Data Communication and

Computer Network

Chapter 5th – Reference Models

Unit 5 Notes UR Engineering Friend

OSI Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the communication process between different computer systems. The model
consists of seven layers, each of which represents a different aspect of network
communication.
The layers are:

1. Physical Layer: The physical layer is the first and lowest layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for the physical transmission of data over a communication channel. This
includes defining the electrical, mechanical, and physical specifications for the
transmission medium, such as cables, fibres, or wireless signals.
2. Data Link Layer: The data link layer is responsible for the reliable transmission of
data between adjacent network nodes. This includes error detection and correction,
flow control, and framing. The layer is divided into two sub-layers: the Media Access
Control (MAC) layer, which controls access to the transmission medium, and the
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer, which provides addressing and framing of data.
3. Network Layer: The network layer provides logical addressing and routing services
to enable communication between different networks. It determines the best path for
data transmission based on network conditions and protocols. The layer is responsible
for packet forwarding and routing, network congestion control, and quality of service
(QoS) management.
4. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the reliable end-to-end
delivery of data between applications running on different hosts. It provides error
detection, flow control, and congestion control to ensure that data is delivered in the
correct order and without loss or corruption. The layer is divided into two protocols:
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
5. Session Layer: The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and
terminating sessions between applications. It provides services such as session
establishment, session maintenance, and session termination. This layer enables
applications to exchange data with a degree of reliability and ensures that data is sent
and received in the correct order.
6. Presentation Layer: The presentation layer provides a common representation of
data to ensure that different hosts can interpret it correctly. It handles data formatting,
compression, and encryption to ensure that data is presented in a consistent and
meaningful way.
7. Application Layer: The application layer is the highest layer of the OSI model. It
provides interfaces to the user and the network services, allowing applications to
access network resources. This layer includes protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
and Telnet.
TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer conceptual model used to standardize the communication
protocols used on the internet.

Here is a brief explanation of each layer:

1. Network Access Layer (or Link Layer): This layer is responsible for the physical
transmission of data over the network. It defines how data is formatted, transmitted,
and received on the network, and includes technologies such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
2. Internet Layer: The internet layer is responsible for addressing and routing data
between networks. It defines the Internet Protocol (IP), which is used to identify and
route packets to their destinations.
3. Transport Layer: The transport layer provides reliable end-to-end data delivery
services between applications. It includes the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP provides reliable, error-checked
delivery of data, while UDP provides a lightweight, unreliable transport protocol.
4. Application Layer: The application layer provides services and protocols that enable
applications to access network resources. It includes protocols such as HTTP (for web
browsing), SMTP (for email), FTP (for file transfer), and DNS (for name resolution).
This layer also includes user-facing applications such as web browsers and email
clients.
Link layer Addressing

➢ Link layer addressing is a mechanism used to identify network devices at the link
layer of the OSI model. It is used to ensure that data is transmitted to the correct
destination device on a local network segment.
➢ In the Ethernet protocol, link layer addressing is implemented using Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses. A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to a
network interface controller (NIC) by the manufacturer. It consists of six octets, or 48
bits, and is expressed in hexadecimal notation. The first three octets identify the
manufacturer of the NIC, while the last three octets are a unique identifier for the
device.
➢ When a packet is transmitted on a local network segment, it includes the MAC
address of the destination device in the packet header. This allows the network switch
to forward the packet to the correct device based on its MAC address.
➢ Link layer addressing is important for ensuring efficient and reliable communication
on local networks. By using MAC addresses to identify devices, the network can
minimize unnecessary traffic and ensure that data is transmitted only to the intended
recipient.

Address Resolution Protocol

➢ The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol used to map a network address
(such as an IP address) to a physical address (such as a MAC address).
➢ When a device wants to communicate with another device on the same local network
segment, it needs to know the MAC address of the destination device. It does this by
sending an ARP request packet, which contains the IP address of the destination
device. The request is broadcast to all devices on the local network segment.
 ➢ When the destination device receives the ARP request, it responds with an ARP reply
packet, which contains its MAC address. The ARP reply is sent directly to the
requesting device, and is not broadcast to all devices on the network.
➢ Once the requesting device has received the MAC address of the destination device, it
can create a mapping between the IP address and MAC address in its ARP cache. This
mapping is used for subsequent communication between the two devices, until the
ARP cache entry expires or is deleted.
➢ ARP is an important protocol for enabling communication between devices on a local
network segment. By mapping IP addresses to MAC addresses, it allows devices to
communicate with each other efficiently and reliably.

Classful and Classless Addressing

➢ Classful addressing and classless addressing refer to different methods of assigning IP

addresses to devices on a network.
➢ Classful addressing was the original method of IP address assignment, which divided
IP addresses into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Each class had a predefined network
portion and host portion of the IP address, which limited the number of available IP
addresses per class. Classful addressing assumes that all networks within a class have
the same size and does not allow for subnetting. This approach was inefficient and led
to a waste of IP addresses.
➢ Classless addressing, also known as Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM), was
introduced to allow for more flexible and efficient use of IP addresses. In classless
addressing, the IP address space is divided into variable-length prefixes, allowing for
the creation of subnets of different sizes. This enables the creation of smaller subnets,
reducing the number of wasted IP addresses.
➢ Classless addressing allows for more efficient use of IP addresses and makes it easier
to allocate IP addresses to different network sizes. It is now the preferred method for
IP address assignment and is used in most modern networks.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol used to automatically

assign IP addresses and other network configuration settings to devices on a network.
• When a device connects to a network, it sends a broadcast message requesting
network configuration information, such as an IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and DNS server. A DHCP server on the network receives the request and
assigns a unique IP address and other configuration settings to the requesting device.
The DHCP server maintains a pool of available IP addresses and assigns them
dynamically to requesting devices.

• DHCP simplifies the process of network configuration by automating the assignment

of IP addresses and other settings, reducing the likelihood of conflicting IP addresses
and minimizing the administrative overhead associated with managing IP address
assignments.
• DHCP also supports the allocation of specific IP addresses to specific devices, based
on their MAC addresses. This is known as DHCP reservation, and allows for easier
management of network devices.
• DHCP is widely used in both home and enterprise networks and is an important
component of network infrastructure.
Network Address Translation

➢ Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used to allow multiple devices on

a local network to share a single public IP address. NAT operates by translating the
private IP addresses of devices on the local network into the public IP address
assigned to the network by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
➢ When a device on the local network sends a packet to the Internet, the NAT device
replaces the source IP address of the packet with the public IP address assigned to the
network by the ISP. When the packet returns from the Internet, the NAT device
replaces the destination IP address with the private IP address of the device that sent
the packet.
➢ NAT enables more efficient use of public IP addresses, as multiple devices on the
local network can share a single public IP address. NAT also provides a measure of
security, as it hides the private IP addresses of devices on the local network from the
Internet.
➢ NAT is commonly used in home and small office networks, where a limited number
of public IP addresses are available. It is also used in enterprise networks, where it
can be used to isolate internal networks from the Internet, and to provide a layer of
protection against external attacks.

Transport Layer Protocol

The transport layer is the fourth layer of the OSI and TCP/IP reference models, responsible
for ensuring reliable and efficient data transfer between applications running on different
hosts. The transport layer protocol provides a set of services to the applications, such as
connection-oriented or connectionless communication, segmentation and reassembly of data,
flow control, and error recovery.
There are two commonly used transport layer protocols:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

1. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that establishes a virtual circuit between the

two communicating hosts. It provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of
data, and ensures that all data is received by the receiving host in the correct order.
TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection, and a four-way handshake
to terminate a connection.
2. UDP is a connectionless protocol that does not establish a virtual circuit between the
two communicating hosts. It provides an unreliable, unordered, and non-error checked
delivery of data. UDP is often used in situations where low latency and speed are
more important than reliability, such as real-time applications like video streaming
and online gaming.

The transport layer is an important layer in the OSI and TCP/IP reference models, as it
enables reliable and efficient data transfer between applications running on different hosts. It
is responsible for ensuring that data is transferred securely and efficiently, and is a critical
component of modern networking.

Addressing Mechanism in the Internet IP

➢ The Internet Protocol (IP) uses a hierarchical addressing scheme to uniquely identify
devices on a network. IP addresses are 32-bit binary numbers, but they are typically
represented in decimal form using the dotted decimal notation, which consists of four
octets separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
➢ The IP addressing scheme is divided into two parts: the network address and the host
address. The network address identifies the network to which the device is connected,
while the host address identifies the specific device on that network.
➢ IP addresses are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and
are allocated to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and organizations based on their
geographical location and network requirements.
 ➢ There are two main versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 uses a 32-bit addressing
scheme, which limits the number of unique addresses that can be assigned to devices.
This limitation has led to the exhaustion of available IPv4 addresses, and the adoption
of IPv6, which uses a 128-bit addressing scheme, providing a much larger address
space.
➢ IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Classes A, B, and C
are used for unicast addresses, which identify individual devices on a network. Class
D is used for multicast addresses, which are used to send data to multiple devices on a
network. Class E is reserved for experimental use.
➢ IPv6 addresses are divided into two parts: the prefix and the interface identifier. The
prefix identifies the network to which the device is connected, while the interface
identifier identifies the specific device on that network.
➢ In summary, the addressing mechanism in the Internet IP uses a hierarchical structure
to uniquely identify devices on a network. IP addresses are assigned by the IANA and
are allocated based on geographical location and network requirements. IPv4 and
IPv6 are the two main versions of IP, with IPv6 providing a much larger address
space.

Subnetting and Supernetting

➢ Subnetting and super netting are techniques used to divide or aggregate IP address
ranges, respectively.
➢ Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger IP address range into smaller sub-
networks or subnets. This allows an organization to use a single IP address range to
address multiple smaller networks or subnets, which can help to conserve IP address
space.
➢ In subnetting, a portion of the host bits in an IP address is used to create a separate
network prefix or subnet ID. The remaining bits are used to identify individual hosts
on that subnet. This allows a network administrator to assign IP addresses to devices
in a more efficient and structured way.
 ➢ Super netting, also known as route summarization, is the opposite of subnetting. It
involves combining multiple smaller IP address ranges into a larger single range. This
can help to simplify routing tables and reduce the size of routing updates, which can
improve network performance.
➢ In super netting, adjacent network prefixes are combined into a single prefix, creating
a more general address range. This allows routers to summarize the routes in their
routing tables, making them smaller and easier to manage.
➢ Subnetting and super netting are important techniques for network design and
management. They allow network administrators to better allocate IP addresses,
improve network performance, and reduce the complexity of routing tables.

Subnet Masking

➢ Subnet masking is a technique used in IP networking to divide a larger IP address

range into smaller subnets. It is used in conjunction with subnetting, which is the
process of dividing a larger IP address range into smaller subnets.
➢ Subnet masking is achieved by using a subnet mask, which is a 32-bit value that is
used to identify the network portion and the host portion of an IP address. The subnet
mask is applied to the IP address to determine the network ID and the host ID.
➢ The subnet mask consists of a string of 1s followed by a string of 0s. The number of
1s in the subnet mask determines the size of the network ID and the number of 0s
determines the size of the host ID. For example, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 has
24 1s, which means that the first 24 bits of the IP address are used to identify the
network and the remaining 8 bits are used to identify the host.
➢ By using different subnet masks, network administrators can create subnets of varying
sizes, depending on their network requirements. For example, a subnet mask of
255.255.255.128 would create subnets with 128 hosts each, while a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 would create subnets with up to 254 hosts each.
➢ Subnet masking is an important concept in IP networking, as it allows network
administrators to create smaller subnets within a larger IP address range, which can
help to conserve IP address space and improve network performance.
IPV6 and IPV4

Feature IPv4 IPv6

32-bit address, written in 128-bit address, written in hexadecimal

Address format dotted-decimal notation notation

About 4.3 billion unique

Address space addresses About 340 undecillion unique addresses

Address Stateful or Stateless Address

configuration Manual or DHCP Autoconfiguration (SLAAC)

Header format Fixed-length header Variable-length header

Fragmentation occurs at the

Fragmentation sender and/or routers Fragmentation occurs only at the source

Quality of Service Optional, using Differentiated Integrated, using Flow Label field in
(QoS) Services Code Point (DSCP) header
 Feature IPv4 IPv6

Optional, using Internet Integrated, using IPsec and Internet Key

Security Protocol Security (IPsec) Exchange (IKE)

Uses Class D addresses for

Multicast multicast Uses multicast group IDs

Backward Fully backward compatible with IPv6 nodes can communicate with IPv4
compatibility IPv4 nodes using translation mechanisms

OSI and TCP/IP Reference models

Feature OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model

Number of
Layers 7 4

Layer Names Network Access, Internet, Transport, Application

Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation,
 Feature OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model

Application

Defines a theoretical networking

Protocol Suite framework The basis of the Internet's operation

Standardization of network Actual implementation of network

Focus communication communication

Connection-
Oriented Yes Yes and No

Connectionless Yes Yes

Each layer provides services to the Services are provided by each layer, but are not
Services Provided layer above it strictly tied to a specific layer

Transport
Protocols TCP and UDP TCP and UDP

Each layer adds a header to the data from the

Each layer adds a header to the layer above it, but there is more flexibility in how
Encapsulation data from the layer above it this is done
 Feature OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model

Header Size Fixed-size headers for each layer Headers can vary in size

Contains protocols for different types of

Contains more than one protocol applications, but there is more flexibility in how
Application Layer for different types of applications these are implemented

Implementation OSI is a theoretical model TCP/IP is the practical implementation of OSI