 3 in front of Cl2.
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Unbalanced: Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3

Al 1 Al 2
Cl 6 Cl 6
The aluminium is now unbalanced, therefore we must put a 2 in front of
aluminium.
Balanced: 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
Al 2 Al 2
Cl 6 Cl 6

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 4 STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

● Ionic equations 
Starting from a balanced equation with state symbols, an ionic equation can
be written using the following steps.
1 Anything with (aq) as a state symbol should be written as ions if it is
a a dilute acid, e.g. HCl(aq) is written as H+(aq) and Cl–(aq)
b a metallic compound, e.g. CuSO4(aq) is written Cu2+(aq) and SO 42 –(aq)
c an ammonium salt, e.g. (NH4)2SO4(aq) is written 2NH 4+(aq) and SO 42 –(aq).
2 Numbers in front of formulae in equations mean that everything after the
number is multiplied, e.g. 2HNO3(aq) is written as 2H+(aq) and 2NO3− (aq).
3 The formulae of any substance with state symbols (s), (l), (g) are not
written as ions, thus are not changed in an ionic equation.
4 Any ions which are the same on both sides, known as spectator ions, are
cancelled.

● Sample exam-style question 

Write the following balanced equation as an ionic equation.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Student’s answer
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + Cu(s)
SO42-(aq) are the same on both sides and are cancelled out.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

● Chemical calculations 
Calculating relative molecular mass, Mr
Use the following relative atomic masses, Ar, to calculate the relative
molecular masses of the compounds shown.
H = 1 C = 12 N = 14 O = 16 Al = 27 S = 32 Pb = 207
● CO2 = 12 + (16 × 2) = 44
● N2O = (14 × 2) + 16 = 44
● C4H10 = (12 × 4) + (1 × 10) = 58
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● Pb(NO3)2. The recommended method is to multiply out the

brackets, i.e. PbN2O6 = 207 + (14 × 2) + (16 × 6) = 331
● Al2(SO4)3 = Al2S3O12 = (27 × 2) + (32 × 3) + (16 × 12) = 342

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 Chemical calculations

How to calculate moles

Moles from masses
mass (g)
Moles =
mass of one mole
Mass of 1 mole means relative atomic mass of any substance which only
contains atoms. Relative molecular mass or relative formula mass should be used
for all other substances.
Rearranging for mass:
Mass (g) = moles × mass of one mole
Rearranging for mass of one mole:
mass (g)
Mass of one mole =
moles
Please note that the mass must be in grams (g). If the mass is given in
kilograms (kg), it must be multiplied by 1000 or if it is given in tonnes, it
must be multiplied by 1 000 000 to convert it into grams.

Moles from gas volumes

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure.
24 dm3 = 24 000 cm3
volume
Moles =
volume of one mole
Rearranging for volume:
Volume = moles × volume of one mole
The volume of the gas and the volume of one mole of gas must be in the
same units when using these equations.

Moles from volumes and concentration of solutions

Moles = volume (dm3) × concentration (mol dm−3)
Rearranging for volume:
moles
Volume (dm3) = volumes in dm3
concentration (mol dm −3 )
Rearranging for concentration:
moles
Concentration (mol dm −3) =
volume (dm3 )
Correct units are very important in these equations. Because solutions are
measured out using burettes and pipettes which are graduated in cm3, the
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equations below may be more useful.

volume (cm3 ) × concentration (mol dm −3)
Moles =
1000
Rearranging for volume: Examiner’s tip
moles × 1000 volumes in cm3 It is a good idea to
Volume (cm3) =
concentration (mol dm −3 ) remember that both of
these expressions have
Rearranging for concentration: moles × 1000 on the
moles × 1000 top line.
Concentration (mol dm −3) =
volume (cm3 )

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 4 STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

Mole calculations using equations

The following calculations should be approached in the following order.
a Calculate any relative molecular masses, Mr, that are required.
b Calculate the number of moles of the substance where sufficient
information is given to do so.
c Use the mole ratio in the equation to calculate the number of moles of the Examiner’s tip
other substance.
It is extremely important
d Use your answer to c to calculate either the to show all the working
out in calculations. If
● mass or some correct working
out is shown and the
● volume of gas or final answer is incorrect,
you will still be awarded
● volume of solution or a considerable amount
● concentration of solution. of credit.

● Worked examples 
1 Calcium carbonate decomposes when it is heated according to the equation
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Calculate the mass of calcium oxide, CaO, that is produced when
20.0 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is heated until there is no
further change. [3 marks]
Relative atomic masses, Ar: C = 12, O = 16, Ca = 40
a Mr: CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
Examiner’s tips
Mr: CaO = 40 + 16 = 56 1 Because the question
b Moles of CaCO3 = 20 ÷ 100 = 0.20 moles [1 mark] does not ask about
carbon dioxide, CO2,
c Mole ratio from the equation there is no need to
calculate the relative
1 mole CaCO3 : 1 mole CaO molecular mass, Mr of
carbon dioxide.
0.20 moles CaCO3 : 0.20 moles of CaO [1 mark] 2 The final answer
should always be
d Mass of CaO = moles × mass of 1 mole
expressed using
= 0.20 × 56 = 11.2 g [1 mark] correct units.

2 Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at room temperature and pressure

that is produced by heating 2.1 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3,
according to the equation
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2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ar: Na = 23, H = 1, C = 12, O = 16
The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature
and pressure. [4 marks]
a Mr: NaHCO3 = 23 + 1 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 84 [1 mark]
b Moles of NaHCO3 = 2.1 ÷ 84 = 0.025 moles [1 mark]

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 Worked examples

c Mole ratio from the equation

2 mole NaHCO3 : 1 mole CO2
0.025 moles NaHCO3: 0.025 ÷ 2 = 0.0125 moles of CO2 [1 mark]
d Volume of CO2 = moles × volume of one mole of gas
= 0.0125 × 24 = 0.3 dm3 [1 mark]

Examiner’s tips
The question asks for the volume of carbon dioxide. It is a very common error to
calculate the mass instead. Those who do this can achieve the first three marks as
long as the working out is clearly shown.
It is very common for students not to use the mole ratio in the equation or to use it
the wrong way round, i.e. 1:2 instead of 2:1. Again it is possible to score three marks
out of four under these circumstances depending on how much correct working out
is shown.

3 Calculate the volume of aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq), of

concentration 0.20 mol dm–3 which would be required to neutralise exactly
25.0 cm3 of dilute sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq), of concentration 0.25 mol dm−3
according to the equation
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
a There are no masses involved in the question, so no Mr values have to
be calculated.
25.0 × 0.25
b Moles of H2SO4 = 1000 = 6.25 × 10−3 moles
c Mole ratio in equation
1 mole H 2 SO4 : 2 moles NaOH
6.25 × 10−3 × 2 = 0.0125 moles NaOH
moles × 1000
d Volume of NaOH =
concentration (mol dm −3 )
0.0125 × 1000
= = 62.5 cm3
0.20

Examiner’s tips
This question asks you to calculate the volume of a solution. Many candidates use
the value of 24 dm3 because they confuse the volume of a solution with the volume
of a gas.
Many students calculate relative molecular masses, although there is no mention of
mass in the question.
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When calculating the number of moles of a solution, many use the equation
Moles = concentration × volume
which they often learn as
n=c×v
This equation can only be used if the volume is in dm3, but in this case the volume is
in cm3 which means the factor of 1000 must be used.

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 4 STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

4 240 dm3 of nitrogen, N2(g), reacts with excess hydrogen, H2(g), according Examiner’s tips
to the equation There is a much quicker
way of doing this
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
calculation. For gases
a What would be the volume of ammonia, NH3(g), produced? only, the volume is
directly proportional to
b What volume of hydrogen, H2(g), would react with the nitrogen? the number of moles,
which means
All volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure. 1 N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature
Mole ratio 1 :3 : 2
and pressure.
Volume ratio 1 :3 : 2
a Ammonia
Therefore, 240 dm3 N2(g)
● There are no masses involved in the question, so no Mr values have to reacts with 720 dm3 H2(g)
be calculated. to produce 480 dm3 NH3(g).

● Moles of nitrogen = 240 ÷ 24 = 10.0

● Mole ratio
1 mole of nitrogen : 2 moles of ammonia
10 moles of nitrogen: 2 × 10 = 20 moles of ammonia
● Volume of 20 moles of ammonia = 20 × 24 = 480 dm3
b Hydrogen
● Mole ratio
1 mole of nitrogen : 3 moles of hydrogen
10 moles of nitrogen: 3 × 10 = 30 moles of hydrogen
● Volume of 30 moles of hydrogen = 30 × 24 = 720 dm3

● Empirical formulae 
The empirical formula is the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms of
each element in a compound.
The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated if the masses
of the elements that combine together are known. These masses can be
expressed in units of mass (usually grams) or percentages by mass.

● Worked example 
A compound contains the following percentage composition by mass:
26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen and 71.1% oxygen.
Ar: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16
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Percentage composition by mass means that 100 g of the compound

contains 26.7 g of carbon, 2.2 g of hydrogen and 71.1 g of oxygen.

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 Molecular formulae

Method
Calculate the number of moles of atoms of each element.
● Carbon, C = 26.7 ÷ 12 = 2.225
● Hydrogen, H = 2.2 ÷ 1 = 2.2
● Oxygen, O = 71.1 ÷ 16 = 4.44375
Divide all the above by the smallest Examiner’s tip
● C, 2.225 ÷ 2.2 = 1 If dividing by the smallest
does not produce a
● H, 2.2 ÷ 2.2 = 1
whole number in each
● O, 4.44375 ÷ 2.2 = 2 case, multiply all the
Write down the empirical formula = CHO2 numbers by 2. If this
still does not produce a
Common errors whole number in each
case, multiply all the
Common errors in determining the molecular formulae are: numbers by 3. Continue
● Using Mr instead of Ar e.g. using O2 = 32 instead of O = 16 when until a whole number
ratio is obtained.
calculating moles of atoms.
● Using atomic number instead of Ar when calculating moles of atoms.
● Over approximation e.g. if a compound contains manganese, Mn, and
oxygen, O, and the number of moles of atoms is
Mn = 0.1 and O = 0.15
Dividing both by the smallest
Mn = 0.1 ÷ 0.1 = 1 and O = 0.15 ÷ 0.1 = 1.5
● Some candidates decide that 1.5 is approximately 1 and write the
empirical formula as MnO. This is incorrect.
● Some candidates decide that 1.5 is approximately 2 and write the
empirical formula as MnO2. This is incorrect.
● The correct method is to multiply both × 2, i.e. 1 × 2 = 2 and
1.5 × 2 = 3 and the empirical formula is Mn2O3.
● A number would have to be very close to a whole number (say 0.1
away) if such an approximation is to be made.

● Molecular formulae 
The molecular formula is the number of atoms of each element in one
molecule of a substance.
Examples of molecular and empirical formulae are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Examples of molecular and empirical formulae

Name Molecular formula Empirical formula

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Butane C4H10 C2H5

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Benzene C6H6 CH
Methane CH4 CH4

Determination of molecular formulae from empirical formulae

It is possible to determine the molecular formula of a substance from its
empirical formula alone, but only if the Mr of the substance is also known.
If the empirical formula of a compound is CH2, the molecular formula of
the compound can be expressed as (CH2)n, where n is a whole number.

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 4 STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

If the Mr of the compound is 70, the Mr of CH2 = 12 + (1 × 2) = 14

n = Mr of the compound ÷ Mr of empirical formula
Therefore, n = 70 ÷ 14 = 5 and the molecular formula is CH2 × 5 = C5H10.

● Limiting reactants 
When two substances are mixed, students usually assume that both substances will
react completely and that neither is left over. This is possible, but it is also possible
that too much of either substance is used, in which case one of the two substances
will be left over at the end of the reaction. The substance that is all used up is
called the limiting reactant and the other substance is said to be in excess.

● Worked example 
5.6 g of iron, Fe, and 4.0 g of sulfur, S, are mixed together and heated. The
equation is
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
Deduce which substance is the limiting reactant.
Moles of Fe = 5.6 ÷ 56 = 0.10
Moles of S = 4.0 ÷ 32 = 0.125
Mole ratio: 1 mole of Fe : 1 mole of S
Therefore, 0.10 mole of Fe reacts with 0.10 mole of S.
However, there are 0.125 moles of S. 0.125 is greater than 0.10, therefore
some S is left over. S is in excess and Fe is the limiting reactant.

● Percentage yield 
If the reactants shown in an equation are converted completely into the
products, we say that the percentage yield is 100%. However, in some
circumstances, yields are less than 100%.

● Worked example 
0.60 g of magnesium ribbon, Mg, were burned in excess oxygen, O2,
according to the equation
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
The mass of magnesium oxide, MgO, that was produced was found to be
0.80 g.
Calculate the percentage yield.
Ar: Mg = 24, O = 16
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Mr of MgO = 24 + 16 = 40
Moles of Mg = 0.60 ÷ 24 = 0.025
Mole ratio: 1 mole of Mg : 1 mole of MgO
Therefore, 0.025 mole of Mg : 0.025 mole of MgO
Mass of MgO = 0.025 × 40 = 1.00 g
Thus, if the yield was 1.00 g, the percentage yield would be 100%.
However, the yield is only 0.80 g.
Percentage yield = actual yield ÷ 100% yield × 100%
Percentage yield = 0.80 ÷ 1.00 × 100 = 80.0%

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 Worked example

● Percentage purity 
Naturally occurring substances are impure and contain less than 100% of
a compound. An example is limestone which contains less than 100% of
calcium carbonate, CaCO3(s). The percentage by mass of calcium carbonate
in limestone is known as the percentage purity.

● Worked example 
1.00 g of limestone is added to 100 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid
(an excess) (see equation 1).
Equation 1
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The leftover acid was titrated and found to be neutralised by 24.8 cm3,
0.100 mol dm–3 of sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH (see equation 2).
Equation 2
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
24.8 × 0.100
Moles of NaOH that reacted with excess acid =
1000
= 2.48 × 10–3 moles
Mole ratio in equation 2
1 mole NaOH reacts with 1 mole HCl
2.48 × 10–3 moles of NaOH react with 2.48 × 10–3 moles of HCl
100 × 0.2
Moles of HCl that was added to the limestone =
1000
= 0.02 moles
Moles of HCl that reacted with calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Moles of HCl added − moles HCl left over
0.02 − (2.48 × 10–3) = 0.01752 moles HCl
Mole ratio in equation 2
2 moles HCl react with 1 mole CaCO3
0.01752
0.01752 moles HCl react with = 8.76 × 10–3 moles CaCO3
2
Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
Mass of CaCO3 = moles × mass of 1 mole
= 8.76 × 10–3 × 100
= 0.876 g
mass of CaCO3
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Percentage of CaCO3 in limestone = mass of limestone × 100%

0.876
= × 100
1.00

= 87.6%

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 4 STOICHIOMETRY: CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

Exam-style questions
The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure.
Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16; Al = 27; Cl = 35.5; K = 39; Ca = 40; Ti = 48
1 What mass of hydrogen gas is produced when 8.1 g of aluminium powder
reacts with excess dilute hydrochloric acid according to the equation
2Al (s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
[Total: 3 marks]
2 What volume of oxygen gas, O2(g), is produced at room temperature and
pressure when 0.142 g of potassium superoxide, KO2(s), reacts with excess
carbon dioxide, CO2(g), according to the equation
4KO2(s) + 2CO2(g) → 2K2CO3(s) + 3O2(g)
[Total: 3 marks]
3 What mass of calcium carbide, CaC2(s), is required to produce 120 cm3
of ethyne gas, C2H2(g), by reaction with excess water according to the
equation
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
[Total: 3 marks]
4 20.0 cm3 of aqueous KOH neutralised 35.0 cm3 of dilute sulfuric acid,
H2SO4(aq), whose concentration was 0.20 mol dm−3. The equation is
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Calculate the concentration of the aqueous potassium hydroxide, KOH(aq), in
a mol dm−3
b g dm−3 [Total: 4 marks]
5 A compound has composition by mass which is 54.5% carbon, 9.1%
hydrogen and 36.4% oxygen.
The Mr of the compound = 44. Calculate the
a empirical formula
b molecular formula of the compound. [Total: 4 marks]
6 When 0.38 g of titanium (IV) chloride, TiCl4(s), reacted with excess sodium,
the reaction produced 0.024 g of titanium, Ti(s). The equation is
TiCl4(s) + 4Na(s) → Ti(s) + 4NaCl(s)
Calculate the percentage yield of titanium. [Total: 4 marks]
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 5 Electricity and chemistry

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● be able to construct ionic half-equations for reactions at
the cathode
● be able to define electrolysis, electrolyte and electrode ● understand the reasons why different substances are
● be able to describe the products of electrolysis and state conductors, insulators and electrolytes
the observations made when various electrolytes conduct ● be able to describe production of energy from simple cells
electricity ● be able to describe in outline the manufacture of
● be able to describe the electroplating of metals and aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite
outline the uses of electroplating (see Chapter 10)
● be able to describe and explain the reasons why copper ● be able to describe in outline the production of chlorine,
and (steel-cored) aluminium are used in cables and why hydrogen and sodium hydroxide from concentrated
plastics are used as insulators aqueous sodium chloride
● know what the products of electrolysis of aqueous
copper(II) sulfate are with both carbon electrodes and
copper electrodes, and relate this to the refining of copper
(see Chapter 10).

● Key terms 
Electrolysis The process by which an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous solution, is chemically
changed by the passage of an electric current
Electrolyte A liquid which is chemically changed by an electric current
Electrodes The conducting rods by which the electric current enters and leaves the electrolyte
Anode The positive (+) electrode
Cathode The negative (−) electrode

Substances that conduct electricity can be subdivided into conductors and Examiner’s tip
electrolytes (Table 5.1). The terms electrolysis,
electrolyte and electrode
Table 5.1 Differences between conductors and electrolytes all begin with the same
letter. Make sure you
Conductors Electrolytes
know the difference
Physical state Solid Liquid between these terms.
Differences Conduct electricity, but are not chemically Conduct electricity and are chemically
changed by the electric current. The only changed by the electric current. The
change undergone by conductors is that they products of chemical change are
become hot, which is a physical change formed at the electrodes
Examples All metallic elements and alloys Molten ionic compounds
Graphite and graphene Aqueous solutions containing ions
Particles Moving (mobile) electrons Moving ions
responsible for
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conduction

● Electrolytes 
Electrolytes must be in the liquid state. Solid ionic compounds, e.g. sodium
chloride, do not conduct electricity in the solid state because although they
contain ions, the ions are held together by strong forces of attraction in the
giant ionic lattice. Because the ions are not moving, solid sodium chloride
does not conduct electricity.

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 5 ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY

There are two ways to make ionic solids into electrolytes:

1 Heat until the ionic solid melts. This requires a large amount of heat
energy, because ionic compounds have high melting points (see Chapter 3).
Molten ionic compounds are electrolytes because the ions are moving in the
liquid state.
2 Dissolve the ionic solid in water. An aqueous solution of an ionic
compound also contains moving ions.
When molten ionic compounds and aqueous solutions of ionic compounds
conduct electricity, the positive ions (cations) move to the cathode (−) and
the negative ions (anions) move to the anode (+).
At the cathode, positive ions gain electrons and are reduced (see Chapter 7),
for example
2H+ + 2e− → H2
At the anode, negative ions lose electrons and are oxidised (see Chapter 7),
for example
2Cl − → Cl2 + 2e−
Thus, the products of electrolysis are formed at the electrodes.
When ions lose their charge to form atoms or molecules they are said to be
discharged.

● Practical electrolysis 
Electrolysis can be carried out in school laboratories using the
apparatus shown in Figure 5.1.
oxygen hydrogen
collected collected
here here

inert carbon inert carbon

cathode (–) anode (+)
(an electrode) (an electrode)

dilute
sulfuric acid

electrolyte

Figure 5.1 The important terms used in electrolysis platinum

electrodes (inert)
The electrolyte is placed in a crucible, if it is a solid that has to
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be heated until its melting point, or a beaker, if it is a liquid at anode (+) cathode (–)
room temperature.
power
Figure 5.2 shows how gaseous products can be collected supply
during electrolysis, as in the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid.
The products that form during electrolysis are summarised in Figure 5.2 A Hofmann voltameter used to
Table 5.2. electrolyse water

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 Practical electrolysis

Table 5.2 Summary of products formed during electrolysis

Type of electrolyte Products at anode (+) Products at cathode (−)

Molten ionic compound Non-metallic element Metallic element
Aqueous solutions containing ions Either Either
oxygen gas hydrogen gas
or or
halogen (chlorine, bromine or iodine) from metallic element below hydrogen in the reactivity
any concentrated aqueous solution of a halide series, e.g. copper
(chloride, bromide or iodide)

Examiner’s tip
Remember that molten ionic compounds produce a non-metallic element at the
anode and a metallic element at the cathode.
Aqueous solutions produce oxygen or a halogen at the anode and hydrogen or
a metal at the cathode .The hydrogen and oxygen come from the water that is
contained in the aqueous solution.

Some examples of products of the electrolysis of different electrolytes, using

carbon or platinum (inert electrodes), are shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Examples of products of the electrolysis of different electrolytes, using inert electrodes

Product at Observations Ionic half-equation for Product at Observations Ionic half-equation

anode (+) at anode (+) reaction at anode (+) cathode (−) at cathode (−) for reaction at
cathode (−)
Molten sodium chloride, Chlorine Bubbles of 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− Sodium Grey metal Na+ + e− → Na
NaCl(l) green gas coating
Concentrated aqueous Chlorine Bubbles of 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− Hydrogen Bubbles of 2H+ + 2e → H2
sodium chloride, NaCl(aq) green gas colourless gas
Molten lead bromide, Bromine Bubbles of 2Br− → Br2 + 2e− Lead Grey metal Pb2+ + 2e− → Pb
PbBr2(l) brown gas coating
Concentrated Chlorine Bubbles of 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− Hydrogen Bubbles of 2H+ + 2e → H2
hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) green gas colourless gas
Dilute sulfuric acid, Oxygen Bubbles of 4OH− → 2H2O + O2 + 4e− Hydrogen Bubbles of 2H+ + 2e → H2
H2SO4(aq) colourless gas colourless gas
Aqueous copper(II) Oxygen Bubbles of 4OH− → 2H2O + O2 + 4e− Copper Pink metal Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
sulfate, CuSO4(aq) colourless gas coating

Examiner’s tip
Make sure you remember that
• Very reactive metals that react with cold water (such as potassium, sodium and
calcium) cannot be produced by electrolysis of aqueous solutions.
• During the electrolysis of all aqueous solutions containing positive ions of a metal
above hydrogen in the reactivity series, hydrogen is produced at the cathode as
opposed to the metallic element. The extraction of these metals by electrolysis
can only be carried out using a molten electrolyte (see extraction of aluminium,
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p. 73, in Chapter 10).

• Aqueous solutions of acids always produce hydrogen at the cathode (−).This is
because the positive H+ ion is common to both the acidic substance and water.

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 5 ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY

Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate

If aqueous copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed using carbon or platinum
electrodes (inert electrodes), the products are copper at the cathode and
oxygen at the anode (see Table 5.3).
However, if the anode is made of copper, oxygen is not produced at the
anode. Instead, the copper anode goes into solution as positive ions:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e−
Eventually, the Cu2+(aq) ions reach the cathode where the reverse reaction
occurs and copper metal is formed:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
This electrolytic process is used in the refining (purification) of copper which
is carried out on a large scale (see Chapter 10).
• The anode is impure copper
• The electrolyte is aqueous copper(II) sulfate
• The cathode is pure copper.
The copper at the anode goes into solution as positive Cu2+ ions. Impurities
either go into solution as positive ions or fall off the anode and are deposited
at the bottom of the container. Pure copper forms at the cathode. None of
the other metallic ions are discharged at the cathode.
Pure copper is essential when copper is being used as an electrical
conductor, as in electrical wiring. Impurities in the copper decrease its
electrical conductivity considerably.
Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
Sodium chloride (common salt) is first mined and then electrolysed as a
concentrated aqueous solution. Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium
chloride can be carried out in the laboratory or on an industrial scale.
The ions that are present in the solution are
Na+(aq) and Cl −(aq) (from NaCl(aq))
(Small amounts of) H+(aq) and OH−(aq) (from H2O(l))
At the anode, hydrogen gas is produced 2H+ + 2e− → H2.
The Na+(aq) remain in the solution.
At the cathode, chlorine gas is produced 2Cl − → Cl2 + 2e.
The OH−(aq) remain in the solution.
Because the electrolyte contains Na+(aq) and OH−(aq), the electrolyte has
changed into aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq). The three products of
electrolysis have several industrial uses.
Product Hydrogen Chlorine Sodium hydroxide
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Use To make ammonia Water treatment (to kill bacteria) Extraction of aluminium
Fuel in fuel cells Manufacture of PVC Manufacture of soap

● Electroplating 
Electroplating is another electrolytic process that can be carried out in a
school laboratory or on a large scale. Electroplating means coating an object
with a thin layer of a metal.
The purpose is
● to improve appearance
● to prevent corrosion, e.g. rusting.
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 Cells

Electroplating is carried out using

● the plating metal as the anode
● the object to be plated as the cathode
● an aqueous solution containing ions of the plating metal as the electrolyte.
In the example of silver plating shown in Figure 5.3, the silver anode goes
into solution as silver ions.
Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e−
The silver ions in the electrolyte are discharged at the cathode.
Ag+(aq) + e− → Ag(s)
The silver ions that are released at the anode replace those that are discharged.
The silver produced at the cathode electroplates the spoon.

silver
anode (+)

metal spoon
cathode (–)
silver nitrate
solution
(electrolyte)

Figure 5.3 Process for silver plating

● Extraction of metals 
Reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis of molten ionic compounds (see
extraction of aluminium, pp. 73–4, Chapter 10).
Unreactive metals are extracted by electrolysis of aqueous solutions (see
refining of copper, pp. 75–6, Chapter 10).

● Uses of metals, plastics and ceramics 

Aluminium is used in steel-cored cables, because it
● is unreactive due to a coating of aluminium oxide
● is a good conductor of electricity
● has a low density.
Copper is used in electric cables and wires due to very high electrical
conductivity.
Plastics and ceramics do not conduct electricity and therefore are used as
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insulators in the power supply industry.

● Cells 
Electrolysis uses electrical energy to carry out chemical reactions.
In cells, chemical reactions are used to produce electrical energy. If two
dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte, electrical energy is produced.
This is the principle of the battery. Such cells can be set up in order to put
metals in order of reactivity (see Chapter 10).
Fuel cells have a fuel, such as hydrogen or ethanol. The fuel reacts with
oxygen in order to generate electricity (see Chapter 6).

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 5 ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY

Exam-style questions

1 Complete the following table to show the products of electrolysis using

carbon electrodes.
Electrolyte Name of product at Name of product at
anode (+) cathode (−)
Molten potassium [1 mark] [1 mark]
bromide
Aqueous potassium [1 mark] [1 mark]
bromide
Molten lead iodide [1 mark] [1 mark]

Aqueous copper(II) [1 mark] [1 mark]

chloride

Aqueous sodium [1 mark] [1 mark]

sulfate

[Total: 10 marks]
2 A student wanted to electroplate a knife with nickel. What should the
student use as
a the anode
b the electrolyte
c the cathode?
[Total: 3 marks]
3 A student carries out electrolysis of concentrated aqueous potassium
iodide in a beaker using carbon electrodes.
a Name the product at the anode. [1 mark]
b Write an ionic half-equation for the reaction occurring at the
cathode. [1 mark]
c State the type of reaction occurring at the anode. [1 mark]
d State the name of the solution left in the beaker when the electrolysis
has finished. [1 mark]
e Name the type of particles that are responsible for the conduction of
electricity in the conducting wire. [1 mark]
f Name the type of particles that are responsible for the conduction of
electricity in the electrolyte. [1 mark]
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[Total: 6 marks]

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 6 Chemical energetics

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● know that bond breaking is an endothermic process and
bond formation is an exothermic process
● be able to describe what is meant by exothermic and ● be able to draw and label energy level diagrams for
endothermic reactions exothermic and endothermic reactions using data
● be able to interpret energy level diagrams showing provided
exothermic and endothermic reactions ● be able to calculate the energy change in a reaction using
● describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels bond energies
● know that hydrogen is used as a fuel ● be able to describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel in
● know that radioactive isotopes, such as 235U, can be used fuel cells.
as a source of energy

● Key terms 
Exothermic reaction A reaction in which there is an overall transfer of energy to the surroundings
Endothermic reaction A reaction in which there is an overall gain of energy from the surroundings
Bond energy The amount of energy required to break one mole of covalent bonds in gaseous molecules

Examples of exothermic reactions are

● combustion of fuels such as alkanes and hydrogen gas; fuels release heat
energy when they burn in air or oxygen.
● respiration (see Chapter 13).
Examples of endothermic reactions are
● photosynthesis (see Chapter 13)
● thermal decomposition (see Chapters 10 and 13).

● Energy level diagrams

Exothermic and endothermic reactions can be represented by energy level
diagrams. These diagrams show the energy of the reactants and products as a
reaction progresses.

● Exothermic reactions 
The complete combustion of fuels, such as methane, is an example of an
exothermic reaction (Figure 6.1). In any exothermic reaction, the products
have less energy than the reactants because energy has been given out to the
surroundings.
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CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
energy/kJ

CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

progress of reaction
Figure 6.1 Energy level diagram for the complete combustion of methane

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 6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

● Endothermic reactions 
The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate is an example of an
endothermic reaction (Figure 6.2). In any endothermic reaction, the products
have more energy than the reactants because energy has been taken in from
the surroundings.

CaO(s)  CO2(g)
energy/kJ

CaCO3(s)

progress of reaction
Figure 6.2 Energy level diagram for the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

● Fuels 
Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal) all release energy when they burn.
Uranium 235 (235U) is a source of nuclear energy. It has the advantage
of not causing global warming as no greenhouse gases are released when it
is used as a fuel, but there are safety issues concerning the adverse effects of
radiation.
Hydrogen also releases energy when it burns. An advantage of using
hydrogen as a fuel as an alternative to fossil fuels is that water is the only
product; carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) is not produced.
Hydrogen can also be used, along with oxygen, in a fuel cell to release
electrical energy.

● Fuel cells 
(−) external circuit (+)
In hydrogen fuel cells, the overall reaction is the same
as when hydrogen is burned in air or oxygen.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) H2O
H2 in O2 in
Fuel cells operate in acidic or alkaline conditions.
An alkaline hydrogen fuel cell is shown in Figure 6.3. Na+
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One advantage of carrying out this reaction in a anode made cathode made
from a porous from a porous
fuel cell is that fuel cells are much more efficient than material, OH−
material with
impregnated
internal combustion engines, which means there is with platinum
cobalt oxide
or platinum
much less energy loss. catalyst
catalyst
H2O
out
electrolyte of
NaOH(aq)
Figure 6.3 A diagrammatic view of a fuel cell

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 Fuel cells

Bond energies
Most chemical reactions involve breaking of covalent bonds in the reactants
and formation of new covalent bonds in the products.
● Breaking of bonds is an endothermic process (energy is taken in).
● Formation of bonds is an exothermic process (energy is given out).
Because the amount of energy put in to break bonds is very unlikely to be
equal to the amount of energy given out when new bonds are formed, most
reactions are either endothermic or exothermic.
An example is the reaction between gaseous hydrogen and gaseous
chlorine to form gaseous hydrogen chloride. The equation is
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break 1 mole of
covalent bonds in gaseous molecules. It is numerically equal to the amount
of energy given out when new bonds form in gaseous molecules.
When covalent bonds in molecules are broken, the molecules change into
atoms. The atoms then join together to form new molecules.
Bond energies are shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Bond energies (kJ/mole)

Bond Bond energy (kJ/mole)

H–H 435
Cl–Cl 242
H–Cl 432

The equation can be written to show the structure of the molecules:

H−H + Cl −Cl → 2H−Cl

Energy taken in to break bonds Energy given out when bonds form
H–H = 435 kJ 2 × H–Cl = 2 × 432 = 864
Cl–Cl = 242 kJ
Total energy put in: 435 + 242 = 677 kJ Total energy given out = 864 kJ
2H(g) + 2Cl(g)
Because 864 is a larger number than 677, this means that more
energy is given out when the bonds form in the products than the
energy that has to be put in to break the bonds in the reactants. 677
Therefore, the reaction is exothermic and the overall energy
energy/kJ

864
change is H2(g) + Cl2(g)

864 − 677 = 187 kJ/mole 187

2HCl(g)
which means that when 1 mole of gaseous H2 molecules
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react with 1 mole of gaseous Cl2 molecules to form 2 moles of

gaseous HCl molecules, 187 kJ of energy are given out to the
progress of reaction
surroundings.
This can also be shown on an energy level diagram. Figure 6.4 Energy level diagram

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 6 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

Exam-style questions

1 Propane burns in excess oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

according to equation below. (Note that the table of bond energies will be
required to answer the question.)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Bond Bond energy kJ/mol
C–C 347
C–H 435
O=O 497
C=O 803
O–H 464

Calculate the overall energy change occurring when 1 mole of C3H8(g)

reacts with 5 moles of O2(g) to form 3 moles of CO2(g) and 4 moles of
H2O(g) by using the following steps:
a Draw the structures of all the molecules on both sides of the
equation. Show all the atoms and all the bonds. [2 marks]
b Write down the number of moles of each type of bond that
have to be broken in the reactants. (Remember to consider the
number of moles of both reactants in the equation.) [2 marks]
c Calculate the total amount of energy that has to be put in to
break all the bonds in the reactants in (b). [1 mark]
d Write down the number of moles of each type of bond that
have to be formed in the products. (Remember to consider the
number of moles of both products in the equation.) [2 marks]
e Calculate the total amount of energy that is given out when
all the bonds in the products in (d) are formed. [1 mark]
f Use your answers to (c) and (e) to calculate the overall energy
change in the reaction. You must show the correct units in your
answer and say whether the reaction is exothermic or
endothermic. [3 marks]
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 7 Chemical reactions

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed
by changing the reaction conditions, e.g. the effect of
● be able to identify physical and chemical changes and
heat on hydrated copper(II) sulfate and hydrated cobalt(II)
know the differences between them
chloride
● describe and explain the effects of changing the
concentration of aqueous solutions, particle size/surface ● be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
area of solids, pressure of gases, catalysts (including the concept of equilibrium
enzymes) and temperature on rates of reaction ● be able to predict the effect of changing the conditions
● describe the application of the above factors to the (concentration, temperature and pressure) on other
danger of explosive combustion with fine powders reversible reactions
(e.g. flour mills) and gases (e.g. methane in mines)
● demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a practical ● define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen
method for investigating the rate of a reaction involving loss/gain
gas evolution ● define redox in terms of electron transfer
● interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with ● identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation state and
rate of reaction by the colour changes occurring when using acidified
● devise and evaluate a suitable method for investigating potassium manganate(VII) and potassium iodide
the effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction ● define oxidising agent and reducing agent
● describe and explain the effects of changing temperature ● identify oxidising agents and reducing agents from simple
and concentration in terms of collisions between particles equations.
using the concept of activation energy
● describe and explain the role of light in photochemical
reactions and the effect of light on the rate of these reactions
● describe the use of silver salts in photography
● describe photosynthesis as a reaction between carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and
sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen

● Key terms 
Catalyst A substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction. The catalyst is chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction
Enzyme A biological catalyst. Enzymes are protein molecules
Oxidation Gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
Reduction Loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen
Oxidising agent A substance that oxidises another substance in a redox reaction. An electron acceptor
Reducing agent A substance that reduces another substance in a redox reaction. An electron donor
Oxidation Loss of electrons
Reduction Gain of electrons
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Physical changes are changes in which new chemical substances are

not produced. Changes in state, that is melting, boiling, evaporation,
condensation, sublimation and freezing (see Chapter 1), and separation of
mixtures, e.g. filtration, distillation, fractional distillation, chromatography
and crystallisation (see Chapter 2), are examples of physical changes.
Chemical changes or chemical reactions are changes in which new
chemical substances are produced. Decomposition, electrolysis, respiration,
photosynthesis, redox, neutralisation, cracking, addition, substitution,
polymerisation and combustion are examples of chemical changes. Chemical
equations can always be used to represent chemical changes.

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 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The term physical properties of a substance refers to properties of a Examiner’s tip

substance that can be measured and that involve physical changes. Examples Students should ensure
are melting point, boiling point and density. that they are aware of
The term chemical properties of a substance refers to properties of a the differences between
substance which involve chemical changes. Examples are the things that physical properties and
substances react with and details of such reactions. chemical properties and
that they know examples
It can be said that a physical property of metals is that they all conduct of both for different
electricity, whereas a chemical property of metals is that (some of them) react types of substance.
with acids to produce a salt and hydrogen.

● Rate of reaction 
The rate of a chemical reaction can be determined by measuring either how
the amount of one of the reactants decreases with time or how the amount of
one of the products increases with time.

Common errors
● Students commonly refer to catalysts being able to alter the speed of a
chemical reaction. This does not specifically mean that a catalyst increases
the rate, because altering the speed suggests that catalysts may decrease the
rate, which is not the case.
● Another common error is to suggest that catalysts do not take part in a
reaction. This is not the case, because increasing the rate suggests that
catalysts have a considerable part to play.
● The term ‘biocatalyst’ is not recognised as having the same meaning as
biological catalyst.

● Experimental investigations 
Reactions in which solids react with liquids to produce gases among other
products are commonly investigated in this chapter.

Experiment 1
An example is
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction between a known excess of zinc granules and 50.0 cm3
of 0.10 mol dm−3 dilute sulfuric acid was investigated by a student. The
apparatus shown in Figure 7.1 was used.

thermometer gas syringe

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thermostatically controlled
water bath
water

zinc granules dilute sulfuric acid

Figure 7.1

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Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
 Collision theory

The temperature is kept at 25 °C by using a thermostatically controlled water

bath. The volume of hydrogen produced can be measured at regular time
intervals. A graph is then plotted (Figure 7.2).
total volume of hydrogen/cm3

time/s
Figure 7.2 The volume of hydrogen produced against time for Experiment 1

The graph is steepest at the start which means that this is when the rate of
reaction is fastest. It then becomes less steep which means that the reaction
becomes slower. Eventually the graph levels out, which means that no more
hydrogen gas is released and the rate of reaction is zero.

● Collision theory 
In any reaction of the type unsuccessful collision

A+B→C
A B
particles of A and B must collide with each other if they are to produce
product C. There are two types of collision: successful and unsuccessful.
In an unsuccessful collision, particles of A and B merely bounce off each
other and remain as A and B. A B
However, in a successful collision, particles of A and B collide and
change into C.
Collisions are only successful if the reacting particles contain at least a successful collision
minimum amount of energy called the activation energy.
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on the number of successful A B
collisions occurring in any given time.
If a change is made to increase the number of collisions, this
automatically leads to an increase in the number of successful collisions
because a certain proportion of all collisions are always successful.
C
In the reaction investigated
Figure 7.3 Collision theory
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
the ionic equation is
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Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

This shows that collisions must take place between zinc atoms and
hydrogen ions for the reaction to occur. In Experiment 1, the rate of
reaction is fastest at the start because this is where the concentration of
hydrogen ions is highest, which means that the number of collisions between
hydrogen ions and zinc atoms in any given time is most frequent at the start.
The rate of reaction then decreases because as the concentration of
hydrogen ions decreases, collisions occur less frequently.

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 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

When all the sulfuric acid is used up, the concentration of hydrogen ions Examiner’s tip
becomes zero, therefore there are no more collisions and the rate becomes zero. In reactions between
The student then carried out experiments on the same reaction, changing gases, it is possible to
only one variable in each case. The changed variable is highlighted. make similar statements
about the concentration
Experiment Temperature/°C Catalyst Sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq) Zinc, Zn(s) of a gas. However, it is
1 25 None 50.0 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Granules more likely that gases
are referred to in terms
2 25 None 25.0 cm3 of 0.20 mol dm−3 Granules
of pressure rather than
3 25 None 50.0 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Powder concentration. The
4 50 None 50.0 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Granules higher the pressure
5 25 A few drops of aqueous 50.0 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Granules exerted by a gas, the
copper(II) sulfate closer together are the
gaseous molecules and
the more frequent will
Experiment 2 be their collisions with
The concentration of sulfuric acid is doubled in Experiment 2 but the each other.
volume of sulfuric acid is halved which means that the number of moles
of sulfuric acid is the same.
Figure 7.4 shows the graph that was plotted in Experiment 2 with the
graph for Experiment 1.
total volume of
hydrogen/cm3

experiment 1

experiment 2

time/s
Figure 7.4

Because the graph is steeper at the start, this is where the rate of reaction
is fastest.
The rate of reaction increases as the concentration increases. This is
because the concentration of hydrogen ions is higher, which means that the
number of collisions between hydrogen ions and zinc atoms is also higher in
any given time.
The graphs in Experiments 1 and 2 (Figure 7.4) level off at the same
volume of hydrogen, because the volume of hydrogen given off is only
dependent on the number of moles of sulfuric acid, which is the same in
both experiments (as it is in all five experiments).
In Experiments 3, 4 and 5, the graph would be the same shape as in
Experiment 2, that is, it would be steeper at the start and level off at the
same volume of hydrogen.
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Experiment 3
Using zinc powder we are decreasing particle size/increasing surface area.
Collisions can only occur on the surface of the zinc. With a smaller particle
size, there are more zinc atoms available to collide with the hydrogen ions.
More collisions occurring in any given time means that more successful
collisions occur in any given time and therefore a faster rate of reaction occurs.
Decreased particle size and increased rate of reaction can lead to hazards, for
example, in flour mills and coal mines. Flour dust and coal dust (both having
extremely large surface areas) have been known to react explosively with
oxygen in the air when a spark has been created by machinery.

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 Photochemical reactions

Experiment 4
At higher temperature, the reacting particles have more energy. This means
that the particles move faster and collide more often in any given time.

However, there will be more particles with energy greater than or equal to
the activation energy. Therefore, more collisions will be successful collisions
in any given time. This is the main reason why rates of reaction are faster at
higher temperatures.

Experiment 5
Aqueous copper(II) sulfate acts as a catalyst in this reaction.

Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction. This means

that there are more particles with energy greater than or
equal to the activation energy. Therefore, more collisions are
successful collisions in any given time and the rate of reaction activation energy
(without catalyst)

energy / kJ
is faster.
activation energy
Activation energy is the amount of energy that has to be reactants (with catalyst)
supplied to reactants to make a reaction occur. The lowering
of activation energy in a catalysed reaction can be shown
products
in the energy profile (Figure 7.5). As can be seen, using
a catalyst has no effect on the overall energy change of a
reaction but lowers the activation energy, thus increasing the progress of reaction
rate of reaction. Figure 7.5

● Photochemical reactions 
Photochemical reactions require light in order to occur. Furthermore, the
rate of such reactions increases when light intensity increases.
Examples of photochemical reactions are:
● photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide and water react in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll to produce glucose and oxygen (see Chapter 13)
● substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine (see Chapter 14) which
requires UV light
● photochemical decomposition of silver salts in photography. When
aqueous silver nitrate is added to an aqueous solution containing halide
ions (Cl−, Br− or I−), a precipitate of a silver halide occurs, e.g.
Ag+(aq) + Br−(aq) → AgBr(s)
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When the silver bromide is exposed to light it decomposes into its

elements and the precipitate darkens as it gradually decomposes into silver
and bromine. Silver bromide is used in photographic films because it
darkens when exposed to light.
2AgBr(s) → 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
The rate of this reaction increases as light intensity increases.

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 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

● Reversible reactions 
Some reactions can be reversed by changing the conditions. If crystals of
hydrated copper(II) sulfate and hydrated cobalt(II) chloride are heated,
they change colour as they lose their water of crystallisation and become
anhydrous salts.
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
blue crystals white powder
CoCl2.6H2O(s) → CoCl 2(s) + 6H 2O (g)
pink crystals blue powder
However, in both cases, the reactions can be made to proceed in the reverse
directions by adding water to the anhydrous salts in which case the crystals
form again, as can be seen by the reverse colour change.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(s)
white powder blue crystals
CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) → CoCl2.6H2O(s)
blue powder pink crystals
These reactions are called reversible reactions. They can be made to
proceed in the reverse direction by changing the conditions.

● Equilibrium 
If reversible reactions are allowed to proceed in a closed container, they
reach a state that is known as chemical equilibrium.
If a mixture of hydrogen and iodine gases is heated in a closed container,
the hydrogen reacts with the iodine to produce hydrogen iodide:
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
This is called the forward reaction.
As soon as hydrogen iodide molecules are formed, they start to
decompose into hydrogen and iodine:
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g)
This is called the reverse or backward reaction.
Therefore, two reactions are occurring in the same container at the same
time. Furthermore, one reaction is the reverse of the other. This can be
shown by the following expression:
H2(g) + I2(g) L 2HI(g) Reactants L Products
The forward reaction starts off quickly and the rate decreases as the
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concentrations of hydrogen and iodine decrease.

The backward reaction starts off slowly and the rate increases as the
concentration of hydrogen iodide increases.
Eventually, both rates become equal. The system is then in a state of
chemical equilibrium. When this occurs, reactants and products are all being
used up and produced at the same rate and therefore their concentrations
become constant.

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 Effects of changing the conditions of an equilibrium system

Characteristics of equilibrium systems

Equilibrium can only occur in a closed system (closed container), in which
no substances can escape to the outside or enter from the outside.
● The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
● The concentrations of all reactants and products become constant.

Examiner’s tip
When asked to describe the characteristics of an equilibrium system, students make
two very common errors. They often state:
1 The forward reaction is equal to the reverse reaction. Without using the word
‘rate’, this is a meaningless statement.
2 a The amounts of reactants and products become constant. In this case, the
word ‘amounts’ must be replaced by ‘concentrations’.
b The concentrations of products and reactants become equal. This is
incorrect. ‘The concentrations of products and reactants become constant,
which means that they stop changing’, is the correct statement.

● Effects of changing the conditions

of an equilibrium system 
The following equation represents the equilibrium which occurs in the
Haber process:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) L 2NH3(g)
The forward reaction is exothermic.
This means that N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) is an exothermic reaction.
Therefore, 2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g) is an endothermic reaction.
The equation shows that there are four gaseous molecules on the left-hand
side of the L sign and two gaseous molecules on the right-hand side of the
L sign.
increase concentration of N2 or H2
Table 7.1 The conditions of this equilibrium system and their results increase pressure

Change Effect on equilibrium position Result in this N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

example
Increase the Shifts to the right Concentration of reactants products
concentration of products increases (1 + 3 = 4 gaseous molecules) (2 gaseous molecules)
reactants
Increase the Shifts to the left Concentration of increase concentration of NH3
concentration of reactants increases increase temperature
products
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Increase the Shifts in the direction of fewer Concentration of decrease concentration of NH3
total pressure molecules products increases
decrease temperature
Increase Shifts in endothermic direction Concentration of
temperature reactants increases N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Add a catalyst Increases the rate of both No change
forward and reverse reactions,
decrease concentration of
but does not shift the equilibrium
N2 or H2
decrease pressure

Decreases in concentrations, pressure and temperature

The reaction is exothermic in the forward direction
have the opposite effect to increases. This is summarised
Figure 7.6
in Figure 7.6.

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 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Examiner’s tips
When students are asked about changing temperature and pressure on an
equilibrium system, they often demonstrate confusion between rate of reaction and
equilibrium. This is shown in the sample question below.

● Sample exam-style question 

What happens to the position of equilibrium in the Haber process reaction,
i.e. N2(g) + 3H2(g) L 2NH3(g), when the temperature increases? The
forward reaction is exothermic.

Student’s answer
The rate of the reverse reaction increases because the forward reaction is
exothermic.

Examiner’s comment
The student should not have used the word ‘rate’. If the temperature of an equilibrium
system is increased, the rate of both forward and reverse reactions are increased,
because increase in temperature increases the rate of all reactions (except enzyme
catalysed reactions).
The correct answer is a statement that says
‘The equilibrium shifts to the left in the endothermic direction’
or
‘The equilibrium shifts to the left because the forward reaction is exothermic’
Students are advised to treat equilibrium and rate as two completely separate
things which are not related to each other.

● Redox 
Oxidation was originally defined as gain of oxygen. In the following reaction
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
magnesium is oxidised because it gains oxygen. Because oxygen causes the
oxidation, oxygen is the oxidising agent.
Reduction is the opposite of oxidation and was originally defined as loss of
oxygen. In the following reaction
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
copper(II) oxide is reduced because it loses oxygen. Hydrogen is the reducing
agent. In this reaction, hydrogen gains oxygen, therefore hydrogen is oxidised.
It follows that oxidation and reduction always occur at the same time.
A reaction in which oxidation and reduction both occur is known as a
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redox reaction.

Another example of a redox reaction involving oxygen is

4FeO(s) + O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
iron(II) oxide iron(III) oxide
in which iron(II) oxide is oxidised to iron(III) oxide using oxygen as an
oxidising agent. This gives rise to another type of reaction in which an
element is oxidised from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state
as in iron being oxidised from +2 to +3.

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 Exam-style questions

However, gain of oxygen and/or loss of hydrogen are very limited

definitions of oxidation and reduction, because many redox reactions do not
involve oxygen or hydrogen. The following reaction
2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(aq)
iron(II) chloride iron(III) chloride
in which iron(II) chloride is oxidised to iron(III) chloride using chlorine as
the oxidising agent is an example.
The ionic equation for this reaction is
2Fe2+(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)
This can be broken down into two ionic half-equations:
Oxidation 2Fe2+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2e−
and
Reduction 2e− + Cl2(g) → 2Cl−(aq)
• Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+ by loss of electrons. Cl2 is the oxidising agent.
• Therefore oxidation is electron loss. Examiner’s tip
• Oxidising agents are electron acceptors. In ionic half-equations
• Cl2 is reduced to 2Cl− by gain of electrons. Fe2+ is the reducing agent. ● electrons appear
• Therefore reduction is electron gain. on the right for
oxidation
• Reducing agents are electron donors.
● electrons appear
In any redox reaction, electrons are transferred from the reducing agent to on the left for
the oxidising agent. The reducing agent is oxidised and the oxidising agent reduction.
is reduced.

Testing for oxidising and reducing agents

Aqueous potassium manganate(VII) is an oxidising agent which can be used
to test for the presence of reducing agents. When a reducing agent is added, the
aqueous potassium manganate(VII) changes colour from purple to colourless.
Aqueous potassium iodide is a reducing agent which can be used to test
for the presence of oxidising agents. When an oxidising agent is added, the
aqueous potassium iodide changes colour from colourless to brown.

Exam-style questions

1 State whether the following changes are physical changes or chemical

changes.
a Dissolving sodium chloride in water. [1 mark]
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b The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride. [1 mark]

c Exposing a precipitate of silver chloride to sunlight. [1 mark]
d Fractional distillation of liquid air. [1 mark]
e Separating the dyes in ink by chromatography. [1 mark]
[Total: 5 marks]

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 7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

2 When an excess of marble chips (calcium carbonate) is added to 60

D
50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 hydrochloric acid at 25 °C, the following

volume of carbon
dioxide/cm3
reaction occurs: A E
B
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 30
C
The volume of carbon dioxide gas was collected in a gas syringe and
measured at regular time intervals. This is experiment 1.
time/s
The experiment was repeated as shown in the table below. Graphs Figure 7.7 Graph showing
were plotted in each case (Figure 7.7). volume of carbon dioxide
collected
The calcium carbonate is in excess in all five experiments.
Copy and complete the table below to show which graph corresponds to
each different experiment. Each letter may be used once, more than once
or not at all.
Experiment Hydrochloric acid Calcium carbonate Temperature/°C Graph
1 50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Marble chips 25 A
2 50 cm3 of 0.20 mol dm−3 Marble chips 25 [1 mark]
3 50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Powdered 25 [1 mark]
4 50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Marble chips 12.5 [1 mark]
5 50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm−3 Marble chips 50 [1 mark]

[Total: 4 marks]
3 State in which directions (if any) the following equilibrium mixtures would
shift if the pressure on the system was increased. Explain your answer in
each case.
a H2(g) + I2(g) L 2HI(g) [1 mark]
b 2SO2(g) + O2(g) L 2SO3(g) [1 mark]
c N2O4(g) L 2NO2(g) [1 mark]
[Total: 3 marks]
4 State in which directions (if any) the following equilibrium mixtures would
shift if the temperature on the system was decreased. Explain your answer
in each case.
a 2SO2(g) + O2(g) L 2SO3(g) exothermic in the forward direction [1 mark]
b N2O4(g ) L 2NO2(g) endothermic in the forward direction [1 mark]
[Total: 2 marks]
5 The equation for the reaction between magnesium and copper(II) sulfate
solution is shown.
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
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a Write an ionic equation for the reaction. [1 mark]

b Write two ionic half-equations representing oxidation and
reduction in the reaction. [2 marks]
c State the formula of the species which acts as an oxidising
agent in the reaction. Explain your answer. [2 marks]
d State the formula of the species which acts as a reducing
agent in the reaction. Explain your answer. [2 marks]
[Total: 7 marks]

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 8 Acids, bases and salts

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity
in soil
● describe the characteristic properties of acids in their
● classify oxides as either acidic or basic related to metallic
reactions with metals, bases and carbonates, and their
and non-metallic character
effect on litmus and methyl orange
● suggest methods of preparation of salts
● describe the characteristic properties of bases in their
reactions with acids and with ammonium salts and their ● define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer
effect on litmus and methyl orange ● describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases
● describe neutrality, relative acidity and alkalinity in terms ● classify other oxides as neutral or amphoteric.
of pH measured using Universal indicator paper

● Key terms 
Acid A proton donor
Base A proton acceptor
Strong acid Exists completely as ions in aqueous solution
Weak acid Only partially ionised in aqueous solution
Strong base Exists completely as ions in aqueous solution
Salt An ionic substance formed when the positive hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by
positive metallic ions or ammonium ions

● Acids 
Acids are proton (H+)
donors.
The common laboratory strong acids are dilute hydrochloric, nitric and
sulfuric acids. Their formulae are given below.
● Hydrochloric acid: HCl
● Nitric acid: HNO3
● Sulfuric acid: H2SO4

In aqueous solution strong acids do not contain any particles with these
formulae because they exist completely as ions, i.e.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Weak acids, such as ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq), exist mainly as
covalent molecules with the formula CH3COOH(aq), a small number of
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which dissociate into ions, i.e.

CH3COOH(aq) L CH3COO−(aq) + H+(aq)

Reactions of acids
With metals
Acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series (although it
would be dangerous to use a Group I metal or anything below calcium in
Group II in a reaction with acids). The general equation is
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
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 8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

The metal dissolves, bubbles are seen and a solution of the salt forms
whose colour depends on the metal used.
An example is
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

With carbonates
Acids react with both soluble and insoluble carbonates. The general equation is
acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Solid carbonates dissolve, bubbles are seen and an aqueous solution (whose
colour depends on the carbonate used) of the salt forms. An example is
CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
This type of reaction occurs with carbonates either as solids or as aqueous
solutions.

With bases
Acids react with all bases to form salts and water (in the case of ammonia, an
ammonium salt is the only product).
The general equation is
acid + base → salt + water
With insoluble bases the solid dissolves and a solution forms. No bubbles
are seen because no gas is produced.
An example is
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
With alkalis there are no observations as a colourless solution is produced
from two colourless solutions.
An example is
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

With ammonia
The general equation is
acid + ammonia → ammonium salt
An example is
2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Strong and weak acids

Strong and weak acids can be distinguished experimentally by any of the
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following experimental methods.

Strong acid Weak acid
Add Universal indicator paper Red Orange yellow
or pH 0–2 or pH less than 7 and more than 2
Add magnesium ribbon Bubbles quickly Bubbles slowly
Add an insoluble carbonate, e.g. calcium Bubbles quickly Bubbles slowly
carbonate
Set up a circuit with a bulb Bulb lights brightly Bulb lights dimly

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 Bases

Examiner’s tip
● Many students have the impression that if an acid is weak, more of the weak acid
is required to neutralise the same amount of alkali compared to a strong acid. The
amount of any acid that is required to neutralise a given amount of alkali only
depends on the number of moles of the acid and not whether the acid is strong
or weak.
● Some questions begin with, ‘How would you distinguish …?’ For example, ‘How
would you distinguish between a strong acid and a weak acid?’ The intention is that
the student gives brief experimental details with results, for example, add magnesium
ribbon to both and bubbles occur much faster with the strong acid than the weak
acid. Instead students often answer with theory, for example, strong acids ionise
completely and weak acids ionise partially. Although these statements are correct
they do not address the question, ‘How would you distinguish …?’ It is also necessary
to state what would happen with both substances or to give a comparison, rather
than say the strong acid produces bubbles rapidly without reference to the weak acid.

● Bases 
Bases are metallic oxides or hydroxides (or ammonia) which neutralise acids
to form a salt and water.
● Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis.
● Bases that do not dissolve in water are known as insoluble bases.
Alkalis are hydroxides or oxides of metals (or ammonia) that produce
OH−(aq) when dissolved in water.
The two laboratory strong alkalis are aqueous sodium hydroxide and
potassium hydroxide. They both exist completely as ions in aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Ammonia solution is a weak base. An aqueous solution of ammonia
exists mainly as NH3 molecules, a small number of which react with water
molecules to produce ions.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) L NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

NH3(aq) accepts H+ from H2O(l) forming NH4+(aq) which shows that bases
are proton acceptors by definition.

Reactions of bases
As described above, bases neutralise acids.
Application: Plants need soil to be at a specific pH to grow well. Soil
acidity can be neutralised by the addition of a suitable base, such as calcium Examiner’s tip
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hydroxide, Ca(OH)2(s), also known as slaked lime. Many students do not

apply the rules for
With ammonium salts writing formulae of ionic
compounds when writing
Insoluble bases and alkalis react when heated with ammonium salts. Ammonia
equations of this type. In
gas is given off. this example, the formula
The general equation is of calcium chloride is
often written as CaCl,
base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia + water without consideration of
An example is the charges on the ions
present (see Chapter 3
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(g) for details).

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 8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

● Indicators 
Methyl orange and litmus can be used to indicate whether substances are
acids or alkalis, but give no information about acid strength.
Methyl orange Litmus
Colour in acidic solution Red Red
Colour in neutral solution Orange Purple
Colour in alkaline solution Yellow Blue

The pH scale (Figure 8.1) uses numbers to distinguish between acids and
alkalis of different strengths.
acidic alkaline
neutral

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

acid strength increasing alkaline strength increasing

Figure 8.1 The pH scale

Aqueous solutions of acids have pH less than 7. Aqueous solutions of alkalis

have pH more than 7. Neutral solutions have pH of 7.
The lower the pH numbers, the stronger the acid. The higher the pH
numbers, the stronger the alkali.
Strong acids are regarded as having a pH of 0–2. Strong alkalis are regarded
as having a pH of 12–14.
Universal indicator has different colours to show approximate pH
numbers as shown.
Approximate pH Colour of Universal indicator
Less than 3 Red
3–6 Orange–yellow
7 Green
8–11 Blue
More than 11 Purple

● Oxides 
Oxides can be put into four categories.
1 Acidic oxides are non-metallic oxides that neutralise alkalis and form salts.
Examples are carbon dioxide, CO2, nitrogen dioxide, NO2, and sulfur
dioxide, SO2.These oxides all dissolve in water and react with the water to
form acids.
2 Basic oxides are metallic oxides that neutralise acids and form salts.
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Examples are magnesium oxide, MgO, calcium oxide, CaO, and copper(II)
oxide, CuO. Some basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline
hydroxides, whereas others are insoluble in water.

3 Some non-metallic oxides are neutral oxides which means that they do
not react with either acids or alkalis. An example is carbon monoxide, CO.
4 Some metallic oxides are amphoteric oxides which means that they react
with both acids and alkalis to form salts. Examples are zinc oxide, ZnO,
and aluminium oxide, Al2O3.

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 Salts

● Salts 
Salts are ionic substances formed when the positive hydrogen ions in an acid
are replaced by positive metallic ions or ammonium ions.
Salts can be made by different experimental methods, depending on their
solubility in water.

Solubility of salts
Type of salt Soluble Insoluble
Nitrates All nitrates are soluble in water None
Sodium, potassium and All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts None
ammonium salts are soluble in water
Chlorides Chlorides are soluble in water except → Lead chloride and silver chloride are insoluble in water
Sulfates Sulfates are soluble in water except → Lead sulfate and barium sulfate are insoluble in water
Lead salts Lead nitrate is the only soluble lead salt → All other lead salts are insoluble
Carbonates Only sodium, potassium and ammonium → All other carbonates are insoluble
carbonates are soluble in water

Preparation of salts Examiner’s tip

There are three general methods of preparation of solid salts. Using acids to prepare
In all cases, details of crystallisation, washing and drying can be found in salts:
Chapter 2. ● hydrochloric acid,
Method 1: Adding an excess of an insoluble base or insoluble carbonate HCl, is used to
or metal to a dilute acid. prepare chlorides
Method 2: Titration using an acid and an alkali or a soluble carbonate. ● nitric acid, HNO3,
is used to prepare
Methods 1 and 2 can only be used for salts that are soluble in water.
nitrates
Method 3: Mixing two solutions to obtain a salt that is insoluble in water
● sulfuric acid, H2SO4,
by precipitation. is used to prepare
sulfates (or hydrogen
Examples sulfates)

Method 1 ● the positive ion in

the salt comes from
Copper(II) sulfate crystals can be made by this method. the insoluble base or
insoluble carbonate
● Add solid copper(II) oxide or copper(II) hydroxide or copper(II) carbonate or metal or alkali.
to dilute sulfuric acid in a beaker.
● Stir and/or heat the mixture.
● Add the solid until it will no longer dissolve which means all the acid has
reacted and the solid is in excess (if copper(II) carbonate is used, there will
be no further bubbling when all the acid has reacted).
● Filter off the excess solid.
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● Using copper(II) oxide the equation is

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

● Make pure crystals of copper(II) sulfate by crystallisation, washing and

drying (see Chapter 2).

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 8 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Method 2
Sodium sulfate crystals can be made by this method.
● Carry out sufficient titrations to find out the exact volume of dilute
sulfuric acid in a burette that is required to neutralise a given pipette
volume of aqueous sodium hydroxide. Use methyl orange as a suitable
indicator.
● Repeat the process without using the indicator, but using the same
volume of acid and alkali as used in the titration.
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

● Make pure crystals of sodium sulfate by crystallisation, washing and drying

(see Chapter 2).
If twice the volume of the same dilute sulfuric acid is used, or half the
volume of the same aqueous sodium hydroxide, sodium hydrogen sulfate
(an acid salt) is the salt produced, according to the equation
NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Crystals of sodium hydrogen sulfate can be made from this solution in the
same way.

Method 3
Lead sulfate can be made by this method.
● Because lead nitrate is the only soluble lead salt, lead nitrate solution
must be used and mixed with any soluble sulfate, such as aqueous sodium
sulfate (dilute sulfuric acid could also be used because it contains aqueous
sulfate ions).
● The precipitate of lead sulfate must be removed by filtration and then
washed with distilled water and dried in a low oven or on a warm
windowsill.
The equation is
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

An ionic equation for any precipitation reaction shows the two aqueous ions
on the left and the solid precipitate on the right in all cases. In this case
Pb2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s)
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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions

1 There are three general methods of preparation of solid salts.

Method 1: Adding an excess of an insoluble base or insoluble carbonate or
metal to a dilute acid.
Method 2: Titration using an acid and an alkali or a soluble carbonate.
Methods 1 and 2 can only be used for salts that are soluble in water.
Method 3: Mixing two solutions to obtain a salt that is insoluble in water
by precipitation.
For each of the following salt preparations, choose method 1, 2 or 3,
name any additional reagent which is required and write the equation.
a Cobalt(II) chloride starting with the insoluble compound cobalt(II)
carbonate. [3 marks]
b The insoluble salt lead iodide, from aqueous lead nitrate. [3 marks]
c Potassium nitrate from aqueous potassium hydroxide. [3 marks]
[Total: 9 marks]
2 Give full experimental details of how you would make pure dry
crystals of magnesium sulfate starting with magnesium carbonate.
You should include an equation in your answer. [Total: 10 marks]
3 You are provided with a mixture of scandium oxide and copper(II)
oxide which are both solids. Scandium oxide is an amphoteric oxide
and copper(II) oxide is a basic oxide. Describe how you could obtain
a sample of pure copper(II) oxide from the mixture. Both solids are
insoluble in water. [Total: 6 marks]

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 9 The Periodic Table

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the noble gases in Group VIII or 0 as being
unreactive, monatomic gases and explain this in terms of
● describe the Periodic Table as a means of classifying
electronic structure
elements and its use to predict properties of elements
● be able to describe some properties of transition elements
● describe the change from metallic to non-metallic
character across a period ● describe and explain the relationship between group
● describe some properties of the Group I elements lithium, number, number of outer shell electrons and
sodium and potassium and predict the properties of other metallic/non-metallic character
Group I elements ● identify trends in groups given information about the
● describe some properties of the Group VII elements elements concerned
chlorine, bromine and iodine and predict the properties of ● know that transition elements have variable oxidation states.
other Group VII elements

● Key terms 
Periodic Table Contains all the elements arranged in order of proton number
Groups The vertical columns in the Periodic Table
Periods The horizontal rows in the Periodic Table
Alkali metals Group I. Metals which react with water to produce alkaline solutions (such as lithium, sodium
and potassium)
Halogens Group VII. Non-metallic, diatomic molecules
Noble gases Group 0. Unreactive, monatomic, colourless gases
Transition Metals found in the elongated section of the Periodic Table between Groups II and III (such as
elements copper, iron and nickel)

● Periodic Table 
The Periodic Table contains the elements arranged in order of proton
number (atomic number).
● The vertical columns of elements are called groups.
● The horizontal rows of elements are called periods.

Across Periods 2 and 3, there is a gradual change from metals on the left-hand
side to non-metals on the right-hand side.

Common error
● Students often think that the elements are arranged in order of mass
number or relative atomic mass. Most of the relative atomic masses of the
elements do increase as proton numbers increase, but in some places the
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relative atomic mass decreases, e.g. argon to potassium.

Atoms of elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in
the outer shell. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines the
chemical properties of the element.
The number of shells present in an atom of an element is the same as the
period number in which the element is found in the Periodic Table.
Potassium has proton number 19 and therefore its electron configuration
is 2,8,8,1. There is one electron in the outer shell which means potassium
is in Group I of the Periodic Table. Potassium has electrons in four shells,
which means it is in Period 4.

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 Group properties

● Group properties 
Group I
The Group I elements are known as the alkali metals because they react with
water to produce alkaline solutions. The Group I elements are very reactive
metals. Examiner’s tip
The Group I elements, in order of increasing proton number, are lithium, Examination questions
sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. Only lithium, sodium often ask for
and potassium are found in school laboratories, because rubidium, caesium observations, or ask,
‘What would you see …?’
and francium are dangerously reactive and francium is also radioactive.
in a particular chemical
The Group I elements or physical change. When
Group I metals react
● are stored under oil because they react rapidly with oxygen in the air with water, suitable
● are good conductors of heat and electricity observations are
● can be cut with a knife because they are soft ● the metal disappears
● are shiny when cut, but tarnish rapidly due to reaction with oxygen in
● the metal melts
the air
● have low densities and low melting points and boiling points compared to ● bubbles/fizzing/
effervescence (these all
transition metals. effectively mean the
The melting points and boiling points of Group I elements decrease down the same thing)
group. Densities change in an irregular manner. ● the metal floats and
moves around on the
Reaction with water surface
All Group I elements react vigorously with water at room temperature. The ● potassium and those
reactions are usually carried out in a glass trough. Observations are Group I metals below
potassium burst into
● the metal moves around and floats on the surface of the water flames.
● the reaction produces heat which causes the metal to melt as it reacts However, the following
● bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off are not observations:
● the metal rapidly disappears, forming a colourless solution of the alkaline ● names of the products
metal hydroxide.
● a gas is given off (it is
The equation for the reaction with sodium is not possible to see a
colourless gas)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
● an alkaline solution
The equations with all the other Group I metals would be exactly the same forms (it is not possible
(including balancing numbers) if the symbols for the other metals replaced to see that a solution is
that of Na in the above equation. alkaline by observation
alone)
Reactivity of the Group I metals increases down the group. Sodium moves
around the surface faster than lithium and also disappears more rapidly. ● colour change of an
indicator (unless an
Potassium bursts into a lilac flame. If rubidium and caesium are added to
indicator is mentioned
water an explosive reaction occurs, which is why they are not kept in school in the question).
laboratories.
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Group VII
The Group VII elements are known as the halogens.
The Group VII elements in order of increasing proton number are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Only chlorine, bromine and iodine are
found in school laboratories. Fluorine is too reactive to be used in schools and
astatine is radioactive.
The elements are all non-metallic and exist as diatomic molecules
(molecules containing two atoms). The appearance of those found in schools
is shown in Table 9.1.

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 9 THE PERIODIC TABLE

Table 9.1 Physical appearance of chlorine, bromine and iodine

Element Appearance at room temperature

Chlorine Pale green gas
Bromine Red-brown liquid
Iodine Grey-black solid

The colours become darker as the group is descended. The change in physical
state from gas to liquid to solid down the group indicates an increase in
melting point and boiling point and density down the group (due to an
increase in the strength of intermolecular forces).

Halogen displacement reactions

If halogens (or solutions of the halogens in water) are added to colourless
aqueous solutions of potassium halides (chlorides, bromides and iodides),
displacement reactions occur in the examples highlighted in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Displacement reactions observed in chlorine, bromine and iodine

Aqueous potassium chloride, KCl Aqueous potassium bromide, KBr Aqueous potassium iodide, KI
Chlorine, Cl2 Solution turns orange/yellow (bromine Solution turns brown (iodine produced)
produced)
Bromine, Br2 No change Solution turns brown (iodine produced)
Iodine, I2 No change No change

An example of a displacement reaction is when chlorine displaces bromine

from an aqueous solution of potassium bromide. The equation is
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

As can be seen from Table 9.2,

● chlorine displaces bromine and iodine
● bromine displaces iodine, but does not displace chlorine
● iodine does not displace chlorine or bromine.
Halogens higher up the group can displace those lower down. Alternatively,
we can say that reactivity increases up Group VII. This is opposite to the
trend in reactivity shown in Group I.
We can use this information to make predictions about the other halogens
and halides (see the Exam-style questions at the end of the chapter).

Group 0
The Group 0 elements are known as the noble gases. The Group 0 elements,
in order of increasing proton number, are helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon and radon.
The Group 0 elements
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● are all colourless gases

● are all monatomic; this means they exist as individual atoms because their
atoms all have a full outer shell of electrons and do not form covalent bonds
with other Group 0 atoms to form diatomic molecules
● are very unreactive because their atoms all have a full outer shell of
electrons, therefore they do not need to share, lose or gain electrons to
achieve a full outer shell of electrons.

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 Exam-style questions

Uses of Group 0 elements

● Helium is used in filling balloons because of its low density. Its unreactive nature
means that hazards associated with hydrogen are absent if helium is used.
● Argon is used in light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament from burning.
This is because argon does not support burning due to its unreactivity.

● Transition elements 
Transition elements are all metals (also known as transition metals). They are
found in the elongated section of the Periodic Table between Groups II and
III. Common examples are copper, iron and nickel.

Physical properties
Transition elements are all metals and show the usual physical properties of
metals (see Chapter 10). In addition, transition metals
● are harder and stronger than the elements in Group I
● have higher densities than the elements in Group I
● have higher melting points than the elements in Group I.

Chemical properties
● Transition elements form coloured compounds, e.g. copper(II) sulfate
crystals are blue and potassium manganate(VII) is purple.
● The elements and their compounds show catalytic activity, e.g. iron in the
Haber process and vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process.
● Transition elements have variable oxidation states, e.g. iron can form Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ions.

Exam-style questions

1 The diagram below shows part of the Periodic Table. Use the letters A to
H inclusive to answer the questions that follow. Each letter may be used
once, more than once, or not at all. Give the letter that represents
a the Group I element that is most reactive [1 mark]
b the Group VII element that is most reactive [1 mark]
c a transition element [1 mark]
d an element in Period 3 [1 mark]
e an element whose atoms have four electrons in their outer shell. [1 mark]
[Total: 5 marks]
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0
I II III IV V VI VII
C D
A
H F

G E
B

Figure 9.1

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 9 THE PERIODIC TABLE

2 Lithium is added to cold water in a glass trough.

a Give three observations you would expect to make. [3 marks]
b Write a chemical equation for the reaction that occurs. Include
state symbols. [3 marks]
c If methyl orange is added to the liquid in the trough after the
reaction, what colour would it turn to? [1 mark]
[Total: 7 marks]
3 Use the table of halogen displacement reactions to answer the following
questions. Write chemical equations (with state symbols) and ionic
equations for the reactions that occur between
a chlorine and aqueous potassium iodide [4 marks]
b bromine and aqueous potassium iodide. [4 marks]
[Total: 8 marks]
4 Use the Periodic Table to predict reactions that would occur between
a fluorine and aqueous potassium chloride
b astatine and aqueous potassium fluoride
c bromine and aqueous potassium astatide
d iodine and aqueous potassium fluoride.
If you predict that a reaction would occur, write a chemical
equation for the reaction. If you predict that a reaction
would not occur write no reaction. [Total: 6 marks]
5 Copper and iron have variable oxidation states. State the formulae of
a copper(I) oxide [1 mark]
b copper(II) nitrate [1 mark]
c iron(II) chloride [1 mark]
d iron(III) sulfate. [1 mark]
[Total: 4 marks]
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 10 Metals

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● know that aluminium is extracted from its ore bauxite by
electrolysis
● describe the physical properties of metals
● state the advantages and disadvantages of recycling iron/
● describe the chemical properties of metals
steel and aluminium
● identify representations of alloys from diagrams of
● name some uses of aluminium
structure and explain in terms of properties why alloys are
● name some uses of copper
used instead of pure metals
● name some uses of mild steel and stainless steel
● place the following in order of reactivity: potassium,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and ● describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of
copper by reference to the reactions with a metal to form its positive ion, illustrated by reaction with
● water or steam ● the aqueous ions
● dilute hydrochloric acid and ● the oxides of the other listed metals
● the reduction of their oxides with carbon ● account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in
● deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of terms of the oxide layer which adheres to the metal
experimental results ● describe and explain the action of heat on the hydroxides,
● describe the ease of obtaining metals from their ores by carbonates and nitrates of the listed metals
reference to the position of elements in the reactivity series ● describe in outline the extraction of zinc from zinc blende
● describe and state the essential reactions in the extraction ● describe in outline the extraction of aluminium from
of iron from hematite bauxite, including the role of cryolite and the reactions at
● describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic the electrodes
oxides and oxygen ● explain the uses of zinc in galvanising and for making brass.

● Properties of metals 
Physical properties
The physical properties of metals are shown in Table 10.1 (see also Chapter 9).

Table 10.1 Physical properties of metals force

applied
Property Metallic property here
Physical state at room temperature Solid (except mercury)
Malleability Good
Ductility Good
before
Appearance Shiny (lustrous)
Melting point and boiling point Usually high
Density Usually high
Conductivity (thermal and electrical) Good

Metals are malleable (can be hammered into different

after
shapes) and ductile (can be drawn into wires). Although
metallic bonds are strong, they are not rigid, which means Figure 10.1 The positions of the positive ions in a metal
before and after a force has been applied
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that the rows of ions in metals can slide over each other
when a force is applied (Figure 10.1). This is because the
ions in a metallic element are all the same size.
When a metallic object is required to be particularly strong, an alloy
is often used instead of a metallic element. In alloys such as brass,
bronze and steel, the metallic element is mixed with small amounts of
another element or elements. The ions or atoms of the other elements
are a different size to those of the main element. This prevents the rows
of metallic ions from sliding over each other. Therefore, an alloy retains
its shape much better than a pure metal when a force is applied.
Figure 10.2 Alloy structure

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 10 METALS

● Reactivity series 
Metals can be placed in order of their reactivity with other elements. This is MOST REACTIVE
known as the reactivity series (see right). potassium
The positions of carbon and hydrogen are inserted for reference to ↓
displacement reactions. Potassium, sodium and calcium react with cold water sodium
to produce an aqueous solution of an alkaline hydroxide and hydrogen gas ↓
(see Chapter 9), for example calcium
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) ↓
magnesium
Magnesium, zinc and iron react extremely slowly with cold water. They do
react more rapidly when heated with steam, for example ↓
aluminium
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g) ↓
Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with dilute acids to (carbon)
produce a salt and hydrogen (the reaction of potassium and sodium with acids ↓
would be too dangerous to carry out in school laboratories). zinc
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g) ↓
iron
Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series, e.g. copper, do not react
↓
with cold water, steam or dilute acids.
Oxides of metals below carbon in the reactivity series are reduced to the (hydrogen)
metal when heated with carbon, for example ↓
copper
2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
LEAST REACTIVE

Displacement reactions
Metals will displace other metals from aqueous solutions of their ions,
e.g. magnesium will displace copper from an aqueous solution containing
its ions such as copper(II) sulfate solution.
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + MgSO4(aq)
The ionic equation is
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s) + Mg2+(aq)
The reaction occurs because magnesium is a more reactive metal than
copper. This means that magnesium has a greater tendency to form positive
ions than copper.
If copper was added to a solution containing magnesium ions, such as
aqueous magnesium sulfate, no reaction occurs.
Metals higher up in the reactivity series will displace those lower down.
A similar reaction occurs if a metal oxide is heated with a more reactive
metal. For example, if zinc powder is heated with copper(II) oxide, the
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following reaction occurs:

CuO(s) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + ZnO(s)
However, if zinc oxide is heated with copper, no reaction occurs.

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 Reactivity series

Deducing order of reactivity of metals

To put metals in order of reactivity, reactions can be attempted as in, for
example, adding a metal to an aqueous solution containing ions of another
metal or heating a metal with the oxide of another metal.
Another method involves the use of electrochemical cells (see Chapter 5)
containing two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte (Figure 10.3).
Cell 1 Cell 2

EMF = 1.10 V EMF = 0.46 V

V V
   

metal A metal C metal C metal B

electrolyte electrolyte

Figure 10.3 Deducing order of reactivity using chemical cells

In electrochemical cells of this type, the more reactive metal is the negative
terminal, because the more reactive metal is the one with the greater tendency
Examiner’s tip
to release electrons and form positive ions. The reading on the voltmeter
If a cell was set up with A
(known as the cell EMF (electromotive force)) represents the difference in
and B in an electrolyte
reactivity between the two metals.
Cell 1 tells us that metal A (−) is higher in the reactivity series than ● A would be the
negative electrode
metal C (+) and 1.10 V is a measurement of the difference in reactivity.
Cell 2 tells us that metal C (−) is higher in the reactivity series than ● B would be the
metal B (+) and 0.46 V is a measurement of the difference in reactivity. positive electrode
Therefore, the order of the three metals in the reactivity series is ● the cell EMF would be
1.10 V + 0.46 V = 1.56 V.
Most reactive: A → C → B: Least reactive

Unexpected behaviour of aluminium

Aluminium appears between magnesium and zinc in the reactivity series.
However, aluminium often appears to be much less reactive than its
position in the reactivity series suggests.
For example, if aluminium is placed in an aqueous solution of copper(II)
sulfate, there is hardly any reaction until the layer of aluminium oxide
is removed. This is because aluminium is so reactive that it reacts with
the oxygen in the air forming a layer of aluminium oxide which adheres
to the aluminium underneath and protects the metal. Such a layer can
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be deliberately placed onto the surface of aluminium metal by a process

called anodising. This means that aluminium can be used for things which
would not normally be associated with reactive metals, such as aeroplane
bodies, cooking foil and pots and pans.

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 10 METALS

Thermal decomposition of metallic compounds

The ease with which metallic hydroxides, nitrates and carbonates decompose
when heated is related to the position of the metallic element in the
reactivity series.
Compounds of metals at the top of the reactivity series either require a
large amount of heat energy to decompose or they do not decompose at all.
We say that they are stable to heat. As the reactivity of the metallic elements
decreases, their compounds are less stable to heat and are more easily
decomposed by heat.
In the case of nitrates, Group I nitrates decompose partially, whereas the
nitrates of the other listed metals decompose more completely.

Hydroxides
Hydroxides of very reactive metals do not decompose when heated. Those
of less reactive metals decompose into their oxides and give off steam, for
example,
Cu(OH)2(s) → CuO(s) + H2O(g)

Nitrates
All nitrates decompose when heated, but nitrates do not all decompose to
produce similar products.
Group I nitrates (except lithium nitrate) decompose partially to form the
metallic nitrite and oxygen gas, for example,
2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Other metallic nitrates of less reactive metals decompose more completely,
producing the metal oxide and giving off nitrogen dioxide, a brown gas, and
oxygen gas.
2Mg(NO3)2(s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Carbonates
Group I carbonates (except lithium carbonate) do not decompose when
heated. The carbonates of all the other listed metals decompose into
the oxide and carbon dioxide gas. The amount of heat required for
decomposition is greater for carbonates of very reactive metals, such as
calcium carbonate,
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
but carbonates of less reactive metals like copper(II) carbonate decompose
at much lower temperatures
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CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Common error
● Students often state that metals higher up in the reactivity series
decompose with much more difficulty than those lower down. It is not
the metals that decompose; it is their compounds, namely the hydroxides,
nitrates and carbonates. Metals, being elements, cannot decompose
because an element is something that cannot decompose into anything
simpler.

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 Extraction of metals

● Extraction of metals 
Metals can be extracted from their ores more easily as we go down the
reactivity series.
There are three general methods of extracting metals from their ores:
1 Metals of average reactivity, e.g. iron and zinc, are extracted by chemical
reduction using carbon/carbon monoxide as reducing agents.
2 Metals of low reactivity, e.g. copper, are extracted by
a chemical reduction using carbon/carbon monoxide as reducing agents or
b electrolysis of aqueous solutions containing their ions.
3 Very reactive metals, e.g. potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
a cannot be extracted by chemical reduction because the ores are not reduced
by chemical reducing agents, such as carbon, carbon monoxide or hydrogen
b cannot be extracted by electrolysis of aqueous solutions, because
hydrogen is formed at the cathode instead of the metal (see Chapter 5).
Therefore, these metals are extracted by electrolysis of molten ionic compounds.

Aluminium
Aluminium is extracted from bauxite which is impure aluminium
oxide, Al2O3. Bauxite is first purified and then electrolysis is carried
out. Aluminium oxide is not reduced by carbon monoxide or any other
common reducing agent, which means electrolysis has to be used. This is
expensive due to the high cost of electricity.
Aluminium oxide has a melting point of 2017 °C which would require
a large amount of heat energy to achieve and therefore would further
increase costs. Instead, the aluminium oxide is dissolved in another
aluminium compound, molten cryolite, Na3Al F6. The advantages of
dissolving aluminium oxide in molten cryolite are
● the electrolyte can be maintained in the liquid state between 800 °C and
1000 °C, a temperature considerably lower than 2017 °C, which greatly
reduces energy costs
● cryolite improves the conductivity of the electrolyte.
crust of solid electrolyte

graphite anodes
+
aluminium
out –
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4m
wide

1m
siphon deep

8m long

molten aluminium collecting on tank lined with graphite

floor of cell cathode
molten electrolyte
Figure 10.4 The Hall–Heroult cell is used in industry to extract aluminium

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 10 METALS

Aluminium oxide in molten cryolite behaves in the same way as molten

aluminium oxide as far as the products of electrolysis are concerned.
Electrolysis is carried out in a steel tank using carbon (graphite)
electrodes. The anodes are carbon (graphite) blocks that are lowered into
the electrolyte. The cathode is the carbon (graphite) lining of the tank.
The electrode reactions are
Cathode (−) Al 3+(l) + 3e– → Al
Anode (+) 2O2−(g) → O2(g) + 4e–
Molten aluminium collects at the bottom of the tank and is siphoned off.
The oxygen that is produced at the anode reacts, at the high
temperature of the cell, with the graphite anodes
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
producing carbon dioxide gas which escapes. Thus the anodes burn
away and have to be replaced regularly.
The high cost of electricity is the largest expense for this process, which
is carried out in regions where cheap electricity, e.g. from hydro-electric
power, is available.

Iron
waste gases
Iron is extracted from hematite, impure iron(III) oxide,
Fe2O3, in a blast furnace.
Hematite, coke, C, and limestone, CaCO3, are fed into the raw materials:
top of the blast furnace. coke
A blast of hot air enters near the bottom. iron ore
Coke reacts with the oxygen in the air forming carbon limestone
dioxide. The reaction is highly exothermic and provides the
high temperature required for the other reactions.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
The carbon dioxide reacts with more coke higher up to air air
produce carbon monoxide in an endothermic reaction. slag
CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
molten iron
The carbon monoxide reduces the hematite to molten iron Figure 10.5 A blast furnace
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
and the molten iron trickles to the bottom and is tapped off.
The function of the limestone is to remove the main impurity in the iron Examiner’s tip
ore which is silicon dioxide (silicon(IV) oxide). You should know that the
The limestone decomposes at the high temperature inside the blast furnace. function of the coke is
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● to act as a fuel,
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) because the highly
Calcium oxide then reacts with silicon(IV) oxide to form calcium silicate exothermic reaction
with oxygen provides
which forms a molten slag as a separate layer above the molten iron (it is less a high enough
dense than iron). temperature for the
reduction of the
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
hematite
Slag is used by builders and road makers for foundations. ● to produce carbon
The iron produced in the blast furnace is called pig iron or cast iron. It monoxide which
contains about 4% carbon and its use is limited because it is brittle. The reduces the hematite
majority of pig iron is converted into steel. to iron.

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 Extraction of metals

Conversion of iron into steel

Pig iron contains about 4% carbon and other non-metallic impurities, such as
phosphorus, silicon and sulfur. The production of steel involves
● removing most of the non-metallic impurities (except small amounts of carbon)
● adding small, controlled amounts of transition elements (additives). The
transition elements that are used and the proportions in which they are added
determine the properties of the steels that are formed.
The impurities are removed by the basic oxygen process:
● Oxygen at high pressure is blown onto the surface of the molten metal.
● This causes oxidation of some of the carbon to carbon dioxide, and sulfur
to sulfur dioxide, both of which escape as gases.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
● Silicon is oxidised to silicon(IV) oxide and phosphorus is oxidised to
phosphorus(V) oxide, which are both solids.
Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(s)
4P(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)
● Calcium oxide (quicklime) is added. This reacts with the solid oxides to
produce calcium silicate and calcium phosphate which are removed as
molten slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
6CaO(s) + P4O10(s) → 2Ca3(PO4)2(l)

● The amount of carbon remaining can be controlled depending on the

type of steel required. Mild steel contains approximately 0.5% carbon and
99.5% iron.
● Transition elements are then added in exact quantities to produce
different types of steel. Stainless steel contains 18% chromium, 8% nickel,
as well as 74% iron.

Zinc
Zinc is extracted from zinc blende (impure zinc sulfide, ZnS) by a process
similar to the blast furnace process, using carbon as the reducing agent.
Zinc blende is purified. Zinc sulfide is then heated very strongly (roasted)
in a current of air to convert it into zinc oxide.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
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The zinc oxide is heated very strongly with powdered coke in a furnace.
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(g) + CO(g)
The zinc vapour then cools and condenses. It is removed as molten zinc.

Copper
The refining of copper is based on the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II)
sulfate using copper electrodes (see Chapter 5).
Refining means purification. Small amounts of impurities in copper cut
down its electrical conductivity noticeably.

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 10 METALS

The electrolysis is carried out using impure copper as the anode (+), pure cathode (–) anode (+)
copper as the cathode (−) and aqueous copper(II) sulfate as the electrolyte.
The copper from the anode (+) goes into solution as positive ions. pure impure
copper copper
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
The impurities either go into solution as positive ions or fall off the
anode and deposit at the bottom of the container. They are removed
from time to time.
Copper metal forms at the cathode (−)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
Thus pure copper is formed on the cathode (which was originally made
of pure copper). The cathode is removed and replaced from time to time.

Recycling aluminium and iron/steel acidified copper(II)

Much aluminium is recycled from drinks cans. Iron and steel are sulfate solution (electrolyte)
recycled from household goods. Figure 10.6 Copper purification process
The advantages of recycling are
● Natural resources of bauxite and hematite will last longer.
● Drinks cans and other household objects will not take up large amounts
of room in landfill sites, where they react with oxygen from the air (thus
removing it) as they are oxidised.
● The cost of recycling is much lower than extracting the metals from their
ores, largely due to reduced energy costs.
The disadvantages of recycling are
● The collection and sorting of domestic materials to be recycled can be
expensive, time consuming and require energy.
● The purity of metals obtained by recycling may not be as high as that
obtained by extraction from metal ores.

● Uses of metals 
Uses of some metals, related to their properties, are shown in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2 Uses of some metals

Metal Use Properties

Manufacture of aircraft Strength and low density
Aluminium
Food containers Resistance to corrosion
Car bodies High malleability, high tensile strength
Mild steel
Machinery
Cutlery Tough, does not corrode
Stainless steel
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Chemical plants
Electrical wiring High electrical conductivity
Copper
Cooking utensils Appearance, high thermal conductivity, high melting point
Galvanising Protects iron from rusting
Zinc
Making brass Brass is more ductile and stronger than copper

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions

1 The results of some experiments carried out by adding a metal to aqueous

solutions containing ions of another metal are shown in the table below,
where ✓ is displacement reaction occurs and ✗ is no reaction occurs.
A(NO3)2(aq) B(NO3)2(aq) C(NO3)2(aq) D(NO3)2(aq)
Metal A(s) ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓
Metal B(s) ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓
Metal C(s) ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓
Metal D(s) ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

a Put the four metals in order of reactivity, starting with the most
reactive first. [1 mark]
b Write a chemical equation for the reaction occurring when
metal B is added to A(NO3)2(aq). [1 mark]
c Write an ionic equation for the reaction occurring when
metal C is added to D(NO3)2(aq). [1 mark]
d If metals A and B are both placed in an aqueous solution of an
electrolyte, which metal would be the negative electrode?
Explain your answer. [1 mark]
e Write an equation for the reaction occurring when metal B is
added to the oxide of metal D and the mixture is heated. [1 mark]
[Total: 5 marks]
2 You are provided with a mixture of powdered copper and powdered zinc.
Describe how you would obtain a sample of pure copper from the mixture.
You should give all observations for any reactions that you describe.
Note: neither metal dissolves in water. [Total: 4 marks]
3 Impure nickel can be refined using a method similar to the
method used to refine copper. Draw a diagram of the apparatus
that you would use for the refining of nickel. You should fully
label all the chemical substances in the diagram. [Total: 4 marks]
4 Copper(II) oxide → add dilute nitric acid → blue solution B
→ crystallisation → blue crystals B → heat crystals strongly
→ black solid C + brown gas D + colourless gas E
a Name B, C, D and E. [4 marks]
b Write equations for the reactions that occur when
i copper(II) oxide is added to dilute nitric acid
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ii blue crystals B are heated strongly. [4 marks]

c When copper(II) oxide is reacted with dilute nitric acid, blue
solution B is produced. Give the names of two other substances
that could be used instead of copper(II) oxide to produce blue
solution B when reacted with dilute nitric acid. [2 marks]
[Total: 10 marks]

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 11 Air and water

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the need for nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium in fertilisers
● describe the chemical tests for water using cobalt(II)
● describe the displacement of ammonia from ammonium
chloride and copper(II) sulfate
salts (see Chapter 8)
● describe in outline the treatment of the drinking water
supply in terms of filtration and chlorination ● describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from
● name some uses of water in industry and in the home liquid air by fractional distillation
● state the composition of clean dry air as being ● describe the catalytic removal of oxides of nitrogen from
approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the car exhaust gases
remainder being a mixture of noble gases and carbon ● describe and explain galvanising and sacrificial protection
dioxide in terms of the reactivity series (see Chapter 10) as a
● name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon method of rust prevention
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead ● describe and explain the essential conditions for the
compounds and to state the sources of these pollutants Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia including
● state the adverse effects of these common pollutants and the sources of hydrogen (from hydrocarbons or steam)
discuss why these pollutants are of global concern and nitrogen (from air) (see also Chapter 7 on rates and
● state the conditions required for the rusting of iron equilibrium and Chapter 14 on cracking).
● describe and explain coating methods of rust prevention

● Key terms 
Filtration A treatment for drinking water that involves passing impure water through screens to
filter out floating debris
Chlorination A treatment for drinking water in which small amounts of chlorine are added to
kill bacteria
Fractional distillation A method for separating the components of air
Catalytic converters Present in car exhausts in some countries to remove pollutant gases and convert them
into non-pollutant gases
Rust Iron forms rust when it is exposed to oxygen and water. Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide
Fertilisers Substances added to the soil to supply nutrients that are essential for the growth
of plants

● Water 
Examiner’s tip
Test for water These substances are not
Tests for the presence of water can be carried out using anhydrous cobalt used as a test for pure
chloride or anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. The colour changes are shown in water. The colour changes
Table 11.1. shown occur if water
or anything containing
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Table 11.1 water (including all

aqueous solutions) is used.
Original colour Final colour
Purity of water can be
Anhydrous cobalt chloride Blue Pink determined by measuring
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate White Blue the boiling point, which
is 100 °C at 1 atmosphere
pressure.
Cobalt chloride paper is commonly used instead of the anhydrous solid.

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 Air

Treatment of drinking water

Impure water is made fit for drinking by the following methods:
● Filtration: This involves passing impure water through screens to filter out
floating debris.
● Chlorination: Small amounts of chlorine gas are added to kill bacteria.

Common error
● Students often state that chlorine is added to purify water. Water containing
small amounts of added chlorine should not be described as pure.

Uses of water
Water is used in industry
● as a solvent
● as a coolant
● for cleaning
● as a chemical reactant (e.g. in the hydration of ethene; see Chapter 15).
Water is used in the home
● in cooking
● in cleaning
● for drinking.

● Air 
Air is a mixture, and in common with all mixtures its composition can vary,
particularly in industrial and rural areas.
The approximate composition of clean dry air is
● 78% nitrogen
Examiner’s tip
● 21% oxygen
Hydrogen is commonly
● 0.03% carbon dioxide and incorrectly regarded
● 1% argon. by students as a
constituent of air.
Very small amounts of other noble gases are also present.

Fractional distillation of liquid air

In order to separate the components of air,
● it is cooled to remove carbon dioxide and water vapour as solids
● it is compressed and expanded continually to liquefy it at −200 °C
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● the liquid air is then separated by fractional distillation into liquid

oxygen, liquid nitrogen as well as liquid Group 0 elements.

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 11 AIR AND WATER

Air pollution
Common gaseous pollutants, their sources and related pollution problems are
shown in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2

Pollutant Source Pollution problems

Carbon monoxide, CO Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels Toxic
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 Combustion of fossil fuels containing Irritation of the respiratory system
small amounts of sulfur
Dissolves in rain water forming acid rain which causes
damage to buildings made of, e.g. limestone and marble
Oxides of nitrogen (often Nitrogen and oxygen (both from the air) Production of low-level ozone (respiratory system irritant)
represented as NOx to signify react together at very high temperatures
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, dissolves in rain water forming
more than one oxide of nitrogen) in car engines
acid rain which causes damage to buildings made of, for
including nitrogen dioxide, NO2
example, limestone and marble
Photochemical smog
Lead compounds Lead compounds in petrol (only in Toxic
countries where leaded petrol is still used)

Catalytic converters
Catalytic converters are present in car exhausts in some countries. Their
purpose is to remove pollutant gases and convert them into non-pollutant gases.
The catalysts present in catalytic converters include alloys containing
transition elements, such as platinum, rhodium and palladium. There are several
reactions occurring inside catalytic converters including
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
and
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
Thus pollutant gases are converted into non-pollutant gases.

Common errors
There are probably more misunderstandings concerning atmospheric
pollution than any other Chapter.
Many students think that all atmospheric pollutants are responsible for all
environmental problems, particularly global warming. It is very important
that students study Table 11.2 carefully and learn about the sources and
pollution problems caused by each individual pollutant.
The following points need to in be noted:
● Oxides of nitrogen are produced by reaction between nitrogen and oxygen,
both of which come from the air. The nitrogen is not present in the fuel.
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● Oxides of nitrogen are often mistakenly thought to be produced in car

exhausts as opposed to in car engines.
● Pollutants are removed by catalytic converters in car exhausts.
● If cars do not have efficient catalytic converters, the gaseous pollutants
enter the atmosphere through the car exhaust.
● Sulfur dioxide is often regarded as being produced by the deliberate burning
of sulfur, as opposed to the small amounts of sulfur impurities in fossil fuels.

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 Rusting of iron

● Rusting of iron 
Rust can be described as hydrated iron(III) oxide with a formula that can
be represented as Fe2O3.xH2O (x is used because the amount of water of
crystallisation varies from one sample of rust to another).
Iron only forms rust when it is exposed to oxygen (e.g. from the air) and water.
Prevention of rusting
Rusting can be prevented by coating the iron with
● paint H2O + O2 H2O + O2
● oil or grease
● plastic
● other metals, such as zinc (which is known as
galvanising). zinc tin
iron iron
These methods all work by preventing oxygen and
no rusting occurs no rusting occurs
water coming into contact with the iron and thus
preventing a reaction taking place.
H2O + O2 H2O + O2

Sacrificial protection
Some metals will continue to prevent iron from
rusting even if the surface is scratched. Such metals zinc zinc tin tin
must be above iron in the reactivity series, but must iron iron
not be so reactive that they will react rapidly with no rusting occurs rusting occurs
water themselves. Zinc and magnesium are both Figure 11.1 Sacrificial protection
used in this way. Tin, which is below iron in the
reactivity series, will only protect iron if it is not H2O1O2 H2O 1 O2
scratched (Figure 11.1).
In addition, bars of zinc may be attached to zinc zinc zinc
the hulls of ships without attempting to cover the
ship’s hull made of iron
surface of the iron. Rusting will not occur in these
Figure 11.2
circumstances (Figure 11.2).

The first stage of rusting is the oxidation of iron to iron(II) ions by oxygen in
the presence of water:
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–
If zinc is present, even if the zinc is scratched, the zinc will be oxidised in
preference to the iron.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
This occurs because zinc is a more reactive metal than iron and therefore
zinc forms positive ions more readily than iron does.
The electrons travel from the zinc to the iron. The iron does not lose
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electrons, which means that oxidation of iron (which is the first stage of
rusting) does not occur.
If tin is used instead of zinc, when the tin is scratched the iron will be
oxidised in preference to the tin because iron is a more reactive metal than
tin. Thus tin only prevents rusting when it is not scratched.

Common error
● It is a common error for students to state that if galvanised iron or steel is
scratched and exposed to air and water, the zinc forms rust instead of iron.
Iron is the only metal that can form rust.

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 11 AIR AND WATER

● Nitrogen and fertilisers 

Fertilisers are substances that are added to the soil to supply nutrients that
are essential for the growth of plants.
Fertilisers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK).
Very few plants can utilise nitrogen from the air. The nitrogen must be
supplied to the plants in the form of fertilisers containing ammonium
salts or nitrates.

The Haber process

Nitrogen obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air (see earlier in
this Chapter) and hydrogen from hydrocarbons by cracking (see Chapter 14)
or from steam, are first converted into ammonia in the Haber process.
Nitrogen and hydrogen react together in a reversible reaction to produce
ammonia.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) L 2NH3(g)
The gases are
● passed over a catalyst of iron
● at a temperature of 450 °C
● at a pressure of 200 atmospheres.
The mixture emerging from the catalyst chamber contains about 15%
ammonia. The ammonia is separated from the unreacted nitrogen and
hydrogen by liquefying it, and the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are
passed over the catalyst again. Eventually all the nitrogen and hydrogen are
converted into ammonia.

The ammonia is used for

● the manufacture of fertilisers, such as ammonium sulfate and ammonium
phosphate
● the manufacture of nitric acid which is converted into fertilisers, such as
ammonium nitrate.

Exam-style questions

1 The percentage of oxygen in the air can be determined by passing air

backwards and forwards over heated copper, using the apparatus shown
in Figure 11.3. The copper was in excess.
The volume of air at the start was 100 cm3. As the air was passed
backwards and forwards, the volume of air decreased. The final volume,
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measured at room temperature and pressure, was 79 cm3.

a What colour change involving the copper would you expect
to see? [2 marks]
b Write a chemical equation for the reaction in the heated tube. [2 marks]
c Why does the volume of air decrease? [1 mark]

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 Exam-style questions

d What is meant by the phrase ‘the copper was in excess’? [1 mark]

e Identify the main gas present in the 79 cm3 remaining
at the end. [1 mark]
[Total: 7 marks]

100 cm3 of air is pushed across hot into this

out of this syringe copper syringe

heat
Figure 11.3

2 The equation for the equilibrium occurring in the Haber process is

N2(g) + 3H2(g) L 2NH3(g)
The forward reaction is exothermic.
The reaction is carried out by passing nitrogen and hydrogen over a catalyst
of iron at a temperature of 450 °C and a pressure of 200 atmospheres.
a What is meant by the term catalyst? [2 marks]
b Copy and complete the table.
Yield of ammonia Rate of production of ammonia
Higher temperature than 450 °C [1 mark] [1 mark]
Higher pressure than 200 [1 mark] [1 mark]
atmospheres
Not using a catalyst [1 mark] [1 mark]

c Ammonia is converted into fertilisers such as ammonium sulfate.

i Which substance would be added to ammonia to produce
ammonium sulfate? [1 mark]
ii Write a chemical equation for the reaction occurring in
question (c)(i) above. [2 marks]
d Ammonia is also converted into the fertiliser ammonium phosphate.
Complete the equation for the formation of ammonium phosphate
from ammonia. (You may leave out the state symbols). [2 marks]
[Total: 13 marks]
NH3 + H3PO4 →
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 12 Sulfur

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact
process, including essential conditions and reactions
● name some sources of sulfur ● describe the properties and uses of dilute and
● know that sulfur is used in the manufacture of concentrated sulfuric acid.
sulfuric acid
● know that sulfur dioxide is used to bleach wood pulp in
the manufacture of paper, and as a food preservative (by
killing bacteria)

● Key terms 
Sulfuric acid Used for making detergents and fertilisers, used as the acid in car batteries and used for
making paints, dyes and synthetic fibres
Dilute sulfuric acid A typical strong acid
Sulfur dioxide Used for bleaching of wood pulp in the manufacture of paper and in the preservation of
food by killing bacteria

Sulfur is found as the impure element in sulfur beds below the ground. It is also
found as metallic ores, mainly sulfides, such as zinc blende (see Chapter 10).

● Manufacture of sulfuric acid 

Sulfur is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid in the Contact process.
The sulfur is first converted into sulfur dioxide, SO2(g), by heating it
strongly in air.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
The sulfur dioxide is then mixed with oxygen and the two gases are Examiner’s tip
● passed over a catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5(s) If sulfur trioxide is added to
water, a reaction occurs and
● at a temperature of 450 °C sulfuric acid is the product.
● at a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)

producing an equilibrium mixture containing the two reactant However, this reaction is
gases and sulfur trioxide, SO3(g). very exothermic and the
heat given off is sufficient to
2SO2(g) + O2(g) L 2SO3(g) vaporise the sulfuric acid and
a thick mist is produced that
Sulfur trioxide is then dissolved in 98% concentrated sulfuric acid to is very difficult to collect. Thus
produce oleum, H2S2O7(l). the process is not carried out
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in this way.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) → H2S2O7(l)
The oleum is then added to the correct amount of water to produce
sulfuric acid of the required concentration.
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(l)

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 Exam-style questions

● Uses of sulfuric acid 

Sulfuric acid is used
● for making detergents
● for making fertilisers (see Chapter 11)
● as the acid in car batteries
● for making paints, dyes and synthetic fibres.

● Properties of dilute sulfuric acid 

Dilute sulfuric acid is a typical strong acid.
It is a diprotic acid, which means that one molecule of sulfuric acid
releases two protons when it forms ions in aqueous solution.
2 −
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO4(aq)
It can also release one proton.
H2SO4(aq) → H+(aq) + HSO4−(aq)
−
Therefore, sulfuric acid can form salts called sulfates containing SO42
and acid salts called hydrogen sulfates, containing HSO4− (see Chapter 8).
It reacts
● with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to produce a salt and
hydrogen (see Chapters 8 and 10)
● with bases (including alkalis) to form salts (sulfates) and acid salts
(hydrogen sulfates), and water (see Chapter 8)
● with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide (see Chapter 8).

● Uses of sulfur dioxide 

Sulfur dioxide is used
● for the bleaching of wood pulp in the manufacture of paper
● in the preservation of food by killing bacteria.

Exam-style questions

1 Sulfuric acid is made in the Contact process. The catalysed reaction

2SO2(g) + O2(g) L 2SO3(g)
takes place at a temperature of 450 °C and a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres.
The forward reaction is exothermic.
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a Name the catalyst in the above reaction. [1 mark]

b Suggest why a temperature below 450 °C is not used. [1 mark]
c What would happen to the rate at which equilibrium would be
reached if a higher pressure was used? Explain your answer. [2 marks]

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 12 SULFUR

d Suggest two reasons why a pressure above 1–2 atmospheres

is not used. [2 marks]
e How is the sulfur trioxide produced in the above reaction
converted into sulfuric acid? Give equations for any reactions
that you refer to. [2 marks]
[Total: 8 marks]
2 Write chemical equations for the reactions between dilute
sulfuric acid and
a copper(II) carbonate [2 marks]
b aqueous sodium hydroxide in which sodium sulfate
is produced [2 marks]
c aqueous potassium hydroxide in which potassium hydrogen
sulfate is produced [1 mark]
d zinc. [1 mark]
[Total: 6 marks]
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 13 Inorganic carbon chemistry

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide)
from calcium carbonate (limestone) in terms of thermal
● state that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse
decomposition
gases and explain how they may contribute to climate
● name some uses of quicklime and slaked lime
change
● name the uses of calcium carbonate
● state the formation of carbon dioxide in a variety of
reactions ● describe the carbon cycle in outline to include the
● state the sources of methane, including decomposition of processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis.
vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals

● Key terms 
Greenhouse gases Gases which absorb infrared radiation produced by the solar warming of the Earth’s surface
Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases preventing heat energy from escaping from the Earth

● Carbon dioxide and methane 

Carbon dioxide and methane are both greenhouse gases. This means that
their bonds absorb infrared radiation produced by the solar warming of the
Earth’s surface. This prevents heat energy from escaping from the Earth. This
effect, known as the greenhouse effect, is thought to lead to global warming.
Carbon dioxide is formed in laboratory reactions and in industrial and
environmental processes
● by complete combustion of carbon-containing substances such as fossil fuels
(see Chapter 14)
● as a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate (see Chapter 8)
● from the thermal decomposition of carbonates (see Chapter 10)
● by respiration in which glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in
living things.
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by reaction with water in
the leaves of green plants containing chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight.
The reaction is known as photosynthesis. The products are glucose and
oxygen.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) Examiner’s tip
Methane is formed by The equations for
respiration and
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● decomposition of vegetation photosynthesis are the

● Waste gases from digestion in animals. reverse of one another.

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 13 INORGANIC CARBON CHEMISTRY

The carbon cycle shows how the percentage of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere remains approximately constant at 0.03% due to the various
processes by which it is released into and absorbed from the atmosphere.

carbon dioxide
in the air SUN

respiration photosynthesis

animals take in oxygen,

eat plants and breathe
out CO2

plants give out oxygen

burned as fuels
producing CO2
death and decay decay

carbon compounds
in oil, gas, coal
and carbonates

Figure 13.1 The carbon cycle

● Carbonates 
Quicklime (calcium oxide) is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of
calcium carbonate (limestone). This is a reversible reaction.
CaCO3(s) L CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The process is carried out in a lime kiln. A draft of air carries out the carbon
dioxide and causes the equilibrium to shift to the right (see Chapter 7).
Eventually all the calcium carbonate is converted into calcium oxide.
Calcium oxide reacts with water to produce calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)

Uses of quick lime and slaked lime

Both quicklime, CaO, and slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, can be used to
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● neutralise acidic soil (see Chapter 8)

● neutralise acidic industrial waste products, e.g. flue gas desulfurisation, in
which sulfur dioxide gas in factory emissions is neutralised by quicklime or
slaked lime.

Uses of limestone
Limestone, CaCO3, is used in the
● manufacture of iron (see Chapter 10)
● manufacture of cement.

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions

1 State why it is necessary to neutralise soil acidity and give the

chemical name of a compound which can be added to soil in
order to neutralise it. [Total: 2 marks]
2 a Carbon dioxide can be produced by the
i complete combustion of octane
ii thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate
iii reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide
iv reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Write a chemical equation for each of these reactions.
You may omit state symbols. [Total: 7 marks]

b Carbon dioxide can be removed from the Earth’s atmosphere

by photosynthesis.
i Name the other reactant in photosynthesis. [1 mark]
ii Name the two products of photosynthesis. [2 marks]
iii State two conditions that are required for
photosynthesis. [2 marks]
[Total: 12 marks]

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 14 Organic chemistry 1

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its
separation by fractional distillation (see Chapter 2)
● name and draw the structures of methane, ethane,
● name the uses of the fractions
ethene, ethanol, ethanoic acid and the products of the
● describe the properties of molecules within a fraction
reactions stated in this Chapter
● describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by
● describe the concept of a homologous series as a ‘family’
cracking
of similar compounds with similar chemical properties due
to the presence of the same functional group ● name and draw the structures of unbranched alkanes and
● describe the properties of alkanes as being generally alkenes containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule
unreactive except in terms of burning ● describe the general characteristics of homologous series
● describe the bonding in alkanes ● recall that compounds in a homologous series have the
● distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons same general formula
● from molecular structures ● describe and identify structural isomerism
● by reaction with aqueous bromine ● describe substitution reactions of alkanes with chlorine
● name the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum ● describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition
● name methane as the main constituent of natural gas reactions with bromine, hydrogen and steam.

● Key terms 
Empirical formula The smallest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element in a compound
Molecular formula This is the number of atoms of each element in one molecule of a substance
Displayed formula All the atoms and all the bonds in one molecule of the compound
Structural formula This shows how atoms are arranged in groups of atoms
Structural isomerism The existence of compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae

Organic compounds are covalent compounds containing carbon atoms bonded

to hydrogen (always), as well as oxygen, the halogens and nitrogen atoms.

● Homologous series 
Organic compounds belong to ‘families’ of similar compounds known
as homologous series, examples of which are alkanes, alkenes, alcohols,
carboxylic acids and esters.
Homologous series are compounds which have
● the same general formula: this is because each member differs from the
previous member by a −CH2– group of atoms
● the same chemical properties: this is because each member has the same
functional group
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● physical properties that show a constant gradation, e.g. melting points and
boiling points that show almost constant increases.
A functional group is a group of atoms that all members of a homologous
series have in common and which is responsible for all members of a
homologous series having the same chemical properties.

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 Structural isomerism

● Formulae of organic compounds 

Organic compounds have several different types of formulae (Table 14.1).
These are Examiner’s tip
● Empirical formula. This is the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms of The term ‘displayed
each element in a compound (see Chapter 4). formula’ is not always
● Molecular formula. This is the number of atoms of each element in one used in examination
questions. Instead
molecule of a substance (see Chapter 4). This gives no information about students are more likely
how the atoms are joined together. to be asked to draw the
● Displayed formula. This shows all the atoms and all the bonds in one structure of a molecule
molecule of the compound. showing all atoms and
● Structural formula. This shows how atoms are arranged in groups of atoms. all bonds.

Table 14.1 Formulae of organic compounds using butane as an example

Compound Empirical Molecular Displayed formula Structural formula

formula formula
Butane C2H5 C4H10 H H H H CH3CH2CH2CH3

H C C C C H

H H H H

● Structural isomerism 
Structural isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formulae (and therefore different
displayed formulae).

Example Table 14.2 Structural isomerism

Molecular formula C4H10 C4H10
There are two structural isomers
Displayed formula H H H H H H H
with the molecular formula C4H10.
These have different structural and H C C C C H H C C C H
displayed formulae as shown in H H H H
H H
Table 14.2. Because they are two
different compounds they have H C H

two different names. H

Butane is often referred to as a
Structural formula CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH3
straight chain or an unbranched
molecule, because the carbon atoms are CH3
arranged one after another. or
CH3CH(CH3)CH3
2-methylpropane is often referred to
Name Butane 2-methylpropane
as a branched chain molecule.
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Common errors
Students often confuse the two words isotopes and isomers:
● Isotopes (see Chapter 3) are atoms of the same element with the same
proton number but different nucleon number.
● Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae.

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 14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1

Allotrope is another similar word which you may have come across. This refers
to different crystalline forms of the same element, e.g. diamond and graphite.
● When drawing displayed formulae, all carbon atoms must have four bonds
(sticks) and all hydrogen atoms must have one bond. Oxygen atoms must
have two bonds, halogen atoms one bond and nitrogen atoms three bonds.

● Hydrocarbons  Examiner’s tip

When asked ‘What
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only. is meant by the term
Alkanes and alkenes are important examples of hydrocarbons. hydrocarbon?’ it is
important to use the
word ‘only’, as well as
● Alkanes  referring to compounds
containing carbon and
● Alkanes are members of a homologous series with the general formula hydrogen. Compounds
CnH2n+2. such as ethanol, C2H5OH,
contain carbon and
● The names of alkanes all end in -ane. hydrogen, but because
● Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons; this means that all their bonds are they also contain
single bonds (either C–C or C–H). oxygen, they are not
● Alkanes do not contain a functional group, because they contain only C–C hydrocarbons.
and C–H bonds which can be said of all other homologous series of organic
compounds.
Table 14.3 First four unbranched members of the homologous series of alkanes

No. Name Molecular formula Structural formula

1 Methane CH4 CH4
2 Ethane C2H6 CH3CH3
3 Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3
4 Butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3

Examiner’s tip
The names of alkanes are important because unbranched members of all other
homologous series are named after the alkane with the same number of carbon
atoms. Therefore all organic molecules with
● 1 carbon atom begin with meth-
● 2 carbon atoms begin with eth-
● 3 carbon atoms begin with prop-
● 4 carbon atoms begin with but-.
Some examples of organic compounds with two carbon atoms are
Alkane Alkene Alcohol Carboxylic acid Chloroalkane
Ethane Ethene Ethanol Ethanoic acid Chloroethane
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Properties of alkanes
Alkanes are unreactive compared to alkenes. This is because the single bonds
in alkanes need a lot of energy to break, but the double bonds in alkenes
need less energy to be converted into single bonds (which is what happens to
alkenes in addition reactions).

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 Alkenes

Combustion
Alkanes undergo combustion in air or oxygen producing energy, which is
why alkanes are used as fuels.
Complete combustion occurs in excess oxygen. The products are carbon
dioxide and water, for example
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Incomplete combustion of alkanes in a limited supply of air or oxygen
leads to the production of (toxic) carbon monoxide as well as water (see
Chapter 11).
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l)

Reaction with chlorine

It is not possible to add atoms to alkane molecules without first removing
atoms. Therefore alkanes undergo substitution reactions as opposed to
addition reactions.
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one atom or group of
atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
When methane is reacted with chlorine in the presence of ultraviolet
light, a substitution reaction occurs in which one chlorine atom replaces one
hydrogen atom in methane. The organic product is chloromethane.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(l) + HCl(g)
Unless the chlorine supply is limited, the reaction should not be used as a
method of preparation of chloromethane because the chloromethane reacts
with more chlorine. All the hydrogen atoms are substituted by chlorine
atoms, one at a time, until all the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
chlorine atoms. Hydrogen chloride gas is produced at each stage.
CH3Cl(l) + Cl2(g) → CH2Cl2(l) + HCl(g)
dichloromethane
CH2Cl2(l) + Cl2(g) → CHCl3(l) + HCl(g)
trichloromethane
CHCl3(l) + Cl2(g) → CCl4(l) + HCl(g)
tetrachloromethane
Similar reactions occur with other alkanes and chlorine.

● Alkenes 
● Alkenes are members of a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n.
Alkenes contain a functional group which is a C R C.
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●
● Because a C R C must be present in all alkenes, there is no alkene with one
carbon atom.
● The names of alkenes all end in –ene.
● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
● Not all the bonds are single bonds in unsaturated hydrocarbons. Unsaturated
molecules contain at least one carbon–carbon double bond or carbon–carbon
triple bond.

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 14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1

Testing for unsaturation

Aqueous bromine (bromine water) can be used to distinguish between
saturated and unsaturated substances (Table 14.4).
Table 14.4 Using bromine water to test for saturated and unsaturated substances

Type of molecule Saturated Unsaturated

Effect of adding No change (aqueous bromine Aqueous bromine changes from pale
aqueous bromine remains pale brown) brown to colourless

Structural isomerism in alkenes

There is only one structure for the alkenes containing two and three carbon
atoms: ethene and propene.

With four carbon atoms (C4H8) there are two unbranched alkenes,
because the double bond can be in two different positions in the carbon
chain (Table 14.5).
Table 14.5

Molecular formula C4H8 C4H8

Displayed formula H H H H H H H H

H C C C C H C C C C H

H H H H H

Structural formula CH3CH2CH R CH2 CH3CH R CHCH3

Name But-1-ene But-2-ene

The number 1 in but-1-ene means that the double bond is between carbon
atoms 1 and 2.
The number 2 in but-2-ene means that the double bond is between
carbon atoms 2 and 3.
Structures of unbranched alkenes containing up to four carbon atoms are
shown in Table 14.6.

Table 14.6

No. Molecular formula Name Structural formula

2 C2H4 Ethene CH2 R CH2
3 C3H6 Propene CH3CH R CH2
4 C4H8 But-1-ene CH3CH2CH R CH2
4 C4H8 But-2-ene CH3CH R CHCH3

Examiner’s tip
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When students are asked to give the structures of two alkenes with molecular
formula C4H8, they often draw

H H H H H H H H

H C C C C and C C C C H

H H H H H H
Figure 14.1

These are both but-1-ene drawn differently. One is the same as the other, only it is
drawn back to front. The double bond is between carbon atoms 1 and 2 in both cases.
Isomers must be different molecules, not the same molecule drawn differently.

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 Alkenes

Reactions of alkenes
It is possible to add atoms to alkene molecules without first removing atoms.
Therefore alkanes undergo addition reactions as opposed to substitution reactions.

Addition means two molecules join together to make one molecule.

In the addition reactions of alkenes, the double bond becomes a single
bond and an atom or a group of atoms joins on to both carbon atoms that
formed the double bond.

C C X Y X C C Y

Figure 14.2 An addition reaction

With bromine
If bromine the element (Br2(l)) or aqueous bromine (Br2(aq)) is added to any
alkene, an addition reaction occurs. If the alkene is ethene, the product is
1, 2-dibromoethane.
CH2 R CH2 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br

With hydrogen (industrial)

If ethene and hydrogen are passed over a nickel catalyst at 200 °C, the
product is ethane. This addition reaction is called hydrogenation.
CH2 R CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3
Hydrogenation is used in industry to convert (unsaturated) vegetable oils
to (saturated) margarine by reaction with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel
catalyst.

With steam (industrial)

Ethene reacts with steam using a catalyst of phosphoric acid (H3PO4), at
300 °C and 60 atmospheres pressure. The product is ethanol.
CH2 R CH2 + H2O L CH3CH2OH
This reaction, known as hydration of ethene, is used to manufacture
ethanol (see Chapter 15).
The reactions of ethene are summarised in Figure 14.3.
H H
C C H OH
Br Br
H H H2O/H3PO4 catalyst
Br2 60 3
laboratory ethene at 00 ° industrial
m C
os
ph
H H er
es
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H H H2/Ni catalyst H H
200 °C
Br C C Br H C C OH
industrial
H H H H
1,2-dibromoethane H H ethanol
H C C H
H H
ethane
Figure 14.3 The reactions of ethene

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 14 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1

● Fuels and the petroleum industry 

Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes over millions of years as a
result of the decay of buried dead organisms. Examples are coal, natural gas and
petroleum (crude oil). Fossil fuels are known as non-renewable fuels because once
they run out they cannot be replaced. They are also known as a finite resource.
Methane, CH4, is the main constituent of natural gas.
Petroleum (crude oil) is a mixture of hydrocarbons which is separated by
fractional distillation. The process does not produce individual hydrocarbons,
but instead produces mixtures of hydrocarbons known as fractions.
These fractions (Figure 14.4) are mixtures of hydrocarbons which have a
narrow range of boiling points. As the boiling point ranges increase, the
hydrocarbons contain an increasing number of carbon atoms.
Manufacture of alkenes by cracking
Fractional distillation of petroleum produces refinery gas for bottled gas
for heating and
● higher boiling point fractions that are in excess cooking
of requirement
30 °C
● insufficient amounts of the lower boiling point
fractions, which are particularly in demand as gasoline
used as fuel in cars (petrol)
● fuels for petrol engines (alkanes between
C5 and C10) 110 °C
● monomers (short-chain alkenes) for the naphtha
production of polymers used to make chemicals
● sources of organic chemicals. fractionating
tower 180 °C
Alkenes are manufactured by cracking long-chain
alkanes obtained from petroleum. Cracking refers kerosene/paraffin
used as a fuel in jet engines
to decomposition of alkanes which specifically and oil stoves
involves breaking carbon–carbon bonds to 260 °C
form smaller molecules. There are two types of
diesel oil or gas oil
cracking: catalytic and thermal. crude
used as a fuel in diesel
oil
engines
Catalytic cracking
fuel oil
The alkane molecules are passed over catalysts
used as a fuel for ships and
known as zeolites at temperatures of 500 °C.
for home heating systems

Thermal cracking lubricating oil

heater lubricants,
This uses a higher temperature (800 °C) than waxes and
polishes
catalytic cracking. 340 °C
Cracking produces residue
● short-chain alkenes for production of polymers used to make bitumen for
and organic chemicals surfacing roads
● alkanes containing between 5 and 10 carbon
Figure 14.4 Uses of the different fractions obtained from crude oil
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atoms as fuels for petrol engines

● hydrogen which is used to manufacture ammonia.

If a long-chain alkane is cracked, different molecules of the alkane may break

in different places to give a variety of products which can also be separated by
fractional distillation. Examiner’s tip
For example, C14H30 molecules could crack into octane and propene Students will not be
asked to predict what
C14H30 → C8H18 + 2C3H6
the definite products
or ethene, propene and hydrogen. of cracking are without
being provided with
C14H30 → C2H4 + 4C3H6 + H2 further information.

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 Exam-style questions

● Sample exam-style question 

Write an equation for the cracking of hexane into an alkane and an alkene,
both having the same number of carbon atoms.

Answer
Both
C6H14 → C3H8 + C3H6
and
C6H14 → C2H6 + 2C2H4
are acceptable answers, because both produce an alkane and an alkene with the
same number of carbon atoms. Neither answer is more correct than the other.
If the question had specified a 1:1 mole ratio of the products, only
C6H14 → C3H8 + C3H6 would be correct.

Exam-style questions

1 Draw the structures, showing all the atoms and all the bonds,
of two different unbranched alkenes with the molecular formula
C5H10. You are not expected to name the alkenes. [2 marks]
2 Ethane reacts with chlorine in a substitution reaction.
a Under what condition does the reaction take place? [1 mark]
b Name the organic product formed when ethane and chlorine
react in a 1:1 mole ratio. [1 mark]
c If an excess of chlorine is used, give the molecular formula
of one other organic product that could form. [1 mark]
[Total: 3 marks]
3 Propene reacts with
i aqueous bromine ii hydrogen iii steam.
a What name is given to the type of reaction that occurs in
all three cases? [1 mark]
b State the observation you would expect to see in reaction (i)
if excess propene is used. [2 marks]
c Write down the molecular formulae of the products that
form in reactions (i), (ii) and (iii). [3 marks]
d What is the name of the catalyst used in (ii)? [1 mark]
[Total: 7 marks]
4 Alkanes are converted into alkenes by cracking.
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a What is the molecular formula of the alkane that contains

nine carbon atoms? [1 mark]
b Draw the structure and give the name of an alkene with
four carbon atoms. [2 marks]
c Write an equation for the cracking of octane, C8H18, into
i an alkane and an alkene formed in the mole ratio 1:2
ii hydrogen and two other products. [2 marks]
[Total: 5 marks]

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 15 Organic chemistry 2

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the formation of polyethene as an example of
addition polymerisation
● describe the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation and
● name some uses of plastics and of man-made fibres such
by the catalytic addition of steam to ethene
as nylon and Terylene
● outline the advantages and disadvantages of these two ● describe the pollution problems caused by non-
methods of manufacturing ethanol biodegradable plastics
● describe the properties of ethanol in terms of burning ● deduce the structure of the addition polymer from a given
● name the uses of ethanol as a solvent and as a fuel alkene and vice versa
● name and draw the structures of unbranched alcohols and ● describe the formation of nylon (a polyamide) and
carboxylic acids containing up to four carbon atoms per Terylene (a polyester) by condensation polymerisation
molecule
● name proteins and carbohydrates as constituents of food
● name and draw the structures of the esters which can
be made from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, ● describe the structure of proteins as possessing the same
each containing up to four carbon atoms amide linkages as nylon, but with different units
● describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids
● describe the properties of aqueous ethanoic acid ● describe complex carbohydrates in terms of a large
number of sugar units joined together by condensation
● describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation
polymerisation
of ethanol with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
● describe hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (e.g. starch)
● describe ethanoic acid as a typical weak acid
by acids or enzymes to give simple sugars
● describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol
● describe in outline the usefulness of chromatography in
in the presence of a catalyst to give an ester
separating and identifying the products of hydrolysis of
● define polymers as large molecules built up from small carbohydrates and of proteins.
molecules called monomers
● explain the differences between addition and condensation
polymerisation and understand that different polymers
have different units and/or different linkages

● Key terms 
Ethanol An alcohol used as a fuel (e.g. in spirit camping stoves and in petrol)
Polymers Large molecules made up by the reactions of small molecules called monomers
Polymerisation The formation of polymers from monomers

● Alcohols 
Manufacture of ethanol
Ethanol is manufactured on a large scale by fermentation of carbohydrates
and hydration of ethene.
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Fermentation of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, such as sugar, are broken down by enzymes in yeast to
produce glucose, C6H12O6. The enzymes in yeast also catalyse the breakdown
of glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. The reaction occurs at a
temperature of 37 °C and is carried out under anaerobic conditions (in the
absence of oxygen).
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
When the concentration of ethanol reaches 14%, it kills the yeast. The yeast
cells are removed by filtration and the ethanol is purified by fractional distillation.

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 Alcohols

Hydration of ethene
Ethene is produced from petroleum by fractional distillation followed by
cracking of long-chain alkanes.
Ethene reacts with steam using a catalyst of phosphoric acid, H3PO4, at
300 °C and 60 atmospheres pressure.
CH2(g)RCH2 + H2O(g) L C2H5OH(g)

The advantages and disadvantages of the two processes are shown

in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and hydration in the manufacture of ethanol

Fermentation Hydration
Uses carbohydrates from plants which are There is only one product in the reaction
a renewable resource which means there is no waste
Advantages
Requires a temperature of 37 °C which A continuous flow process is used which
means energy costs are low is efficient
A batch process is used which is Uses ethene from petroleum which is a
inefficient non-renewable resource
Disadvantages
Land which could be used to grow plants Requires a temperature of 300 °C which
for food is used for ethanol production means energy costs are high

Properties of ethanol
Ethanol is used as a fuel in spirit camping stoves and it is also added to petrol
and used in ethanol fuel cells.
It undergoes complete combustion to produce carbon dioxide and water.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Ethanol is also used on a large scale as a solvent.

Conversion of alcohols to carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids are formed in the laboratory by oxidation of alcohols using
aqueous potassium manganate(VII) which acts as an oxidising agent when
acidified with sulfuric acid.
Ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid by this method.
A simplified version of the equation, which represents oxygen from the
oxidising agent as [O], is
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O

Formulae and names of alcohols

Alcohols are members of a homologous series with the general formula
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●
CnH2n+1OH.
● The names of alcohols all end in -ol.
● Alcohols contain the functional group which is the −O–H group.
● Alcohols with more than two carbon atoms have unbranched structural
isomers in which the O–H group can be in different positions on the
carbon chain. A number is used to indicate the position of the O–H group
(Table 15.2).

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 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2

Unbranched alcohols with up to four carbon atoms are shown in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2

Number of carbon atoms Displayed formula Structural formula Name

1 H CH3OH Methanol

H C O H

H
2 H H CH3CH2OH Ethanol
or
H C C O H C2H5OH

H H
3 H H H CH3CH2CH2OH Propan-1-ol

H C C C O H

H H H
3 H H H CH3CHCH3 Propan-2-ol

H C C C H OH
or
H O HH CH3CH(OH)CH3
4 H H H H CH3CH2CH2CH2OH Butan-1-ol

H C C C C O H

H H H H
4 H H H H CH3CH2CHCH3 Butan-2-ol

H C C C C H OH
or
H H O HH CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3

● Carboxylic acids 
● Carboxylic acids are members of a homologous series. O
● The names of carboxylic acids all end in -oic acid. C O H
● The functional group in carboxylic acids is –COOH which can also be
written as –CO2H. Figure 15.1

● This is displayed as shown in Figure 15.1

Unbranched carboxylic acids with up to four carbon atoms are shown in Table 15.3.
Table 15.3

Number of carbon atoms Displayed formula Structural formula Name

1 O HCOOH Methanoic acid

H C O H
2 H O CH3COOH Ethanoic acid
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H C C O H

H
3 H H O CH3CH2COOH Propanoic acid

H C C C O H

H H
4 H H H O CH3CH2CH2COOH Butanoic acid

H C C C C O H

H H H

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 Esters

Properties of aqueous ethanoic acid

Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, is a typical weak acid. It reacts with metals,
bases and carbonates to produce salts (see Chapter 8). The salts are called
ethanoates and contain the ethanoate ion, CH3COO−.

● Esters 
● Esters are sweet-smelling liquids.
● The names of esters all end in -oate.
● Esters have a general formula of CnH2nO2.
O
● The functional group in esters is –COOR which can also be written as
–CO2R. R represents a group containing carbon and hydrogen atoms. C O R
● The functional group in esters is displayed as shown in Figure 15.2. Figure 15.2
● Esters are made by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
● The type of reaction is called esterification. The alcohol and carboxylic
acid are heated with a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid.
The general equation in words is:
carboxylic acid + alcohol L ester + water
The molecules can be represented as
RCOOH + ROH L RCOOR + H2O
The reaction occurs as
carboxylic acid + alcohol ester (RCOOR)
(RCOOH) O (ROH) O

R C O R R C O R
+
O H O H

H H
water (H2O)
bonds breaking
bonds forming

Example
propanoic acid + methanol methyl propanoate
O O

CH3CH2 C O CH3 CH3CH2 C O CH3

+
O H
O H
H
H water
Figure 15.3 The formation of an ester

An example is
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CH3COOH(l) + CH3CH2OH(l) L CH3COOCH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)

ethanoic acid + ethanol L ethyl ethanoate + water
Naming esters is unlike naming any other organic molecules we have met
so far. The formula is divided into two and each part is named according to
the number of carbon atoms it contains as shown in Figure 15.4.
The names and formulae of unbranched esters are shown Table 15.4.

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 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2

H or R C O R

Name this part SECOND Name this part FIRST

O CH3 methyl

H C O methanoate
CH2CH3
O or ethyl
C2H5
CH3 C O ethanoate
O

CH3CH2 C O CH2CH2CH3 propyl

or
propanoate
O

C2H5 C O

CH3CH2CH2 C O butanoate

Example O

CH3CH2 C O CH3
methyl propanoate
CH3CH2COOCH3

Figure 15.4 Naming esters

The names and formulae of unbranched esters are shown in Table 15.4. All names
should be two combined words. The first of these words is methyl, ethyl or propyl.
Table 15.4 Names and formulae of unbranched esters

Number of Molecular Displayed formula Structural Name of ester Made from

carbon atoms formula of ester formula
Carboxylic Alcohol
acid
2 C2H4O2 O H HCOOCH3 Methyl methanoate Methanoic Methanol
acid
H C O C H

H
3 C3H6O2 H O H CH3COOCH3 Methyl ethanoate Ethanoic Methanol
acid
H C C O C H

H H
3 C3H6O2 O H H HCOOCH2CH3 Ethyl methanoate Methanoic Ethanol
acid
H C O C C H

H H
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4 C4H8O2 H H O H CH3CH2COOCH3 Methyl propanoate Propanoic Methanol

acid
H C C C O C H

H H H
4 C4H8O2 H O H H CH3COOCH2CH3 Ethyl ethanoate Ethanoic Ethanol
acid
H C C O C C H

H H H
4 C4H8O2 O H H H HCOOCH2CH2CH3 Propyl methanoate Methanoic Propan-
acid 1-ol
H C O C C C H

H H H

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 Polymers

Examiner’s tips
Remember that most formulae of organic compounds begin with a C atom. However,
methanoic acid is written HCOOH and because it begins with an H, its structural
formula is constantly written incorrectly by students. The same thing applies to
methanoate esters, such as methyl methanoate which should be written HCOOCH3.
● There are no esters with one carbon atom.
● There are two isomeric esters with three carbon atoms.
● There are three isomeric unbranched esters with four carbon atoms.

● Polymers 
Polymers are large molecules (of no definite size) made up by the reactions
of small molecules called monomers. The formation of polymers from
monomers is called polymerisation.
There are two types of polymerisation known as addition polymerisation
and condensation polymerisation.

Addition polymerisation
If alkenes such as ethene are treated to conditions of high temperature and
high pressure in the presence of a suitable catalyst, the double bonds become
single bonds, making more electrons available for the carbon atoms to join
together and form long chains.
This happens to thousands of ethene molecules which join together to
form one long-chain molecule. The chemical name of the product is
polyethene. Its commercial name is polythene.
This reaction is known as addition polymerisation, because the H H H H
monomers join together without the removal of any atoms. There is
n C C C C
only one product just as in other addition reactions of alkenes (see
Chapter 14). H H H H n
The equation for polymerisation of ethene is shown in Figure 15.5 ethene (monomer) polyethene (polymer)
where n represents a number larger than 10 000. Figure 15.5

Other examples of addition polymerisation

Theoretically any molecule with a carbon–carbon double bond can form an
addition polymer.
The chemical name of the polymer is always the same as that of the
CH3 H CH3 H
monomer with poly- in front.
Propene, CH3CH R CH2, undergoes addition polymerisation to form C C C C
polypropene. The structure of the polymer can only be represented by H H H H
drawing the monomer as in Figure 15.6, changing the double bond to a propene repeat unit in
single bond and drawing two extension bonds on either side which show
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(monomer) the polymer

that the polymer extends in both directions. Figure 15.6

Uses of addition polymers

Addition polymers have several uses which are dependent on strength,
hardness, poor electrical and thermal conductivity. Examples are
● Polythene is used for carrier bags, buckets and bowls.
● PVC is used for window frames, guttering and insulating electrical wires.
● Polystyrene is used for insulation and packaging.

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 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2

Common error
● When asked to write an equation for the polymerisation of propene, a
common response is
n CH3CHRCH2 → 9 (CH3CH9CH29)n CH3 H CH3 H

n C C C C
This is incorrect. The carbon atom in the CH3 group has five bonds
and the carbon atom in the CH2 group has three bonds. H H H H n
The monomer must be drawn as a displayed (or partially displayed) propene polypropene
structure. The correct answer is shown in Figure 15.7. Figure 15.7

Condensation polymerisation
A condensation reaction is a reaction in which two molecules join together
and a simple molecule, such as water, is removed at the same time.
Esterification is an example of a condensation reaction.
Condensation polymers are formed from monomers with two functional
groups each. A simple molecule, such as water, is eliminated as the
monomers join together.
Examples of such functional groups are 9OH, 9COOH and 9NH2.
Polyesters and polyamides are examples of condensation polymers.
Polyesters
Polyesters can be made from dicarboxylic acids (molecules with two
9COOH groups) and diols (molecules with two 9OH groups). These
monomers can be represented as
HOOC COOH HO OH
a dicarboxylic acid a diol
Figure 15.8

The polymerisation occurs by the removal of a molecule of water when a

9COOH group and an 9OH group react. The monomers join together as
O O O

O C C O O C

H O O H H O

H H H
H2O H2O H2O

bonds breaking
bonds forming
a polyester
ester linkage
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O O O

O C C O O C
repeat unit
Figure 15.9

Because there are 9COOH groups and 9OH groups at both ends of the
monomers, more linkages can form and the polymer chain can grow in
both directions.

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 Polymers

Use of Terylene
Terylene is an example of polyester made from a dicarboxylic acid and a
diol. It is a synthetic fibre used in clothing manufacture.

Polyesters can also be made using one monomer with both an 9OH and a
9COOH group, for example,
O O

C O C O

O H O H

H H
H2O H2O

bonds breaking
bonds forming

O O

C O C O
repeat unit
Figure 15.10

In this case, the repeat unit shows the residue of the single monomer molecule.
Polyamides
Polyamides can be made from dicarboxylic acids (molecules with two
9COOH groups) and diamines (molecules with two 9NH2 groups).
These monomers can be represented as
HOOC COOH 2HN NH2
a dicarboxylic acid a diamine
Figure 15.11

The polymerisation occurs by the removal of a molecule of water when a

9COOH group and a 9NH2 group react. The monomers join together as
H O O H H O

N C C N N C

H O O H H O

H H H
H2O H2O H2O

bonds breaking
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bonds forming

a polyamide
amide linkage
H O O H H O

N C C N N C
repeat unit
Figure 15.12

Because there are 9COOH groups and 9NH2 groups at both ends of the monomers,
more linkages can form and the polymer chain can grow in both directions.

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 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2

Use of nylon
Nylon is an example of a polyamide made from a dicarboxylic acid and a
diamine.
Nylon is a synthetic fibre used in clothing manufacture. It is also used in
ropes, parachutes and strings for tennis rackets.

Polyamides can also be made using one monomer with both an 9NH2 and
a 9COOH group.

Table 15.5 Addition and condensation polymers

Addition polymers Condensation polymers

Monomers Contain a CRC double bond Contain two reactive functional groups, e.g. 9NH2, 9COOH,
9OH
Polymerisation Occurs without any loss of atoms producing only Occurs with removal of simple molecule, e.g. water, producing
one product (the polymer) two products
Polymers Have same empirical formula as the monomer Have different empirical formula from the monomers

Disposal of polymers
Household waste contains large quantities of polymers (plastic objects). These
can be disposed of by
● burying in landfill sites
● incineration (burning).
Both methods of disposal contribute significantly to environmental pollution.
● Burying in landfill sites means that plastics will remain in the environment
and take up large amounts of space, especially if they are non-biodegradable
(which addition polymers are).
● Incineration can lead to production of toxic gases, such as carbon
monoxide, and acidic gases, such as hydrogen chloride, which contribute to
acid rain.
Attempts to overcome these problems include
● development of biodegradable plastics (those that break down in the
environment as a result of bacterial activity)
● development of photodegradable plastics (break down in sunlight)
● sorting and recycling schemes.

● Natural polymers 
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Foods contain proteins and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides, such

as starch).

Proteins
Proteins are natural polyamides which are made from amino acid monomers.
There are 20 different amino acids. All have an 9NH2 (amine) and a
9COOH (carboxylic acid) functional group. These groups react together
by condensation polymerisation to produce proteins which have amino acid
residues in a sequence which is specific to each individual protein.

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 Natural polymers

amide linkage
or
peptide linkage
H O H O H O

N C N C N C

Figure 15.13 A protein molecule

Proteins contain the same amide linkage as that present in synthetic

polyamides, such as nylon, although biologists usually refer to it as a peptide
linkage when it exists in proteins.

Complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates, such as starch, are naturally occurring condensation
polymers made when glucose monomers
HO OH
glucose
Figure 15.14 A glucose monomer

join together with the removal of water molecules to form starch.

O O O O

Figure 15.15 Starch

Hydrolysis of natural polymers

Proteins
The constituent amino acids that are present in different proteins can be
identified by
● heating for 24 hours with 6.0 mol dm−3 (concentrated) hydrochloric acid.
The protein undergoes acid catalysed hydrolysis (break down by reaction
with water) and is converted to its constituent amino acids. (This is the
reverse of condensation polymerisation.)
● separating the amino acids by paper chromatography (see Chapter 2)
● spraying the chromatogram (chromatography paper) with a locating agent
(ninhydrin is used), so that the colourless amino acids produce visible blue
spots
● determining Rf values and comparing with Rf values of known amino
acids in a data book (see Chapter 2).
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Complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates can also be hydrolysed by hydrochloric acid. This
breaks the complex carbohydrate down to simple sugars. The complex
carbohydrate starch would be broken down into glucose by hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis can also be catalysed by enzymes. Starch is broken down by the
enzyme amylase in saliva to produce maltose (a disaccharide made from two
glucose units).

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 15 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2

Exam-style questions

1 Three compounds, A, B and C, all have the molecular formula C3H8O.

A reacts with ethanoic acid to produce a compound with the structure
shown below.
H O
H C C H H

O C C H
H
H
H C H

H
Figure 15.16

B reacts with ethanoic acid to produce a compound with the molecular

formula C5H10O2.
C does not react with ethanoic acid, but it undergoes complete
combustion when burned in excess oxygen.
a What is meant by the term ‘molecular formula’? [1 mark]
b What is the term used to describe compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural formulae? [1 mark]
c What is the empirical formula of the compound with the molecular
formula C5H10O2? [1 mark]
d What type of reaction occurs between A and ethanoic acid? [1 mark]
e What are the conditions that are required for A to react with
ethanoic acid? [2 marks]
f Complete the chemical equation for the reaction occurring when C
undergoes complete combustion in excess oxygen. State symbols
are not required. [2 marks]
C3H8O + O2 →
g Give the structures of molecules A, B and C. Show all the atoms
and all the bonds. [3 marks]
[Total: 11 marks]
2 The diagram shows part of a polymer.

CH3CH2 H CH3CH2 H CH3CH2 H

C C C C C C
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H H H H H H
Figure 15.17

a What type of a polymer is shown? [1 mark]

b Draw a circle around one repeat unit of the polymer. [1 mark]
c i Draw the structure of one molecule of the monomer.
Show all the atoms and all the bonds.
ii Name the monomer. [2 marks]
[Total: 4 marks]
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 Exam-style questions

3 The diagram shows part of a polymer which is formed by condensation

polymerisation.
O O H H O O H

C C6H4 C N C6H4 N C C6H4 C N H

Figure 15.18

a What is meant by condensation polymerisation? [2 marks]

b What type of condensation polymer is shown? [1 mark]
c Draw a circle around one repeat unit of the polymer.
Label the repeat unit. [1 mark]
d Draw a circle around the linkage in the polymer. Label
the linkage. [1 mark]
e What type of biological molecule contains the same linkage as
the polymer shown? [1 mark]
f Draw the structures of the two monomers, showing all the
atoms and bonds in the functional groups. (You may leave
C6H4 as it is written.) [2 marks]
[Total: 8 marks]
4 The diagram shows part of a condensation polymer made from one
monomer.
O CH3 O CH3

C O C C O C

H H
Figure 15.19

a What type of a condensation polymer is drawn? [1 mark]

b Draw a circle around the repeat unit of the polymer. [1 mark]
c Draw the structure of the monomer showing all atoms
and bonds. [1 mark]
d What are the names of the two functional groups in
the monomer? [2 marks]
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 16 Experimental chemistry

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● anions: chloride, bromide, iodide, carbonate, sulfite,
sulfate and nitrate
● describe tests to identify
● gases: ammonia, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen,
● aqueous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium,
chlorine and sulfur dioxide.
chromium(III), copper(II), iron(II), iron(III), and zinc
● cations: use of flame tests to identify lithium, sodium,
potassium, copper(II)

● Testing for cations (positive ions) 

Cations (positive ions) can be identified using
● aqueous sodium hydroxide
● aqueous ammonia
● flame tests.

Using aqueous sodium hydroxide

Add aqueous
sodium hydroxide to
a solution containing
an unknown cation

blue precipitate green brown precipitate white precipitate no precipitate

insoluble in excess precipitate insoluble in excess indicates Ca2+,
indicates Cu2+ indicates Fe2+ indicates Fe3+ Al3+ or Zn2+
or Cr3+ heat the solution
containing aqueous
add excess sodium hydroxide
add excess aqueous sodium and unknown cation
aqueous sodium hydroxide to the
hydroxide to the white precipitate
green precipitate

ammonia no gas given

gas given off indicates Li+,
off (turns damps Na+ or K+ (to
precipitate precipitate red litmus paper distinguish
remains dissolves blue) indicates between Li+, Na+
indicates Fe2+ forming green precipitate precipitate NH4+ and K+, see
solution remains dissolves forming flame test)
indicates Cr3+ indicates Ca2+ colourless solution
indicates Al3+ or Zn2+
(to distinguish
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between Al3+
and Zn2+, see
addition of ammonia
solution)
Figure 16.1 Testing for cations (positive ions) in aqueous solution using aqueous sodium hydroxide

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 Testing for gases

Using aqueous ammonia

Add aqueous ammonia to a
solution containing an unknown cation

blue precipitate green grey-green precipitate brown precipitate white precipitate

dissolves in excess precipitate soluble in excess insoluble in excess indicates Al3+ or Zn2+
ammonia forming insoluble in concentrated ammonia indicates Fe3+
deep blue solution excess ammonia forming a purple solution
indicates Cu2+ indicates Fe2+ indicates Cr3+ add excess aqueous ammonia
to the white precipitate

precipitate precipitate
remains dissolves forming
indicates Al3+ a colourless solution
indicates Zn2+
Figure 16.2 Testing for cations (positive ions) in aqueous solution using aqueous ammonia

Flame tests
Flame tests can be carried out on solids or on aqueous solutions.
Table 16.1
● Starting with a solid, a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid should
Cation Flame
be added to a sample of the solid on a watch glass. Dilute hydrochloric acid (positive ion) colour
can be used to avoid safety issues.
Lithium, Li+ Red
● A small amount of the mixture should then be placed on a nichrome wire. +
Sodium, Na Yellow
● The nichrome wire containing some of the mixture is then placed in the hot
Potassium, K+ Lilac
part of a Bunsen flame.
Copper(II), Cu2+ Blue-green
● The colour of the flame identifies the cation (positive ion) (Table 16.1).

● Testing for anions (negative ions) 

Tests for anions and their results are shown in Table 16.2.
Table 16.2

Test Result Anion

White precipitate Chloride, CI−
Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous
Cream precipitate Bromide, Br−
silver nitrate
Yellow precipitate Iodide, I−
Bubbles Carbonate, CO 32 –
Gas given off turns limewater milky (gas is CO2)
Add any dilute acid
Gas given off when warmed Sulfite, SO 32 –
Gas turns acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) colourless (gas is SO2)
Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous White precipitate Sulfate, SO 42 –
barium nitrate
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide followed Gas given off turns damp red litmus paper blue (gas is NH3) Nitrate, NO 3 –
by aluminium. Warm gently
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● Testing for gases 

Tests for gases and their results are shown in Table 16.3.
Table 16.3

Test Result Gas

Damp red litmus Turns blue Ammonia, NH3
Limewater Turns milky Carbon dioxide, CO2
Glowing splint Lights Oxygen, O2
Burning splint Pops Hydrogen, H2
Damp litmus paper Bleached Chlorine, Cl2
Acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) Changes from purple to colourless Sulfur dioxide, SO2

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 Answers to exam-style questions
2 Heat until crystals form on a glass rod placed in
● Chapter 1 the solution and withdrawn. [1]
1 Solid [1] Leave the hot saturated solution to cool slowly.
Both melting point and boiling point are above [1] Crystals should then form.
50 °C. [1] Remove crystals (by filtration if there is any
Although the melting point being above 50 °C is liquid left). [1]
really enough of an explanation, it is advisable to Wash with a small amount of cold distilled
refer to both melting point and boiling point. water and then dry in a low oven or on a warm
2 a C [1] windowsill. [1]
Solids have particles that are very close together, Common mistakes include
ordered and vibrate about a fixed position. • Not stating when the heating should be stopped.
b B [1] • Evaporating to dryness. In this case water of
Liquids have particles that are fairly close crystallisation would be removed, leaving the
together, irregularly arranged and move slowly. anhydrous salt.
c D [1] • Not specifying that a small amount of cold
Gases have particles very far apart, arranged distilled water be used for washing. There is
randomly and moving at high speeds. a danger of dissolving the crystals as well as
d A [1] removing impurities if too much is used or if the
Particles that are very far apart must be in a gas water is not cold.
which means they cannot be ordered or vibrate • If an oven is used for drying it should be low.
about fixed positions. Too much heat would cause the crystals to
The question does not ask for explanations, so it decompose (particularly those that contain
is unnecessary to give any. water of crystallisation).
3 Carry out paper chromatography using a
suitable solvent. [1]
● Chapter 2 Allow solvent to reach the top of the
1 a Dissolving (sugar in water) [1] chromatography paper. [1]
Filtration (to remove sand) [1] Remove chromatography paper and allow to
Crystallisation [1] dry. [1]
b Distillation [1] Spray with locating agent. [1]
(Simple) distillation, rather than fractional Measure Rf values and compare with data book
distillation is used to separate a pure liquid values to identify amino acids. [1]
from a solution. A simple diagram of how paper chromatography
c Fractional distillation [1] is carried out is the best way to describe how the
Fractional distillation is used to separate a apparatus is set up even if the question does not
mixture of two or more liquids with different ask for a diagram.
boiling points. (Simple) distillation is It is a common error to draw the solvent level above
incorrect. the starting line on the chromatography paper.
d Filtration [1]
Washing with distilled water [1]
Drying on a warm windowsill or in a low ● Chapter 3
oven [1] 1
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A precipitate is an insoluble/undissolved solid.

Particle Number Number of Electronic Charge on
Centrifugation is another alternative. Neither of of protons electrons configuration particle
these processes will produce a pure solid, because A 2,8,8 [1] 2+ [1]
the solid will be contaminated with a small amount
B 1− [1]
of the solution it was separated from. Therefore,
C 10 [1]
washing with distilled water and drying are both
D 2− [1]
required in addition.

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 Chapter 4

2 a h K2SO3
i ZnSO4
j (NH4)2SO4 [1 mark each]
O O [Total: 10 marks]
Please note: (d) asks for a sulfide and (h) asks for
a sulfite, whereas both (i) and ( j) ask for a sulfate.
4 a B, C, D and E
b Solids have melting points and boiling points above
H 25 °C.
bA
A has a melting point below 25 °C and a boiling
point above 25 °C so it is a liquid at 25 °C.
H C O H
c F
F has both melting point and boiling point below
25 °C so it is a gas at 25 °C.
H dD
D is the only one to conduct electricity when solid;
therefore D could have a giant metallic structure.
c (It could also be graphite or graphene.)
eC
H C N
C has a high melting point and a high boiling point
and conducts electricity when molten but not
when solid. Therefore C has a giant ionic structure.
f E
d E has a high melting point and a high boiling point
which means it has a giant structure.
E is a non-conductor both when solid (so it is not
H P H a giant metallic structure) and when molten (so it
is not a giant ionic structure). Therefore E has a
giant molecular structure.
H [1 mark each]
[Total: 6 marks]

e ● Chapter 4
Cl 1 Mr of H2 = (1 × 2) = 2
Moles of Al = 8.1 ÷ 27 = 0.3 moles [1]
C
Mole ratio from the equation
O
2 mole Al : 3 mole H2
0.30 moles Al : 0.30 × 3/2 = 0.45 moles H2 [1]
Cl Mass of H2
= moles × mass of 1 mole
[Total: 5 marks] = 0.45 × 2 = 0.90 g [1]
Students are encouraged to use the type of [Total: 3 marks]
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diagrams shown. In many cases it is very difficult to 2 Mr of KO2 = 39 + (16 × 2) = 71

decide which electrons are shared if diagrams are Moles of KO2 = 0.142 ÷ 71 = 0.002 moles [1]
badly drawn. Mole ratio from the equation
‘Outer shell electrons’ only are requested. 4 mole KO2 : 3 mole O2
3 a Mg(OH)2 0.002 moles KO2: 0.002 × 3/4 = 0.0015 moles
b CaCl2 of O2 [1]
c (NH4)3PO4 Volume of O2(g)
d Li2S = moles × volume of one mole of gas
e Pb(NO3)2 = 0.0015 × 24 = 0.036 dm3 [1]
f CaCO3 [Total: 3 marks]
g Al(NO3)3

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 ANSWERS TO EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

3 Mr of CaC2 = 40 + (12 × 2) = 64 Percentage yield = actual yield ÷ 100%

Moles of C2H2(g) = 120 ÷ 24 000 = 0.005 moles yield × 100%
C2H2(g) [1] Percentage
(The volumes must both be in the same units: yield = 0.024 ÷ 0.096 × 100 = 25.0% [1]
see below.) [Total: 4 marks]
Because the volume in the question is given in cm3, It is essential to show all working out in all
the volume of 1 mole of a gas must be converted calculations.
from 24 dm3 to 24 000 cm3. Alternatively,
120 cm3 could be converted to 0.120 dm3.
Mole ratio from the equation ● Chapter 5
1 mole C2H2 : 1 mole CaC2 1
0.005 moles C2H2 : 0.005 moles CaC2 [1]
Electrolyte Name of product Name of product
Mass of CaC2 at anode (+) at cathode (−)
= moles × mass of 1 mole Molten potassium Bromine [1] Potassium [1]
= 0.005 × 64 = 0.32 g [1] bromide
35.0 × 0.20 Aqueous potassium Bromine [1] Hydrogen [1]
4 Moles of H2SO4 = = 0.007 [1]
1000 bromide
Mole ratio in equation
Molten lead iodide Iodine [1] Lead [1]
1 mole H2SO4 : 2 moles KOH
0.007 moles H2SO4: 2 × 0.007 = 0.014 moles Aqueous copper(II) Chlorine [1] Copper [1]
chloride
KOH [1]
a concentration of KOH Aqueous sodium sulfate Oxygen [1] Hydrogen [1]
moles × 1000 0.014 × 1000
=
volume (cm3 ) 20.0 Molten electrolytes can only produce the two
= 0.70 mol dm−3 [1] elements present in the molten compound.
b Mr of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 Aqueous electrolytes produce
To convert concentration in mol dm−3 to • halogens or oxygen at the anode (exceptions
concentration in g dm−3 apply when the anode is made of an unreactive
Mass (grams) = moles × Mr metal such as copper)
= 0.70 × 56 • metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series or
= 39.2 g dm−3 [1] [Total: 4 marks] hydrogen at the cathode.
5 a Calculate the number of moles of atoms of Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series are
each element. never produced by electrolysis of aqueous solutions.
Carbon, C 54.5 ÷ 12 = 4.54 2 a Nickel is the anode. [1]
Hydrogen, H 9.1 ÷ 1 = 9.1 b A solution containing nickel ions is the
Oxygen, O 36.4 ÷ 16 = 2.275 electrolyte. [1]
Divide all the above by the smallest c The object to be plated, i.e. the knife, is the
C 4.54 ÷ 2.275 = 2 cathode. [1]
H 9.1 ÷ 2.275 = 4 Students may not be familiar with nickel
O 2.275 ÷ 2.275 = 1 compounds, but if asked to name a soluble
Empirical formula = C2H4O compound it is safe to assume that nitrates are
b If the Mr of the compound = 44 always soluble in water. Therefore aqueous nickel
The Mr of nitrate could be chosen as the electrolyte.
C2H4O = (12 × 2) + (1 × 4) + 16 = 44 3 a Iodine [1]
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n = Mr of the compound ÷ Mr of empirical formula Halogens are always produced at the anode from
n = 44 ÷ 44 = 1 halides (in preference to oxygen).
Therefore, molecular b 2H+ + 2e− → H2 [1]
formula = C2H4O × 1 = C2H4O Potassium is never produced by electrolysis of an
6 Mr of TiCl4 = 48 + (35.5 × 4) = 190 aqueous solution.
Moles of TiCl4 = 0.38 ÷ 190 = 0.002 moles [1] It is unnecessary to give state symbols in
Mole ratio 1 mole of TiCl4 : 1 mole of Ti equations unless requested.
Therefore, 0.002 moles of TiCl4 : 0.002 moles c Oxidation [1]
of Ti [1] Oxidation always occurs at the anode because
Mass of Ti = 0.002 × 48 = 0.096 g [1] electrons are always lost by ions being discharged
0.096 g is 100%. But the yield is only 0.024 g. at the anode.

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 Chapter 7

d (Aqueous) potassium hydroxide [1] Therefore, a chemical change occurs.

Hydrogen ions (from water) are discharged at c Chemical [1]
the cathode and iodide ions are discharged at The silver chloride is chemically changed into silver
the cathode. This leaves potassium ions, K+, and and chlorine.
hydroxide ions, OH− (from water), in the solution, d Physical [1]
which becomes (aqueous) potassium hydroxide. This is a method of separation and does not
This is similar to the electrolysis of concentrated produce any new chemical substances.
aqueous sodium chloride in which hydrogen and e Physical [1]
chlorine are produced at the electrodes and the This is a method of separation and does not
electrolyte becomes aqueous sodium hydroxide. produce any new chemical substances.
e Electrons [1] 2
Conducting wires, being metallic, conduct
Experiment Hydrochloric Calcium Temperature/°C Graph
electricity because they contain moving electrons. acid carbonate
‘Ions’ is a common incorrect answer. 1 50 cm3 of Marble 25 A
f (K+ and I−) ions [1] 0.10 mol dm−3 chips
Electrolytes conduct electricity because they 2 50 cm3 of Marble 25 D [1]
contain moving ions. 0.20 mol dm−3 chips
‘Electrons’ is a common incorrect answer. 3 50 cm3 of Powdered 25 B [1]
0.10 mol dm−3
4 50 cm3 of Marble 12.5 E [1]
● Chapter 6 0.10 mol dm−3 chips
5 50 cm3 of Marble 50 B [1]
1 a 0.10 mol dm−3 chips
H H H O O O C O H O H
O O The volume of hydrogen produced depends only
H C C C H + O H O H
O O C O on the number of moles of hydrochloric acid used
O O H O H
H H H (because the calcium carbonate is in excess).
O O O C O H O H
Experiment 2 is the only experiment in which more
[2] moles of hydrochloric acid are produced. The number of
b 2 C–C, 8 C–H, 5 O O [2] moles of hydrochloric acid is doubled and so the volume
It is a common error to include 3 C–C bonds of hydrogen is doubled. Because the concentration
because the formula is C3H8. of hydrochloric acid is greater, the rate of reaction is
c (2 × 347) + (8 × 435) + (5 × 497) = 6659 kJ faster and the graph is steeper (Graph D).
[1] Increasing the surface area (Experiment 3) and
d 6 C O, 8 O–H [2] increasing the temperature (Experiment 5) both
e (6 × 803) + (8 × 464) = 8530 kJ [1] increase the rate of reaction without changing the
f 8530 − 6659 = 1871 kJ/mole. The reaction is volume of hydrogen. Thus the graph is steeper in both
exothermic. [3] cases and levels off at the same volume (Graph B).
Because the amount of energy given out when new In Experiment 4, decreasing the temperature
bonds form in the products (8530) is bigger than decreases the rate and the graph is less steep but
the amount of energy taken in to break bonds in levels off at the same volume because the volume of
the reactants (6659), the overall energy change hydrogen is unchanged (Graph E).
is exothermic. 3 a There are the same numbers of gas molecules
(2) on both sides of the sign; therefore
increasing the pressure does not favour either
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● Chapter 7 reaction. [1]

1 a Physical [1] b There are two molecules of gas on the right
This produces aqueous sodium chloride. The and three molecules of gas on the left of the
sodium chloride and water are not changed into sign; therefore increasing the pressure causes
any substances that are not there at the start. equilibrium to shift in the direction of fewer
Since a new chemical substance is not produced it gas molecules, which means to the right. [1]
is a physical change. c There are two molecules of gas on the right
b Chemical [1] and one molecule of gas on the left of the
This produces three new chemical substances, sign; therefore increasing the pressure causes
i.e. chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide. equilibrium to shift in the direction of fewer
gas molecules, which means to the left. [1]
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 ANSWERS TO EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

4 a The forward reaction is exothermic, 2 • Pour dilute sulfuric acid [1] into a beaker.
which means that the reverse reaction is • Add magnesium carbonate. [1]
endothermic. When temperature is decreased, • Stir or warm. [1]
equilibrium always shifts in the exothermic • Stop adding magnesium carbonate when
direction. In this case, equilibrium shifts to some remains undissolved/no more bubbles
the right. [1] of gas evolved. [1]
b The forward reaction is endothermic, which • Filter off excess magnesium carbonate. [1]
means that the reverse reaction is exothermic. • Heat the filtrate until crystals form on
When temperature is decreased equilibrium a glass rod placed in the solution and
always shifts in the exothermic direction. In withdrawn. [1]
this case, equilibrium shifts to the left. [1] • Leave the hot saturated solution to cool
5 a Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s) [1] slowly. [1] Crystals should then form.
The sulfate ions, So42+, are spectator ions. • Remove crystals (by filtration if there is any
State symbols need not be given in equations liquid left). [1]
unless asked for. • Wash with a small amount of cold distilled
b Oxidation: Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e− [1] water and then dry in a low oven or on a
Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) [1] warm windowsill. [1]
The total number of charges on both sides of any • MgCO3 + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + CO2 + H2O [1]
equation must be equal. 3 • Add aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium
c Cu2+ [1] is an electron acceptor/gains hydroxide. [1]
electrons. [1] • Stir/warm to dissolve scandium oxide. [1]
Oxidising agents are always reduced. • Filter off copper(II) oxide. [1]
Oxidising agents are always on the same side as • Wash with distilled water. [1]
the electrons in an ionic half-equation. • Dry the copper(II) oxide on a warm
d Mg [1] is an electron donor/loses windowsill/in a low oven. [1]
electrons. [1]
Reducing agents are always oxidised.
Reducing agents are always on the opposite side
● Chapter 9
to the electrons in an ionic half-equation. 1 a B [1]
Group I elements become more reactive down the
group.
● Chapter 8 b D [1]
1 a i Method 1 Group VII elements become more reactive up the
ii (Dilute) hydrochloric acid [1] group.
Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides. c Either F or G [1]
iii CoCO3 + 2HCl → CoCl2 + CO2 + H2O d A [1]
[1 formulae, 1 balancing] Periods are the horizontal rows.
Cobalt compounds are not all that well known, e A [1]
but the () in cobalt() carbonate and cobalt() Atoms of Group IV elements have four electrons
chloride mean that a cobalt ion is Co2+, thus in their outer shells. All atoms have the same
making it straightforward to derive the number of outer electrons as their group numbers.
formulae of the compounds. 2 a Bubbles, or lithium floats, or lithium
b i Method 3 disappears, or lithium melts, or lithium moves
ii (Aqueous) sodium iodide [1] around
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To decide on a choice of an aqueous solution Any three [3]

containing iodide ions, you should remember It is a common error to say lithium bursts
that all sodium (or potassium) salts are soluble into flame. Only the elements from potassium
in water. downwards burst into flame.
iii 2NaI + Pb(NO3)2 → PbI2 + 2NaNO3 b 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
[1 formulae, 1 balancing] [1 formulae, 1 balancing, 1 state symbols]
c i Method 2 [1] This equation is very commonly asked for (with
ii (Dilute) nitric acid [1] any Group I element) in exams. The formulae and
Nitric acid produces nitrates. balancing numbers are the same for all Group I
iii KOH + HNO3 → KNO3 + H2O elements; only the symbol of the element changes.
[1 formulae, 1 balancing]
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 Chapter 10

c Yellow [1] has the greatest tendency to release electrons

The colours of methyl orange and litmus in acidic (which makes it negative) as it forms positive ions.
and alkaline solutions should be memorised. e B + DO → BO + D [1]
3 a Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq) Because B and D have ions with the formula B2+
[1 formulae, 1 balancing, 1 state symbols] and D2+, and because the oxide ion is O2−, the
Cl2(g) + 2I−(aq) → 2Cl−(aq) + I2 [1] formulae of the metal oxides are BO and DO.
b Br2(l) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq) 2 • Add a dilute acid in excess (preferably
[1 formulae, 1 balancing, 1 state symbols] hydrochloric or sulfuric but not nitric). [1]
Br2(l) + 2I−(aq) → 2Br−(aq) + I2(aq) [1] • Stir or warm or both.
I2(s) is acceptable in both cases because some of • Zinc reacts and dissolves but copper does
it may form as a precipitate. neither; bubbling is also seen with zinc but
The halogen elements are often dissolved in water not with copper. [1]
to carry out these reactions, in which case (aq) • Filter off copper. [1]
would be used as the state symbol. • Wash with distilled water and dry in a low
Potassium ions are spectator ions in both oven. [1] [Total: 4 marks]
reactions. If aqueous sodium iodide was used in Students should memorise the position in the
either or both cases, the sodium ions would be reactivity series of those elements referred to on
spectator ions and the ionic equations would be the syllabus. Zinc is above hydrogen but copper
exactly the same. is below hydrogen. Thus zinc reacts with dilute
4 a F2 + 2KCl → 2KF + Cl2 hydrochloric and sulfuric acids to produce an
[1 formulae, 1 balancing] aqueous salt solution. Hydrogen gas is evolved.
b No reaction [1] 3
c Br2 + 2KAt → 2KBr + At2 + −
[1 formulae, 1 balancing] [1 for rest of circuit]
d No reaction [1]
Halogens nearer the top of Group VII displace
those lower down but not vice versa.
Reactions involving fluorine only occur in theory,
because in practice fluorine reacts violently with
water so could not be used. pure nickel
impure nickel (cathode) [1]
Astatine is radioactive. (anode) [1]
5 a Cu2O [1]
b Cu(NO3)2 [1]
c FeCl2 [1]
aqueous nickel
d Fe2(SO4)3 [1] nitrate [1]
The roman numerals used to represent oxidation
[Total: 4 marks]
states are the same as the number of positive
Because both electrodes contain nickel, the anode
charges on the cations: copper() refers to Cu+,
must be clearly labelled as impure nickel and the
iron() refers to Fe2+ and iron() refers to Fe3+.
cathode as pure nickel. Students should remember
that all nitrates are soluble in water; therefore
● Chapter 10 aqueous nickel nitrate (or nickel nitrate solution) is a
suitable electrolyte.
1 a B, C, A, D [1]
4 a B, copper(II) nitrate [1]
b B + A(NO3)2 → A + B(NO3)2 [1]
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C, copper(II) oxide [1]

c C + D2+ → D + C2+ [1]
D, nitrogen dioxide [1]
Because the nitrate ion is NO3−, it can be deduced
E, oxygen [1]
that all the charges on the metal ions are 2+
Students are asked to name the substances. It is
because 1 metal ion is combined with 2 nitrate
a common error to write formulae.
ions in each compound as can be seen from the
b i CuO + 2HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O
formulae.
[1 formulae, 1 balancing]
d B [1]
ii 2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
The most reactive metal is always the negative
[1 formulae, 1 balancing]
terminal in a cell containing two dissimilar metals
c Copper(II) hydroxide [1]
in an electrolyte, because the most reactive metal
Copper(II) carbonate [1]

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 ANSWERS TO EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

Bases (copper() hydroxide) and carbonates b Below 450 °C, the rate of reaction would be
(copper() carbonate) are used to react with dilute slower. [1]
acids to form aqueous solutions of soluble salts. c The rate of reaction would increase at a higher
Copper metal is not suitable because copper pressure [1] because the gas molecules would
is below hydrogen in the reactivity series and be closer together and therefore there would
therefore it does not react with dilute acids. be more collisions in any given time. [1]
Stating that gas molecules would be closer
together therefore there would be more collisions
● Chapter 11 is not enough for the second mark. Reference to
1 a Brown [1] to black [1] time is essential.
A colour change is requested; therefore it is d The yield of sulfur trioxide and the rate
essential to give the original and final colours. of reaction would be high enough at 1–2
b 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO [1 formulae, 1 balancing] atmospheres.
c Oxygen gas is taken out/removed from or
the air. [1] There would be risks of explosions/leakages
d ‘Excess’ in this case means that there is more at higher pressure.
than enough copper to react with all the or
oxygen. Some copper will be left over when It would be too expensive to build an
all the oxygen has reacted. [1] industrial plant to withstand higher pressure.
Students commonly answer that excess means Any two [2]
‘more than enough’ but it is important to add more e Sulfur trioxide is dissolved in 98%
than enough to react. The point is emphasised by concentrated sulfuric acid to produce oleum.
saying some will be left over after the reaction. SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 [1]
e Nitrogen [1] The oleum is then added to the correct
2 a A catalyst increases the rate of a chemical amount of water to produce sulfuric acid of
reaction [1] and is chemically unchanged at the required concentration.
the end of the reaction. [1] H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 [1]
b 2 a H2SO4 + CuCO3 → CuSO4 + CO2 + H2O
Yield of Rate of production [1 formulae of CuCO3 and CuSO4, 1 rest of
ammonia of ammonia equation completely correct]
Higher temperature than Decrease [1] Increase [1] b H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
450 °C [1 formulae, 1 balancing]
Higher pressure than 200 Increase [1] Increase [1] c H2SO4 + KOH → KHSO4 + H2O [1]
atmospheres
d H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2 [1]
Not using a catalyst No change [1] Decrease [1]

The table makes distinctions between yield ● Chapter 13

(equilibrium position) and rate of reaction. 1 Plants grow better in soils at specific pH
Students should make sure that they do not values. [1]
confuse one with the other (see Chapter 7). Calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide [1]
Where there are changes the answers must be Lime, quicklime or slaked lime are common names
comparative, e.g. lower yield and not low yield. (as also are limestone and lime water) and not
c i Sulfuric acid [1] chemical names.
ii 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4 2 a i 2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O
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[1 formulae, 1 balancing] [1 formulae, 1 balancing]

d 3NH3 + H3PO4 → (NH4)3PO4 Fractions/multiples are acceptable in equations
[1 formula of (NH4)3PO4, 1 balancing] unless stated otherwise.
ii CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 [1]
iii Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
● Chapter 12 [1 formulae, 1 balancing]
1 a Vanadium(V) oxide or vanadium pentoxide [1] iv CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
The oxidation state of vanadium is an essential [1 formulae, 1 balancing]
part of the name vanadium() oxide. b i Water [1]
Iron (the catalyst in the Haber process) is a ii Glucose [1], oxygen [1]
common error. iii UV light/sunlight [1], chlorophyll [1]
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 Chapter 15

If excess propene is not used there may be some

● Chapter 14 bromine left and so the colour of the bromine may
1 still be visible.
H H H H H H H H H H
c i C3H6Br2 [1]
H C C C C C H C C C C C H Two bromine atoms are added to the propene.
H H H H H H H ii C3H8 [1]
Two hydrogen atoms are added to the propene.
[2]
iii C3H8O [1]
When drawing molecules it is essential that all
A water molecule is added to the propene, i.e. two
carbon atoms have four bonds only.
hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom are added.
It is also essential to draw two different molecules,
d Nickel [1]
and not draw the same molecule twice as in the
4 a C9H20 [1]
following examples.
The correct answer is obtained using n = 9 in the
H H H H H general formula for alkanes which is CnH2n+2.
H C C C C C b Any one from the following:
H H H H
H H H H
H C C C C or CH3CH2CH CH2

H H H H H H H H
but-1-ene
C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H

H C C C C H or CH3CH CHCH3
These are all
H H H H
diagrams of H H
H C C C C the same but-2-ene
molecule.
H H H H
They are not
H C H structural isomers.
H C C C
CH3 C CH2
H H H or
CH3
H C H
H H H
H
C C C H
2-methylpropene
H H C H
[formula 1, name 1]
H C H Allow structural formulae or displayed formulae
H because ‘showing all the atoms and bonds’ is not
requested. Structural formulae must show the
These show the same molecule drawn several C=C double bond.
different ways. In all the examples, the double bond c i C8H18 → C4H10 + 2C2H4 [1]
is between the first two carbon atoms and all five ii C8H18 → C5H10 + C3H6 + H2
carbon atoms are in a ‘straight chain’ even if they are or C8H18 → C2H4 + C6H12 + H2
drawn at an angle in some cases. or C8H18 → C2H4 + 2C3H6 + H2 [1]
2 a Ultraviolet light [1] There are acceptable answers with an alkyne
b Chloroethane [1] CnH2n−2 and an alkane as the products as well as
c Any one of the following: hydrogen.
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C2H4Cl2 / C2H3Cl3 / C2H2Cl4 / C2HCl5 / C2Cl6

[1] ● Chapter 15
Some or all of the hydrogen atoms in ethane 1 a The formula that shows the number of
can be substituted by chlorine atoms. The total atoms of each element in one molecule of an
number of atoms bonded to the two carbon element or compound. [1]
atoms must be six in each case. b Structural isomers [1]
3 a Addition [1] The word ‘structural’ is often omitted.
b The bromine changes colour from c C5H10O2 [1]
yellow/brown [1] to colourless. [1] This formula cannot be simplified any further.
When the bromine test for unsaturation is described, Therefore the molecular formula and the empirical
it is essential to give the initial and final colours. formula are the same.
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 ANSWERS TO EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

d Esterification [1] 2 a Addition polymer [1]

Condensation would also be acceptable. b
e Heat [1] and a catalyst of concentrated CH3CH2 H CH3CH2 H CH3CH2 H
sulfuric acid [1]
C C C C C C
f 2C3H8O + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 8H2O
[1 formulae, 1 balancing] H H H H H H
[1]
Fractions/multiples are accepted in equations.
The circle should be drawn around two consecutive
g
carbon atoms in the main chain and all the atoms
A B
and groups of atoms joined to them. One example
H H H H H H
is given.
H C C C H H C C C O H c i H H H
H O H H H H H C C C C
H H [1]
H H H
C ii But-1-ene [1]
H H H 3 a Condensation polymerisation is the formation
H C C O C H of a long-chain molecule (the polymer) from
H H H
small molecules (monomers) [1]. A simple
[3]
molecule such as water is eliminated as the
The diagram below shows parts of the esters
monomers join together. [1]
formed from A and B.
b A polyamide [1]
O O c, d
linkage repeat unit
C H H C H H H
2 1 1 2 3
O C C O C C C H
O O H H O O H
H H H H
3 C C6H4 C N C6H4 N C C6H4 C N
H C H

H
part of the ester part of the ester [1 each]
formed from A formed from B e A protein [1]
The oxygen atom in the ester formed from A is f H H O O
joined to carbon number 2. Therefore the O–H
N C6H4 N H O C C6H4 C O H
group in alcohol A must have been on carbon
number 2. H H
The oxygen atom in the ester formed from B is [2]
joined to carbon number 1. Therefore the O–H In carboxylic acids and alcohols, it is a common
group in alcohol B must have been on carbon error for students not to draw the bond between O
number 1. and H atoms, i.e. they draw –OH instead of –O–H.
C does not react with ethanoic acid which means 4 a A polyester [1]
that C is not an alcohol and does not have an b
O–H group. The only molecule that can be drawn O CH3 O CH3
with the molecular formula C3H8O that is not an C O C C O C
alcohol and obeys the rules that
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H H
• carbon atoms have only four bonds [1]
• oxygen atoms have only two bonds, and c H
• hydrogen atoms have only one bond is H C H O
H H H
H C C O H
H C C O C H
O
H H H
H [1]
d Carboxylic acid [1]
Alcohol [1]

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Index
A chemical energetics 43–6 flame tests 111
acidic oxides 60 chemical equilibrium 52–3 formulae 18–19, 19–20, 91
acids 57–9 chemical properties of a substance 48 fractional distillation 11–12, 78,
activation energy 51 chemical reactions 47–56 79
−
addition polymerisation 103 chlorides (Cl ) 61, 111 freezing 1, 2
addition reactions 93 chlorination 78, 79 freezing point 1
air 79–80 chlorine (Cl2) 21, 65–6, 93, 111 fuel cells 44
air pollution 80 chromatography 8–10 fuels 44, 96
alcohols 98–100 cobalt chloride 78 functional groups 90
alkali metals 64 collision theory 49–51
alkalis 58, 59 combustion, alkanes 93
G
galvanising 81
alkanes 92–3 complete combustion 93
gases 1–2, 4–5, 111
alkenes 93–7 complex carbohydrates 107
gas volume, Mole calculation 29
allotropes 91 compounds 7–13
giant covalent structure
alloys 69 condensation 1, 2
(macromolecular structure) 22
aluminium (Al) 71, 73–4, 76 condensation polymerisation 103
giant ionic structure 22, 23
aluminium chloride 20 conductors 37
giant metallic structure 22, 23
ammonia (NH3) 21, 82, 111 cooling curves 3
giant molecular structure 23
ammonium salts 59, 61 copper (Cu) 75–6
glucose 33
amphoteric oxides 60 copper(II) sulphate 40, 78
graphite 23–4
anions, testing for 111 covalent bonding 21
greenhouse effect 87
anode 37, 39 cracking 96
greenhouse gases 87
aqueous ammonia 111 crystallisation 10–11
Group 0 elements 66–7
aqueous potassium iodide 55
aqueous potassium manganate 55
D Group I elements 65
density, metals 69 Group VII elements 65–6
aqueous sodium hydroxide 110
diamond 23–4 groups, Periodic Table 64, 65–7
argon (Ar) 67
diffusion 1, 4
atomic number (proton number) 14
displacement reactions, metals 70
H
atomic structure 14–15 Haber process 53–4, 82
displayed formula 91
atoms, electron arrangement 15–16 halogens 64, 65–6
dissolving 10–11
Avogadro constant 26 heating curves 3
distillation 11–12
helium (He) 67
B drinking water 79
homologous series 90
bases 57, 58, 59 ductility, metals 69
hydrocarbons 92
basic oxides 60
benzene 33
E hydrogen (H2) 21, 44, 95, 111
electrical conductivity, metals 69 hydrogen peroxide 33
boiling 1, 2, 3
electricity 37–42 hydrolysis, natural polymers 107
boiling point 1, 2, 69
electrodes 37 hydroxides, thermal
bond energies 43, 45
electrolysis 37, 38–40, 41 decomposition 72
bromide (Br−), testing for 111
electrolytes 37–8
bromine (Br) 65–6, 95
electrons 14, 15–16
I
Brownian motion 1, 4 incomplete combustion 93
electron shell 15
butane 33, 91, 92 indicators 60
electroplating 40–1
inorganic carbon chemistry 87–9
C elements 7–13
insoluble bases 58
calcium (Ca), reaction with empirical formula 26, 32–3, 90, 91 −
iodide (I ), testing for 111
water 70 endothermic reaction 43, 44
iodine (I) 65–6
carbohydrates, fermentation 98 energy level diagrams 43
2− ionic bonding 16–20
carbonates (CO3 ) 58, 61, 72, 88, 111 enzymes 47
ionic compounds 16–20
carbon cycle 88 equations, Mole calculation 30
ionic equations 28
carbon dioxide (CO2) 21, 87, 111 equilibrium systems 52–4
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iron (Fe) 70, 74, 75, 76

carbon, inorganic chemistry 87–9 esters 101–3, 102
iron(III) sulfate 20
carbon monoxide (CO) 80 ethane 92
isomers 91
carboxylic acids 98, 100–1 ethanol 98–9
isotopes 14, 91
catalysts 47 ethene (C2H4) 21, 98
catalytic converters 78, 80 evaporation 1, 2 K
catalytic cracking 96 exothermic reaction 43 kinetic theory 3
cathode 37, 39 experimental chemistry 110–11
cations, testing for 110–11 extraction of metals 73–6
L
lattices 14
cells (batteries) 41
ceramics, uses for 41
F lead salts 61, 80
fertilisers 78, 82–3 limestone 88
changes of state 2
filtration 10–11, 78, 79 limiting reactants 33

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 INDEX

liquids 1–2, 4 oxides 60 slaked lime 88

litmus 60 oxidising agents 47, 54, 55 sodium chloride, ionic bonding 17
oxygen (O2), testing for 111 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 110
M sodium salts 61
macromolecular structure (giant P solids 1–2, 22–3
covalent structure) 22 percentage purity 35
solutes 7
magnesium fluoride, ionic percentage yield 34
solutions 7, 29
bonding 18 Periodic Table 16, 19, 64–8
solvents 7
magnesium hydroxide 20 periods, Periodic Table 64
stainless steel, uses of 76
magnesium (Mg), reaction with petroleum industry 96
starch 107
water 70 photochemical reactions 51
state, changes of 2
malleability, metals 69 pH scale 60
steam, reaction with alkenes 95
masses, Mole calculation 29 physical properties of a
steel 75, 76
mass number (nucleon number) 14 substance 48
stoichiometry 26–7
matter, particulate nature of 1–6 plastics, uses for 41
strong acids 57, 58
melting 1, 2, 3 pollution, air 80
strong bases 57
melting point 1, 69 polyamides 105
structural formula 90, 91
metallic bonds 22 polyesters 104
structural isomerism 90, 91–2, 94
metallic compounds, thermal polyethene 103
sublimation 1
decomposition 72 polymerisation 98, 103
substance 7
metals 7, 69–77 polymers 98, 103–7
substitution reactions 93
extraction of 41, 73–6 potassium salts 61
sulfate (SO42–) 61, 111
reactions with acids 57–8 propane 92
proteins 106–7 sulfite (SO32–), testing for 111
uses of 41, 76 sulfur dioxide (SO2) 80, 84–6, 85,
methane (CH4) 21, 33, 87, 92 proton 14
proton number (atomic number) 14 111
methanol (CH3OH) 21 sulfuric acid 84–5
methyl orange 60 Q symbol equations 26
mixtures 7, 8–12 quicklime 88
Mole 26, 29 T
molecular formulae 26, 33–4, 90, 91 R terylene 105
rate of reaction 48 thermal conductivity, metals 69
N reactivity series, metals 70–2 thermal cracking 96
natural polymers 106–7 redox reactions 54–5 thermal decomposition, metallic
neutral oxides 60 reducing agents 47, 55 compounds 72
neutron 14 reduction 47, 54 transition elements 64, 67
nitrates 61 relative atomic mass (Ar) 8, 26
nitrates (NO3– ) 72, 111 relative molecular mass (Mr) 8, 26,
U
nitrogen (N2) 21, 82–3 unbranched esters 102
28
noble gases 64, 66–7 universal indicators 60
reversible reactions 52
non-metals 7 unsaturation testing, alkenes 94
rust 78, 81
nucleon number (mass number) 14
S W
nucleus 15 water (H2O) 21, 65, 70, 78–9
salts 57, 61–2
nylon 106 weak acids 57, 58
separation of mixtures 8–12
word equations 26
O silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) 24
organic chemistry 90–109 simple distillation 11 Z
oxidation 47 simple molecular structures 23 zinc (Zn) 76, 81
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