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4K views392 pagesMega Book of English Grammar With Practical Exercises
Uploaded by
ye9449299Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 392
Mega
Book of Modern
English Grammar —
with practical exercises
Mega Publishing and Distribution
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia © Mega Publishing and Distribution pvt. Ltd. CO - 2009
a3 AY FOES TINZAL da/er/eT/sWUAC 2601
-? @ of 123 29 09
011 123°29 05
011 123 29 06
011 123 29 12-16
D4 914d
Addis Ababa, Ethiapia
First Published 1987
Second Edition 1992
1993
1996
Fifth Edition 1997
Sixth Edition 2000
Seventh 2000
Fighth Edition 2001
Ninth Edition 2003
Tenth Edition 2003
Eleventh Edition 2004
Twelfth Edition 2006
Thirteenth Edition 2006
Fourteenth Fdition 2008
Fifteenth Edition 2008
ixteenth Edition — 2009
Seventeenth Edition 2010
Fightcenth Edition 2010
Nineteenth Edition 2011
Twentieth Edition 2011 PREFACE
‘This book has been prepared by a team of some university teachers
who have been teaching English as a second language for over twenty
years.It is based on the instructional material which they have
prepared over the years for use in the classrooms and for teaching
English through correspondence courses.
Second language learners have some special problems and
difficulties which traditional grammar books do not always take into
account. This book is an attempt to meet the requirements of such
students. Teachers will also find it most useful,and of great assistance. ”
particularly in view of the practical exercises.
Our special thanks are due to MR N.K.JAIN and MR V.P.
SHARMA for preparing the manuscript and going through the proofs
and offering invaluable suggestions.
Criticisms and helpful suggestions are welcome and may be sent
to the publisher.
Publisher's Note
In order to overcome the inconveniencies caused by typographic
errors, misspelt words, and inconsistencies in numbering exercises
and key to exercises in the previous edition, a thorough revision work
has been done on this 5" edition,
Moreover, the size of the book is also enlarged with bigger letters
so that readers will be able to go through the material at full ease ABOUT THE BOOK
Aim
This book is intended for students in schools who are learning
English as a second language.The aim is not only to equip the
students with the fundamentals of English grammar but also to guide
them in the use of modern English idiom in a comprehensive manner.
The classes aimed at are from 9° grade to 12" grade though students
in colleges would find it equally useful.
Pian
The entire instructional material has been organized in units.
Each unit takes up a particular item of grammar or usage and deal
with it in a simple,direct and a clear manner. The emphasis throughout
is on the functional aspect of grammar. As such, the examples,
showing usage, are copious and cover all major variations in use. In
Preparing the material the needs and difficulties of the non-native
Jeamers of English have been kept in view.
Practical Book
(a) Substitution tables.The book contains 167 tables, substitution
tables and other types of material for the practice of grammatical
structures in the class-room and at home.The students as well as
teachers would find them useful for drill work.
(b) Exercises. There are 96 exercises covering al] items of gram-
mar and also all important and major aspects of usage. These should
be found useful by the teacher who is often harassed for exercise
material, and by the student who can carry his practice to his home.
(c) Key fo exercises, Complete key to all the exercises has been
given at the end of the book. The idea is to enable the student to check
his own progress. The student would, therefore, be well advised to
resist the temptation to consult the key before he has finished with the
exercise in hand. Honesty, here, would be the best policy.
‘The teacher would find his labour saved.
Use of the Book
The book could be used either independently or as a comipanion to
any prescribed textbook of English. CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE ~ T
_ What is a sentence?
I
2. Structtire of a Sentence
3. Kinds of Sentences ...
4. Simple Compound and Complex Sentences
Bop e
CHAPTER TD
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE-I]
5. Phrases and Clauses.
CHAPTER It
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE-I
a
. Parts of Speech . .
7. Words Used as Different Parts af Speech.
CHAPTER IN
NOUNS
8. Kinds of Nouns .
9. Noun Formation
10.Countable Nouns and Uncountable Noun:
IL. Plurals ..
12. Gender ..
13, Feminine Gender “Formation poeeeeeeee .
i4. Noun: [ts Uses ... ceececcttteeeee ceseettetentensd
CHAPTER V
PRONOUNS
15. Pronouns and Their Function .
16. Pronouns: Kinds :
17. Use of Personal Pronouns
18. Reflexive Pronouns ..
19, Demonstrative Pronouns .
Bann 20.
22.
is)
wi
es
29,
30.
3l.
34.
35.
36.
3
38.
39.
40. Adverbial Particles
3. Adjectives ...
24.
sao
32.
33.
. Relative Pronouns ...
- Interrogative Pronouns
. Uses of the Pronouns it and one ...
CHAPTER VI
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives: Their Use
CHAPTER VII
ARTICLES AND THEIR USE
Articles .....
Indefinite Articles
- Definite Article ..
- Omission of Articles .
CHAPTER VIII
ADVERBS
Adverbs ..... 115
Kinds of Adverbs 116
Formation of Adverbs ... 120
Position of Adverbs in a Sentence .. 124
Use of Certain Adverbs . 30
CHAPTER [X
PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBIAL PARTICLES
Prepositions ...
Objects of Prepositions
Position of Prepositions in Sentences . 140
. Uses of Prepositions ... 14]
Words Foltowed by Preposit 143
Some Prepositions Often Confused . 152 CHAPTER X
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
41. Kinds of Phrases .
42. Clauses: Noun Clause
43, Adjective Clauses ....
44, Adverbial Clauses .....
CHAPTER XI
THE CONJUNCTION
CHAPTER NIL
VERBS
46. Verbs and Their Function ..
47. Kinds of Verbs
48. Verb Forms ...
49. Forming Negatives .
50. Forming Questions .....
51. Short Answers to Yes-No Question:
2. Expressing Agreement and Disagreement
53. Additions to Remarks Made
54. Question-Tags .
55. Auxiliaries
56. Modal Auxiliaries.
57. Mood......
58. Subject-Verb Agreemeni
59. Tenses: Kinds .....
~60. Simple Present Tense
61. Present Continuous Tense.
> 62. Present Perfect Tense ....
63. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
64. Simple Past Tense ...........
65. The Past Continuous Tense
66. The Past Perfect Tense
67. Past Perfect Continuous 68. Simple Future Tense .....
69. Future. Continuous Tense .
70. Future Perfect Tense .
71. The Conditional Tens
72. Conditional Sentences
73. Sequence of Tenses ....
74. Some Basic Verb Patterns.
CHAPTER XIiL
THE INFINITIVE
75. The Infinitive: Present Infinitive ...
76. The Perfect Infinitive ....
CHAPTER XIV
THE GERUND AND THE PARTICIPLE
7). The Gerund
78. The Present Participle
79. The Perfect Participle
80. Past Participle
CHAPTER XV
REPORTED SPEECH
81. Reported Speech .....
CHAPTER XVI
THE PASSIVE VOICE
82. Passive Voice .......
CHAPTER XVIl
PUNCTUATION
83. Punctuation ..
84. The Use of Capital Letters ...
CHAPTER XVII
VERB+PREPOSITION/ADVERB IDIOMS (357-369)
Key to Exercise 1-96 CHAPTER I
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE - I
1. WHAT IS A SENTENCE?
1.1 A sentence is an arrangement of words that makes complete
sense. It must be meaningful. It must. at the same time. be
acceptable to the speakers of the language.
Examples:
. Mary is singing a song. <
The room is clean.
Stop!
. Come in, please. .
. A table is made of wood.
6. What has brought you here?
Each of these sentences tells us something about a subject which
may be a person, place or thing. And each of these makes complete
sense in itself. Look at the first example:
Mary is singing a song.
Vbwno
It is about Mary. Mary is the subject here. And it tells us
something about her. She is singing. The meaning is complete.
Similarly, other sentences have a subject and tell us something about
the subject. Examples 3 and 4 also have a subject though it is not
expressed. It is only understood.
(You) stop!
(You) come in, please.
1.2. Arrangement of words. The words in a sentence are arranged in
a certain way. English has its own way of arranging words in a
sentence. Look at the example below:
* Clean room the is.
” The asterisk here and elsewhere in the book ii
wrong usage...
dicates a wrong sentence or 2 These are all English words but they have not been put together
correctly. We cannot call this example an English sentence. The
correct order is:
The room is clean.
1.3. Acceptability. Correctness in grammar is not enough. A sentence
must also look sensible and be acceptable to the speakers of the
language:
Look at these sentences:
John killed a stone.
I was born 400 years ago.
Each word in these sentences has a meaning by itself but toetlien
they do not make sense.
Exercise 1, Which of the following are acceptable as sentences in
English?
1. The chicken enjoyed him very much.
2. John killed a bird with a stone.
3. The house ran to reach him in time.
4. The trees walked on to the road. .~-
5. My brother ate the moon. ©
6. twas born 40 years ago. ‘
2. STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
2.1, Every sentence has two parts, a Subject and a Predicate.
Look at the sentences in this table. *
TABLE 1
Subject Predicate
Children play.
The children played in the garden.
The children of this block are playing a match in
ihe school ground today.
The subject refers (o a person. place or ching about which something
is said in the sentence. It may consist of one word or more
The predicate says something about the subject it may consist of just
a verb or 4 verb plus other elements. The normal word-order in English is, Subject +Predicate. And since there can be no sentence
without a verb, the smallest English sentence must have the structure,
Subject + Verb
(Ss) ™)
2.2. Look at these examples:
Listen!
Get out of the room!
The subject ‘you’ is understood here, so that,
Listen! = (You) listen!
Get out of the room! = (You) get out of the room!
Similarly,
Thank you = (1) thank you. “
This is true of all sentences of this type.
2.3. Inversion. The normal word-order is sometimes changed for
special effect. Examples may be found both in literature and in
common speech.
Red as a rose is she. (Normal word-order: She is red as a
rose.)
Fish, I like very much. (Normal word-order: | like fish very
much.) ; .
Exercise 2. Divide each of the following sentences into a subject and
a predicate:
1. Alice danced very well.
. Children swim in the swimming-pool.
. Men and women are working in the fields.
All of us have seen this picture. .
Boys from the next block broke the street lamp.
. Come in. please.
. Save me!
- Don't disturb the class.
3. KINDS OF SENTENCES
Sentences are of four kinds.
wy
eu anauw 3.1. Statement. Statements are sentences that give facts or describe
events or things. They may be affirmative (positive) or negative.
Affirmative
Clouds bring us rain.
Twenty soldiers died in the battle.
Ours is a beautiful country.
Negative
I have not seen her for a long time.
A tiger doesn’t eat grass.
3.2. Interrogative (questions)
Did the President visit the town?
Where can we get this book?
Is she a pretty girl?
3.3. Imperative (requests, comniands, suggestions etc.)
Order the dinner.
Lend me your pen, please.
Let us go out for a picnic. %
~ Get ready to fire.
3.4, Exclamatory (to express surprise, anger, regret, joy etc.)
\ What a surprise!
What a piece of work is man!
\ Lucky man!
Oh! How tragic!
{ How stupid of you to say that!
Terrible!
4. SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
4.1. Simple sentence. A simple sentence contains only one predicate.
That means it can have only one verb.
. They danced with joy.
Will you write it down?
Don’t put out the light.
All the members of the team played well.
George is quite hard-working.
4 1 4.2.
43
Compound sentence. When two or more simple sentences are
joined together by a connecting word (like and, but, or ete.) we
get a compound sentence. Look at these sentences:
Samson went out for a walk.
George’stayed at home.
Both these are indepe!
a predicate.
We can join them thus:
Samson went out fora walk but George stayed at home.
Similarly.
They reached the port and took a ship to India.
You must return the book or pay its price.
Live to learn and you will learn to live.
neces. each having a subject and
. Complex sentence. Look at this sentence:
God saw that the light was good.
It consists of two parts: (i) God saw
(ii) that the light was good.
The first part is independent but the second part depends on the
first for its meaning. The independent part is called the Main
clause, the dependent part is called the Subordinate clause.
A complex sentence has only one main clause but may have
more than one subordinate clause.
1 know shat you will succeed because you are hard-working.
There is nothing hat this book can tell me which | do not already
know.
You will notice that the main clause and the subordinate clause
are joined together by connecting words like that, which,
because, etc.
Exercise 3. Which of the following are Simple, Compound and
Complex sentences?
ont
1, Man is a social animal. ¢
2. God helps those who help themselves. §°®~~*
3. He told me that he was going abroad for a holiday. S?~
4. How did you enter the room if the door was locked? Ces
2 9.
- He told them that they could all get into the bus if they
formed a queue. wm oy
. Reach the cinema hall in time or you Will miss the newsreel.
- All the passengers on the boat jumped into the water.
| was born in Kenya but have spent most of my childhood
here. or
I have been learning English for the last two years and now |
am studying Russian also.
10. We can climb to the top of the mountain tomorrow. ui
CHAPTER IL
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE-II
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
. We have said that a sentence makes complete sense by itself. Let
us now deal with two smaller parts of a sentence: Phrases and
Clauses. They also make sense but they do not make complete
sense. Look at this sentence:
_ He received a very big parcel.
The unit a very big parcel in the. first sentence makes sense but
does not make complete sense. It does not have a predicate. Such”
a unit is called aphrase. Similarly, the portions italicised in the
following sentences are also phrases:
e lives on the top floor.
There is a man outside the window.
All the boys in the class stood up.
Tell me how to solve this problem.
Delilah was a woman of great beauty.
Now look at this sentence:
He received a parcel which was very big.
The unit which was very big in this sentence, also makes sense. It
has a subject, which, and a predicate, was very big. But it is not
a complete sentence because it does not give a complete meaning
independently. We do not know what the word which stands for.
Such a unit is called a clause.
Examples:
He does not work hard but he is quite intelligent.
Tell me where George has gone.
| asked the teacher what I should do after school.
He who gets up early has more time for his work.
Alice came as soan as she was called.
The portions in italics are all clauses. Exercise
4.Which of the italicised portions in the following sentences
are phrases and which clauses?
1.
2.
3
4.
5
6.
7.
8
9
1
The cat is sitting on the roof.
. She lives in the next street.
. The boy did not know that his father had come. ©
Jack and Jill went up.the hill, vw
. Lunderstand that George has become an actor.¢
. The train left avo hours late. »
. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West. ©
. They who live by the sword shall perish by the sword. ¢
. The people of the city came out to.welcome their leader.
0. Do you know how to swim? 6.
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4,
CHAPTER III
SENTENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE-IIL
PARTS OF SPEECH
Words in a sentence are divided into different kinds according to
their function in it. We call them Parts of Speech.
They are eight in number.
1. Noun
. Pronoun
. Adjective
Verb
. Adverb
. Preposition
Conjunction
8. Interjection
Noun. A word that we use for giving a name to a person, place,
thing, quality, idea or action is called a Nown.
The girl spoke sweetly to the stranger.
Girl and stranger are nouns here.
Similarly, George, Ethiopia, beauty, honesty, air, baitle are ‘all
nouns.
Pronoun. A word that we use in place of a noun is called a
Pronoun.
The little girl spoke sweetly to the stranger.
She gave him water to drink.
Here she is used for the Jittle girl and is a pronoun. Similarly,
him is used for the stranger and is also a pronoun. Other common
pronouns are: J, we, you, he, she, they, it, me, us, them etc.
Adjective. A word that is ised to add Something to the meaning
of a noun is called an Adjective. -
The little girl spoke sweetly to the tall stranger.
Little tells us something more about the girl; it is an adjective
Similarly, tall is used as an adjective for the noun stranger.
yer
NQAUWRWYD 6.5. Verb. A verb is a word that tells us what somebody or something
does, what state somebody or something is in. or what is
becoming of somebody or something.
The little girl spoke sweetly to the stranger.
Spoke here is a verb that tells us what the little girl did.
6.6. Adverb. An adverb qualifies or adds to the meaning of a verb or
an adjective. It can also qualify another adverb or a preposition.
The little girl spoke sirce/ly to the stranger.
Sweeily here qualifies the verb spoke.
Look at this sentence:
The little girl spoke very sweetly to the very fall stranger.
Here, very qualifies the adverb swees Very also qualifies an
adjective in very fall. In both places very is an adverb.
Look at this sentence now.
The little girl came sfraight into the room.
The word straight qualifies the preposition into;
therefore, an adverb here.
6.7. Preposition. A preposition is a word placed usually before a
noun or a noun phrase to show its relation to some other word or
words in a sentence.
The little girl spoke sweetly o the stranger.
Here, fa is placed before the noun the strunger and tells the
relation between him and the fitle girl: tc is, therefore. a
preposition.
6.8. Conjunction. A conjunction is a word that is used for joining
words, phrases, clauses and sentences.
The little girl spoke sweetly to the stranger wad gave him
water to drink.
Here aid joins two clauses
(i) The little girl spoke sweetly.
(ii) (She) gave him water to drink.
So the word aad is a conjunction.
Another example:
The little girl and her brother were polite to the stranger.
(aid here connects two words)
10
raight is, Ve
6.9. Interjection. A word that we use to express some feeling of the
mind is called /ntexjection. An Interjection is not connected with
other words in the sentence but stands by itself.
Examples: Alas! He has left us.
Baht That's nonsense!
Oh! So you are the trouble-maker.
Alas, Bah, Oh are sounds that express sudden feelings of regret,
anger and surprise. .
Other interjections are:
hurrah (for joy)
oh. alas. ah (for regret. grief)
tuCtut, bosh, pooh (for impatience, contempt, rebuke)
eh (for surprise)
wow ( for admiration and wonder)
bravo (for approval)
hey (for calling attention. expressing surprise)
WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
Look at these sentences:
The doctor is on a round of the ward (Noun)
A football is around object. (Adjective)
The doctor went -ound the ward (Preposition)
The minister rounded off his visit to his home town by going
to his old school. (Verb)
The sparrow flew round and round (Adverb)
The word round in these sentences has been used in different
Ways. It is vou in the first sentence, and adjective in the second
and so on. Likewise. many other words in English can be used as
different parts of speech
- Other examples:
Bite
Verb: A mad man once bir a dog. (Air is the past tense of hitey
English doesn’t pire those who try to learn it.
Noun: The boys took a quick Aire and rushed off to the classes, Reach
Verb: We reached home on time.
Noun: Good marks are within the reach of any intelligent
student.
Only
Adjective: He is the on/y child of his parents.
Adverb: ] oly heard the news this morning.
Conjunction: Do what you want to do: on/y leave me alone.
Near ‘
Adjective: Tell me the nearest (shortest) way to the station.
Adverb: Examinations are near at hand.
Preposition: Come and sit near me.
Verb: The bridge is nearing completion.
All
Adjective: Al/ cats are animals.
Adverb: The teacher is af/ aione in the room.
Noun: He lost his «// in the war
Needs
Noun: My see's are not many.
Verb: He needs money to buy rice.
Hot
Adjective: It is a Aor day today.
Adverb: He grew hor at my reply.
Verb: The war between the neighbours Aosied up. (hotted up =
became hotter, or became more fierce)
UP
Adverb: Leck him up.
Preposition: They climbed mp the hill
Noun: Everyone has ups and downs in his life. (Ups ane downs =
good fortune and bad?
Down
Adverb: Sit dow.
Preposition: The boy climbed down the ladder,
Verb: He downed a glass of beer.
George downed the other boxer in just two rounds.
12 74.
Noun: He has faced many ups and downs in his career.
. Here are a few examples of some common verbs used as ouis.
Throw: His house is at a stone's throw from the school.
Buy: We made a good bay in the market.
Leave: | must take Jeave of you now.
Fill: We all ate to our fill.
Hold: He caught hold of the thief.
¢ made four ses and failed each time.
Fall: There is a fall in prices.
Run: This film is having a good rum in the town.
Drink: Will you like a drink?
Touch: The painter gave a final touch to the painting.
Show: The school team made a good show in the match
Blow: He gave many lows to the pick-pocket.
Some common nouns used as verbs.
Air: He likes to air his knowledge.
Bag: The hunter bagged a deer with a single shot.
Chair: He was invited to-chair the conference.
Book. You must dvok seats in advance.
Eye: The police inspector eyed (watched) me with suspicion.
Face: Samson faced many difficulties during the journey.
Head: Dr. George heads our school.
Pocket: He pocketed the money quietly.
Silence: No government can silence its critics by arresting them.
Sun: He was sunning himself on the beach.
Stone: The children stoned the snake to death.
Corner: The police cornered the thief. (to corner = to putm a
difficult situation from which one cannot get out)
Exercise 3. Point out the part of speech of words in italics.
1. I don’t dow anything about it.
2. George is in the know of all the facts.
| The bus has to s/ow down at the crossing.
” The slow tortoise won the race against the hare.
_ He told the driver to go slow.
ww
3 6
7
8
9
. Thad much difficulty in sclving this problem
She liked her new dress very much,
. Let us give a thought to this problem.
George thought over the matter.
19. The mechanic oi/ed the machine.
1. Puta s/op to this nonsense!
12. It was a hard climb to the top.
13. The new boss is /urd to please.
14. Don’t idle away your time.
15. Name some of the neighbouring counties of Ethiopia. 8.
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
CHAPTER IV
NOUNS
KINDS OF NOUNS
A word that we use for giving a name to a person, place, thing,
quantity. idea or action is called a Noun.
There are five different kinds of Nouns."
They are:
|. Proper Nouns
2. Common Nouns
3. Collective Nouns
4. Material Nouns
5. Abstract Nouns
Proper Nouns. A proper noun is the name of a particular person
or thing.
Examples:
Join was a disciple of Christ.
Addis Ababa is the capital of Ethiopia.
The Nile is one of the largest rivers of the world.
Lake Tana is the-source of the Blue Nile.
Islam is a world religion. .
John and Christ in the first sentence are names of particular
persons. They are proper nouns. Similarly, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, The Nile, Tana and Islam are also names of particular
places and things and are therefore proper nouns.
Other examples:
Khartoum, The Alps, Suez Canal, North-America.
Some common nouns become proper nouns when they are used
to name a particular thing.
Words like war, nation, sea, revolution, university, organization,
son are all common nouns but they become proper nouns in the
following names:
World War I
United Nations Organization
+ Red Sea October Revolution
University of Delhi
Son of God
8.5. Some proper nouns may be used as common nouns. This happens
when we use proper nouns to describe persons or things.
Einstein is a proper noun. But look at the following sentence:
Einstein is the Newton of modern times. (Einstein is the
greatest scientist of modern times)
8.6. Common Nouns. A common noun is a name which we give to
any person or thing of the same kind or class.
Examples:
Solomon was a wise king.
Tana is a famous /ake in Ethiopia.
The Bible is a sacred book.
In the first sentence, Solomon is the name of a particular king:
therefore, it is a proper noun. But the word king can be used for
any king. It is a common noun. Likewise, Jake and hook are
common nouns.
Other examples:
city, plant, river, village, stone, pencil, chair. dog
8.7. Collective Nouns. A collective noun is the name given to a proup
of persons or things considered as a whole.
Examples:
police, public, committee, government, cattle, jury. people.
8.8. Usage. (a) Nouns like people, caitle, police are singular in form
but are used with a plural verb.
Examples:
There are a lot of poor people in our country.
The leader told the people to remain united.
The meeting hall was crowded with people.
The people in the town are demanding a bigger hospital.
The word people can also be used to mean a nation. In this sense
it also forms a plural by adding -s to it.
The Gurkhas are a brave people.
It is hard work that makes a people great.
16 The peoples of Asia are no less intelligent than those of
Europe.
Cattle
The cattle are grazing in the field.
Fifty head of cattle died in the floods.
Where are all your cattle?
A herd of cattle blocked the traffic on the road.
Police
The police have not been able to arrest the robbers yet.
The police are on duty to control the crowds.
(b) Nouns like committee, government, jury can be used as both
singular and plural nouns.
Committee
AS singular ;
The committee és-in favour of the proposal.
‘The committee meers twice a month.
(Committee is treated as one)
As plural
The committee (i.e. the members of the committee)care_ >
divided over the proposal.
Government
As singular
There is an efficient government in the country now.
government as a unit)
A new government has been formed after the elections.
As plural
The government are considering this matter from various
angles. (government as composed of variwus departments)
Jury “3
As singular &) ee
The jury has not given its verdict yet.
(Gury as a single body) c
As plural
The jury are divided in their views on the murder case.
(i.e. the members of the jury)
7 These nouns have a plural form also:
committees (i.e. more than one committee)
governments
Juries
Example:
Many governments have signed the treaty.
* (c) The noun public may take either a singular or a plural verb
without change of meaning.
Example: . .
The public is the best judge in a democracy.
The public are the best judges ina democracy.
Some other coltective nouns are:
team
army
flock
crowd
mob
shoes
8.9. Material Nouns, A material noun is used to name the matter or
substance of which things are made.
Examples:
milk, meat, gold, air, cloth
8.10. Abstract Nouns. An abstract noun denotes quality, state or
action.
Quality - cleverness, honesty, softness, darkness, wisdom,
beauty
State - poverty, sickness, sorrow, slavery
Action - laughter, decision, inspection, dacoity
Names of different arts and sciences are also abstract nouns.
Examples:
music, physics, painting
8.11. An abstract noun may sometimes change its'kind. This depends
on its use. Examples:
Mountains have a great majesty of their own. (majesty used
as abstract noun)
His majesty the king pardoned him. (majesty used as proper
noun)
The future of a country depends on its youth. (youth = its
young people, a collective noun)
Poverty destroyed her youth and beauty. (as abstract noun)
He does his work. (as abstract noun)
I would like to read all the works of Shakespeare. (as
common noun)
Exercise 6. Pick out the different kinds of nouns from the
following sentences:
1. On Sunday George and his friends went to the beach.
2. The picnic spot had great beauty. ~
3. Sickness is a great curse.
4. The water here is very cold.
5. The people ran out of their houses for safety.
6. The jury has not yet taken a decision.
7. 1 shall never forget your kindness.
8. The windows are fitted with glass. .
9. The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.
10.The Sahara is the largest desert in the world.
NOUN FORMATION
. Abstract nouns from adjectives:
adjectives abstract nouns | adjectives abstract nouns
absent absence just justice
bitter bitterness near nearness
broad breadth popular popularity
cléan cleanliness poor poverty
_ctuel cruelty proud pride
dark darkness sad sadness
deep depth safe safety
great greatness short shortness
19 high height true
honest honesty wise
hot heat young,
9.2. Abstract nouns from verbs:
verbs abstract nouns {| verbs
admit admission die
act action decide
add addition do
advise advice enjoy
agree agreement enter
behave . behaviour fail
believe beliet fear
betray betrayal fly
choose choice give
combine combination go,
convert conversion hate
improve improvement | speak
sing
tose loss situate
mix mixture see
please pleasure think
press pressure translate
truth
wisdom
youth
abstract nouns
death
decision
deed
enjoyment
entrance .
failure : -
fright
flight
gift
gait
hatred
Speech
song
situation
sight
thought
translation
Note: Abstract nouns are also formed by adding- ing to verbs.
Examples:
dancing, dining, cheating, farming.
9.3, Abstract nouns from common nouns:
common nouns abstract nouns \common nouns abstract nouns
agent
bankrupt
boy
Christian
cart
diplomat
agency friend
bankruptcy | father
judge
boyhood king
Christianity | leader
man
cartage product
diplomacy | slave
20
friendship
fatherhood
judgement
kingship
leadership
manhood
production
slavery 9.4. Abstract nouns from verbs without change of form:
verb abstract nouns | verbs abstract nouns
build build make make
catch catch raise raise
ery ery shout shout
doubt doubt stand stand
fear fear step step
fight fight try try
hate hate walk walk
hope hope wish wish
love love
9.5. Verbs used as common nouns:
verb common nouns , verbs common nouns
drink drink fly fly
cheat cheat sink sink
9.6 Some nouns are formed by combining two nouns:
butter + milk = buttermilk
back + bone = backbone
chair+ man = chairman
class +room =classroom
head +ache = headache
head + master = headmaster
house + wife = housewife
landlord = landlord
news + paper = newspaper
note + book = notebook
pan+cake = pancake
post+bag = postbag
rain+ bow = rainbow
rail+ way = railway
9.7, Nouns formed by combining other parts of speech:
verb + noun or noun +verb
hangman — showman
killjoy snakebite
stopcock workman
ay stopwatch — hairdo .
adjective + noun or noun + adjective
busybody spoonful ~
hardcover handful
verb + adverb or adverb + verb
comeback inflow
cutbreak outflow
outlook outery
output flyover
fallout income
breakthrough upkeep
intake uplift
Particle + Nowr
indoors outstation
inside outgrowth
outline overtime
outside upstage
outdoors background
outcaste
10.
10.1.
10.2.
COUNTABLE NOUNS AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Countable Nouns. Countable nouns name objects which can be
counted. These nouns have their singular and plural forms.In
this category come common nouns(like pencil, bird, tree,wall
etc. Jand some collective nouns(like union.team,committee etc.)
Examples:
A pencil, two birds , fifty metres, a million stars, two unions,
ten teams
Uncountable Nouns. Uncountable nouns name objects that
cannot be counted. These nouns do not form plurals. Nor do
they take a, arymany, before them.
Examples:
Water, honey, wheat, rice, sugar, iron
We cannot say *a water *two sugars or *many golds.
22
° We don’t think of such nouns in terms of numbers but think of
them in terms of quantity or mass.We measure them by using a
unit which can be counted. Material nouns fallin this class.
Examples:
Material Nouns: .
. glass of water a few grains of sand
a pint of wine two quintals of wheat
a litre of oil a brick of gold
a bottle of milk a cylinder of oxygen
a cup of tea ten meires of cloth
two spoonfuls of brandy _ five metres of wire
a dose of medicine a loaf of bread
acask of beer a pound of butter
a bag of rice a pinch of salt
akilogram of sugar
Natural phenomena like heat, cold, light, darkness are also
uncountable nouns. Names of ideas, states, qualities, actions and
also branches of knowledge are uncountable nouns:
honesty, slavery, punishment, beauty, music, philosophy,
geography. .
Abstract aouns:
an example of honesty
a tale of misery
aray of light
memories of childhood
a branch of knowledge
10.3. Some uncountable nouns like water, advice can be used as
countable nouns but in such cases their plural forms have
different meanings.
Examples:
The waters of India (= The rivers of India)
Advices from our Tokyo office ( = Commercial information
from our Tokyo office)
Heats in a 100- metre race (=stages of | competition...)
23 11. PLURALS
11.1, Regular Plurals, We generally form plurals. of nouns by adding-
5 to the singular. .
Singular Plural Singular — Plural
boy- ‘boys table tables
pencil pencils egg eggs
chair chairs seat seats
11.2. Nouns which end in -s. ish, -ch, -x form plurals by adding -es
Singular Plural Singular + Plural
class classes. | witch witches
dish . dishes box. boxes.
11.3. Nouns ending in-o form plurals in two ways. (i) by adding -s (it)
by adding - es.
Singular | Plural Singular Phiral
photo » photos motto mottoes ,
dynamo dynamos | mango mangoes
solo solos mosquito —_ mosquitoes
ratio ratios negro negroes;,
11.4. Some nouns ending in - f or - fe form plurals hanging
into -ves. .
Singular Plural Singular — Plural
leaf leaves, knife knives
thief thieves wife wives
Exceptions: .
chief ~ chiefs, proof proofs
roof roofs belief beliefs
dwarf dwarfs
11.5. Nouns that end in -1 and are preceded by a consonant form
plurals by changing -v into -/ and adding - es.
Singular Plural Singular. Plural
baby babies city cities
lads ladies army armies
24 11.6. Irregular Plurals. Some nouns form their plurafs by Changes
other than adding -s or -es .
Singular Plural | Singular Phoal
child children louse lice
oN oxen mouse mice
foot feet man men
tooth teeth woman women
brother brethren
goose geese (old form)
11.7, Foreign words and words of foreign’ origin form plurals in
different ways.
Singular Plural Singular Pharal
analysis analyses focus . focuses:
bas' bases locus
bacillus bacilli medium media
bacterium bacteria nucleus nuclei
datum data , phenomenon phenomena
dictum dicta syllabus syllabi
erratum errata thesis theses
formula formulae,] tableau tableaux
formulas
11.8. Compound nouns form plurals by adding -s to the main word or
by making some change in the main word.
Singular Plurat
son-in-law sons-in-law
daughter-in-law daughters-in-law
commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief
passer-by passers-by
maid-servant maid-servants
man-of- war men-of-war
man-eater man-eaters
man-hour man-hours
11.9. Some compound nouns form plurals by making plural
both the parts of the compound noun.
¥ Singular Plurat
woman-servant women-servants
man-servant men-servants
woman - student ‘women-students
11.10. Usage of some special nouns
As singular
He killed a sheep.
George caught a big salmon.
His only means of livelihood is selling flowers.
An enemy aircraft was shot down.
As plural -
There are many sheep in the shed.
They caught many salmon last week.
What are the means of transport in our country?
All of our aircraft have returned safely.
Other examples:
deer, series, swine, hare.
11.11. Some nouns are used only as plurals.
Examples:
The staff are working overtime.
The gentry of the town were present at the function,
Other examples:
poultry, vermin.
11.12. Some nouns are in plural. form only, and are used only in the
plural sense.
Examples:
This pair of trousers does not fit me.
Where are my trousers?
Scissors are used for cutting cloth.
Many thanks for your gift.
Are these your spectacles?
| found a pair of spectacles in the library,
Other examples:
goods, riches, gallows, alms, bellows.
26 11.13. Some nouns are plural in form but are always used as singular.
These include names of subjects in arts and sciences.
Examples:
Here is the xews read by George.
Physics is a difficult subject.
Measles is a troublesome disease.
The first innings of the match is over.
The house is in a shambles.
(shambles = in ruins.)
Other examples: .
Economics, Mathematics, mumps etc.
11.14. Pains (trouble, effort) usually takes"a plural verb.
Examples:
No pains were spared by him.
No great pains are necessary to learn Swahili.
11.15. Use of fruit, fish and hair.
Fruit: More people eat fruit these days than before. (fruit is
used here as a collective noun)
There are not many fruits available in the market. (here
‘ Jruits shows variety) .
Fish: Fish live in water.(used as a collective noun and as a
plural)
There are different kinds of fishes in the sea. (used for
variety of fishes)
Fish is good as food. (used as a material noun)
Hair: His hair is dark and shiny. (Hair is used as a collective
noun)
He has only a few Aairs left on his head (Here, hair is used
as a common, countable noun)
12, GENDER
12.1. Gender indicates the sex of objects in nature. A noun that refers
to a male is said to be of Masculine gender.The noun that refers to a
female is.said to be of the Feminine gender.
27 12.2.
12.3,
13.
13.1.
Examples:
Masculine Feminine
man woman
boy girl
brother sister
dog bitch
bull cow
There are some nouns which can refer to either a male or a
female. Such nouns are said to have a common gender.
Examples: .
child, student, friend, servant, parent, artist, cousin, baby,
person, president, ministry, member, idiot.
We can use the pronoun he or she for these nouns depending
upon whether they are male or female.
Note: We often use the pronoun it for child or baby,
Examples:
The child /baby is looking pretty. It is wearing a red dress.
Some nouns that refer to objects that are neither male nor
female are said to have Neuter gender.
Examples: .
pencil, books, houses, shoes, tree, plant, water, oxygen, gold.
FEMININE GENDER FORMATION
By using an altogether different word.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
boy girl king queen
husband wife lord lady
father mother monk
papa mama friar pun
uncle aunt dog bitch
sori daughter cock hen
nephew niece colt filly
gentleman lady drone bee
sir madam buck doe
duke duchess horse mare
bachelor maid stag hind
28 fox vixen gander goose
earl countess drake duck
13.2. By adding-ss, -ess with or without dropping a vowel of the
masculine.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
prince princess actor actress
poet poetess hunter huntress
priest Priestess instructor instructress
god goddess. negro negress
prophet prophetess emperor empress
host hostess tempter temptress
heir heiress tiger tigress
shepherd shepherdess -waiter waitress
author authoress master mistress
patron patroness traitor traitress
Jion lioness
13.3. Some nouns have special ending in masculine or feminine gender.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
hero heroine executor executrix
viceroy vicereine bridegroom bride
widower widow beau belle
13.4. By adding a prefix or by a change of suffix.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
he-goat she-goat grandson —_ granddaughter
he-bear she-bear landlord landlady
man-servant —maid-servant | dairyman dairymaid
grandfather grandmother washerman washerwoman
13.5. Objects without life are in neuter gender. But sometimes we
speak of them as if they were alive, that is, they are regarded as
either male or female.
Masculine gender for objects Feminine gender for objects
denoting strength, greatness, denoting beauty, fertility,
violence ete. gentleness, grace, etc.
29 sun moon
summer spring
winter modesty
time fame
death virtue
thunder mercy
war charity
wind peace
liberty
earth
~ ship, railway train,
motor-car.
14. NOUN: ITS USES
14,1. Noun as subject of the verb.
The boy came home.
Peter read the book.
He returned the book after reading.
14.2. Noun as object of the verb.
George broke the window (as direct object)
He eared some money. (as direct object)
He has gone to spend it. .
I gave George some money. (George is the indirect object and
some money direct object)
I gave him a pen also.
14.3, Noyn as complement of the subject. In sentences of this type,
the nouns in the subject and the predicate refer to the same
object.
Mary is my sister.
She is a very good cook.
14.4. Noun used for addressing someone.
Are you coming, Alice?
George, come here.
14.5. Noun as complement of the verb.
He became captain of the team.
The general turned traitor to the country.
30 The nouns italicized are necessary to complete the meaning of
the verb.
414.6. Noun as object of the preposition.
The book is in the draner.
Mother is in the kitchen.
14.7. Noun used to show possession or source etc.
George's girl-friend has come.
Alice’s dog is barking loudly.
A mother’s love is unselfish.
Shakespeare's plays are well-known,
Great was Solomon's wisdom.
Possession (or source) can also be expressed by using of.
The love ofa mother is unselfish.
The plays of Shakespeare are well-known,
The phrases of a mother and of. Shakespeare express possession.
Note: We form possessives of nouns by adding - to them.
This boy’s books are on the table.
But when the noun is plural and ends in -s we do hot need an extra -».
This is a boys school.
That is the girls” hostel, .-
14.8. There is another way in which possessive nouns can be used.
Examples:
He is a friend of George's,
I have just finished a play of Shakespeare's
Here the phrase a friend of George's means one of George's
Friends; a play of Shakespeare's means one of the plays of
Shakespeare. We can use this form only when the second noun
(George, Shakespeare etc.) is a Person. We cannot use a phrase
like *a book of the library's *a-brick of the house's.
14.9.There is yet another way of using possessives,
We met him at our uncle's.
The servant has gone to the chemist’s.
My son studies at St. Xavier's,
3t The phrase af our uncle's means at our uncle's place of
residence; to the chemist’s means to the chemist’s shop and at St.
Xavier's means at St. Xavier's school or college.
We omit the noun after the possessive because they are understood.
14.10. Use of Noun in Apposition.
George, the captain, scored two goals.
Both George and the captain are one and the same person.
The second noun merely explains the first noun, George.
Here the second rioun, the captain, is the noun in apposition.
Other examples:
1 met your sister, the doctor.
Marx, the great philosopher, was born in Germany.
Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with George or its possessive form
George’s.
. is away.
. Here is my friend, .... a
.» parents are here. Where are yours?
. Let us go to your house. We shall go to
. She went home with...
. This is my note book. Where i
. This is a book of...
tomorrow.
NOWEBwNe CHAPTER V
PRONOUNS
15. PRONOUNS AND THEIR FUNCTION
15.1. A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. We use a pronoun
when we do not want to repeat a noun in a sentence or in a
longer piece of writing.
George told me George was going to Bombay.
George told metie was going to Bombay.
The pronoun he in the second sentenve helps us to avoid
repetition of the noun George. .
George is an intelligent boy. George studies with me.
George lives in the street next to mine. George and J often
play together.
The repetition of the noun George can be avoided by using a
pronoun in its place. We could say,
George is an intelligent boy. He studies with me. He lives in
the street next to mine. He and /often play together.
15.2. A pronoun can be used in place of a noun phrase, a noun clause
and a whole sentence. .
He talks in a fwimy way. I do not like i: (The pronoun if
replaces the noun phrase a funny wey)
We don’t know where they have gone. We don’t really know
it. (The pronoun it replaces the clause where they have gone)
‘The rains have failed. Jt means famine. (The pronoun /t here
stands for the sentence, The rains have failed) (oan09UJ) "SH SEIN SID ¢
“Unouosd aalssassod v se pasn jou Sts Unotiord ou ON.
- - 5,30 | sauo Btlo | sauo
- - su uw w
sral| 2 ay ays | Usd’
Stay, ayy SHY > waqr tury Aon oy Pat
. uos.iod
sano Sano. anod aod nox nox now nox pulosag
sano eurur ano AW sn au an '
poung | wojnduig
Pati |_ ojasurs
ponte [_1yaBing typo | ining
UNOUOdg
aayssassog
aayoaipe
AUSSISSOG
ratqo joadgny
TATGVL
“SUNOS MDOP Jot ul sunouosd jeuiossod Saas ayqey BULMOTOF OY, Other examples:
He sold out afl the household goods. They were bought by
me. (noun phrase)
| tell you that he is a traitor. In fact everyone knows it
(noun clause)
She has failed again. Her parents are unhappy at is
(sentence)
16. PRONOUNS: KINDS
16.1. Pronouns are of four different kinds:
1. Personal Pronouns. 3. Relative Pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronouns 4. Interrogative Pronouns
16.2. Personu! Pronouns stand for three persons. i.e. First Person
Second Person, Third Person (see Table 2). ,
17. USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
17.1. As subject
TABLE 3
cannot eat all this food.
z We
7 You should run faster,
He
She jumped over the wall.
It
They
17.2. As object
TABLE 4
George knows me.
US.
The boy soon found you.
him,
The good old lady still remembers her.
in
them.
we
a 17.3. As possessive adjective
TABLE 5
my
our
The employers were your performance.
satisfied with his
her
us
their
17.4. Possessive Pronouns
This is ny shirt.
This can also be written as
This shirt is mine,
Similarty,
This is our school,
or
This school is ours.
17.5. Examine the use of possessive pronouns to avoid repetition
in the following table.
TABLE 6
|. The employers were | But they were not | or | Bat they were
satisfied with my work. | satisfied with his not satisfied with
work. his.
2. This does not look [It must be her} or | ltmust be hers
like your pen. pen. . o
3. As that your car? No, it is their car. | or | No. itis theirs. Other examples:
7
Possessive noun Possessive adjective Possessive pronoun
T. This is Alice's shirt. This is Aer shirt. This shirt is fers.
2. That is George's That is Ais “ook. That book is his.
book.
3. That is the house of That is their house. That house is theirs.
George, Alice and
Mary.
4, 1s this your car? Is this car yours? .
5 —— It is not ay’ car. This car is not mine.
6. — These are our chairs. These chairs are
ours.
Look at the following sentence:
1 met one of your friends at the party.
This can be rewritten as,
\ met a friend of yours at the party.
Similarly,
He is a student of mine. (
