Connexions module: m32661 1

∗
Differential Calculus - Grade 12

Rory Adams
Free High School Science Texts Project
Sarah Blyth
This work is produced by The Connexions Project and licensed under the
†
Creative Commons Attribution License

Chapter: Dierential Calculus - Grade 12

1 Why do I have to learn this stu?

Calculus is one of the central branches of mathematics and was developed from algebra and geometry.
Calculus is built on the concept of limits, which will be discussed in this chapter. Calculus consists of two
complementary ideas: dierential calculus and integral calculus. Only dierential calculus will be studied.
Dierential calculus is concerned with the instantaneous rate of change of quantities with respect to other
quantities, or more precisely, the local behaviour of functions. This can be illustrated by the slope of a
function's graph. Examples of typical dierential calculus problems include: nding the acceleration and
velocity of a free-falling body at a particular moment and nding the optimal number of units a company
should produce to maximize its prot.
Calculus is fundamentally dierent from the mathematics that you have studied previously. Calculus is
more dynamic and less static. It is concerned with change and motion. It deals with quantities that approach
other quantities. For that reason it may be useful to have an overview of the subject before beginning its
intensive study.
Calculus is a tool to understand many natural phenomena like how the wind blows, how water ows,
how light travels, how sound travels and how the planets move. However, other human activities such as
economics are also made easier with calculus.
In this section we give a glimpse of some of the main ideas of calculus by showing how limits arise when
we attempt to solve a variety of problems.

1.1 Extension: Integral Calculus

Integral calculus is concerned with the accumulation of quantities, such as areas under a curve, linear distance
traveled, or volume displaced. Dierential and integral calculus act inversely to each other. Examples of
typical integral calculus problems include nding areas and volumes, nding the amount of water pumped
by a pump with a set power input but varying conditions of pumping losses and pressure and nding the
amount of rain that fell in a certain area if the rain fell at a specic rate.

note: Both Isaac Newton (4 January 1643  31 March 1727) and Gottfried Liebnitz (1 July 1646
 14 November 1716 (Hanover, Germany)) are credited with the `invention' of calculus. Newton

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was the rst to apply calculus to general physics, while Liebnitz developed most of the notation
that is still in use today.

When Newton and Leibniz rst published their results, there was some controversy over whether
Leibniz's work was independent of Newton's. While Newton derived his results years before Leibniz,
it was only some time after Leibniz published in 1684 that Newton published. Later, Newton
would claim that Leibniz got the idea from Newton's notes on the subject; however examination of
the papers of Leibniz and Newton show they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz
starting rst with integration and Newton with dierentiation. This controversy between Leibniz
and Newton divided English-speaking mathematicians from those in Europe for many years, which
slowed the development of mathematical analysis. Today, both Newton and Leibniz are given credit
for independently developing calculus. It is Leibniz, however, who is credited with giving the new
discipline the name it is known by today: "calculus". Newton's name for it was "the science of
uxions".

2 Limits
2.1 A Tale of Achilles and the Tortoise
note: Zeno (circa 490 BC - circa 430 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy
who is famous for his paradoxes.

One of Zeno's paradoxes can be summarised by:

Achilles and a tortoise agree to a race, but the tortoise is unhappy because Achilles is very fast.
So, the tortoise asks Achilles for a head-start. Achilles agrees to give the tortoise a 1 000 m head
start. Does Achilles overtake the tortoise?
We know how to solve this problem. We start by writing:

xA = vA t
(1)
xt = 1000 m + vt t
where

xA distance covered by Achilles

vA Achilles' speed

t time taken by Achilles to overtake tortoise

xt distance covered by the tortoise

vt the tortoise's speed

Table 1
−1 −1
If we assume that Achilles runs at 2 m·s and the tortoise runs at 0,25 m·s then Achilles will overtake
the tortoise when both of them have covered the same distance. This means that Achilles overtakes the

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tortoise at a time calculated as:

xA = xt
vA t = 1000 + vt t
−1
t = 1000 m + 0, 25 m · s−1 t



2m · s
2 m · s−1 − 0, 25 m · s−1 t =


1000 m
1000 m
t = 1 43 m·s−1 (2)

1000 m
= 7 −1
4 m·s
(4)(1000)
= 7 s
4000
= 7 s
= 571 37 s
However, Zeno (the Greek philosopher who thought up this problem) looked at it as follows: Achilles takes

1000
t= = 500 s (3)
2
to travel the 1 000 m head start that the tortoise had. However, in this 500 s, the tortoise has travelled a
further

x = (500) (0, 25) = 125 m. (4)

Achilles then takes another

125
t= = 62, 5 s (5)
2
to travel the 125 m. In this 62,5 s, the tortoise travels a further

x = (62, 5) (0, 25) = 15, 625 m. (6)

Zeno saw that Achilles would always get closer but wouldn't actually overtake the tortoise.

2.2 Sequences, Series and Functions

So what does Zeno, Achilles and the tortoise have to do with calculus?
Well, in Grades 10 and 11 you studied sequences. For the sequence

1 2 3 4
0, , , , , ... (7)
2 3 4 5
which is dened by the expression

1
an = 1 − (8)
n
the terms get closer to 1 as n gets larger. Similarly, for the sequence

1 1 1 1
1, , , , , ... (9)
2 3 4 5
which is dened by the expression

1
an = (10)
n

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the terms get closer to 0 as n gets larger. We have also seen that the innite geometric series has a nite
total. The innite geometric series is

P∞ a1
S∞ = i=1 a1 .ri−1 = 1−r for −1 (11)

where a1 is the rst term of the series and r is the common ratio.
We see that there are some functions where the value of the function gets close to or approaches a
certain value.
Similarly, for the function:

x2 + 4x − 12
y= (12)
x+6
The numerator of the function can be factorised as:

(x + 6) (x − 2)
y= . (13)
x+6
Then we can cancel the x−6 from numerator and denominator and we are left with:

y = x − 2. (14)

However, we are only able to cancel the x+6 term if x 6= −6. If x = −6, then the denominator becomes 0
and the function is not dened. This means that the domain of the function does not include x = −6. But
we can examine what happens to the values for y as x gets close to -6. These values are listed in Table 2
which shows that as x gets closer to -6, y gets close to 8.

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x y= (x+6)(x−2)
x+6
-9 -11

-8 -10

-7 -9

-6.5 -8.5

-6.4 -8.4

-6.3 -8.3

-6.2 -8.2

-6.1 -8.1

-6.09 -8.09

-6.08 -8.08

-6.01 -8.01

-5.9 -7.9

-5.8 -7.8

-5.7 -7.7

-5.6 -7.6

-5.5 -7.5

-5 -7

-4 -6

-3 -5

Table 2: Values for the function y= (x+6)(x−2)

x+6 as x gets close to -6.

The graph of this function is shown in Figure 1. The graph is a straight line with slope 1 and intercept
-2, but with a missing section at x = −6.

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Figure 1: Graph of y= (x+6)(x−2)

x+6
.

2.2.1 Extension: Continuity

We say that a function is continuous if there are no values of the independent variable for which the function
is undened.

2.3 Limits
(x+6)(x−2)
We can now introduce a new notation. For the function y= x+6 , we can write:

(x + 6) (x − 2)
lim = −8. (15)
x→−6 x+6
This is read: the limit of (x+6)(x−2)
x+6 as x tends to -6 is 8.

2.3.1 Investigation: Limits

If f (x) = x + 1, determine:

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f(-0.1)

f(-0.05)

f(-0.04)

f(-0.03)

f(-0.02)

f(-0.01)

f(0.00)

f(0.01)

f(0.02)

f(0.03)

f(0.04)

f(0.05)

f(0.1)

Table 3

What do you notice about the value of f (x) as x gets close to 0.

Exercise 1: Limits Notation (Solution on p. 23.)
Summarise the following situation by using limit notation: As x gets close to 1, the value of the
function

y =x+2 (16)

gets close to 3.

We can also have the situation where a function has a dierent value depending on whether x approaches
from the left or the right. An example of this is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Graph of y= 1
x
.

1 1
As x→0 from the left, y= x approaches −∞. As x→0 from the right, y= x approaches +∞. This
is written in limits notation as:

1
lim = −∞ (17)
x→0− x
for x approaching zero from the left and

1
lim =∞ (18)
x→0+ x
for x approaching zero from the right. You can calculate the limit of many dierent functions using a set
method.
Method:
Limits If you are required to calculate a limit like limx→a then:

1. Simplify the expression completely.

2. If it is possible, cancel all common terms.
3. Let x approach the a.
Exercise 2: Limits (Solution on p. 23.)
Determine

lim 10 (19)
x→1

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Exercise 3: Limits (Solution on p. 23.)

Determine

lim x (20)
x→2

Exercise 4: Limits (Solution on p. 23.)

Determine

x2 − 100
lim (21)
x→10 x − 10

2.4 Average Gradient and Gradient at a Point

In Grade 10 you learnt about average gradients on a curve. The average gradient between any two points on
a curve is given by the gradient of the straight line that passes through both points. In Grade 11 you were
introduced to the idea of a gradient at a single point on a curve. We saw that this was the gradient of the
tangent to the curve at the given point, but we did not learn how to determine the gradient of the tangent.
Now let us consider the problem of trying to nd the gradient of a tangent t to a curve with equation
y = f (x) at a given point P.

Figure 3

We know how to calculate the average gradient between two points on a curve, but we need two points.
The problem now is that we only have one point, namely P. To get around the problem we rst consider
a secant to the curve that passes through point P and another point on the curve Q. We can now nd the
average gradient of the curve between points P and Q.

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Figure 4

If the x -coordinate of P is a, then the y -coordinate is f (a). Similarly, if the x -coordinate of Q is a − h,

then the y -coordinate is f (a − h). If we choose a as x2 and a − h as x1 , then:

y1 = f (a − h) (22)

y2 = f (a) . (23)

We can now calculate the average gradient as:

y2 −y1 f (a)−f (a−h)

x2 −x1 = a−(a−h)
(24)
f (a)−f (a−h)
= h

Now imagine that Q moves along the curve toward P. The secant line approaches the tangent line as its
limiting position. This means that the average gradient of the secant approaches the gradient of the tangent
to the curve at P. In (24) we see that as point Q approaches point P, h gets closer to 0. When h = 0, points
P and Q are equal. We can now use our knowledge of limits to write this as:

f (a) − f (a − h)
gradientatP = lim . (25)
h→0 h
and we say that the gradient at point P is the limit of the average gradient as Q approaches P along the
curve.

2.4.1 Investigation: Limits

The gradient at a point x on a curve dened by f (x) can also be written as:

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim (26)
h→0 h
Show that this is equivalent to (25).
Exercise 5: Limits (Solution on p. 23.)
For the function f (x) = 2x2 − 5x, determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point
x = 2.

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Exercise 6: Limits (Solution on p. 24.)

For the function f (x) = 5x2 − 4x + 1, determine the gradient of the tangent to curve at the point
x = a.

2.4.2 Limits
Determine the following

1.
x2 − 9
lim (27)
x→3 x + 3

2.
x+3
lim (28)
x→3 x2 + 3x

3.
3x2 − 4x
lim (29)
x→2 3 − x

4.
x2 − x − 12
lim (30)
x→4 x−4

5.
1
lim 3x + (31)
x→2 3x

3 Dierentiation from First Principles

The tangent problem has given rise to the branch of calculus called dierential calculus and the equation:
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim (32)
h→0 h
denes the derivative of the function f (x). Using (26) to calculate the derivative is called nding the
derivative from rst principles.
Denition 1: Derivative
The derivative of a function f (x) is written as f ' (x) and is dened by:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ' (x) = lim (33)
h→0 h

There are a few dierent notations used to refer to derivatives. If we use the traditional notation y = f (x)
to indicate that the dependent variable is y and the independent variable is x, then some common alternative
notations for the derivative are as follows:

dy df d
f ' (x) = y ' = dx = dx = dx f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x) (34)

The symbols D and

d
dx are called dierential operators because they indicate the operation of dieren-
tiation , which is the process of calculating a derivative. It is very important that you learn to identify these
dierent ways of denoting the derivative, and that you are consistent in your usage of them when answering
questions.

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tip: Though we choose to use a fractional form of representation,

dy
dx is a limit and is not a

dx does not mean dy ÷ dx. dx means y dierentiated with respect to x. Thus, dx

dy dy dp
fraction, i.e.
means p dierentiated with respect to x. The `
d
dx ' is the operator", operating on some function of
x.
Exercise 7: Derivatives - First Principles (Solution on p. 25.)
Calculate the derivative of g (x) = x − 1 from rst principles.

Exercise 8: Derivatives - First Principles (Solution on p. 25.)

Calculate the derivative of h (x) = x2 − 1 from rst principles.

3.1 Derivatives
1. Given g (x) = −x2
g(x+h)−g(x)
a. determine
h
b. hence, determine
g (x + h) − g (x)
lim (35)
h→0 h

c. explain the meaning of your answer in (b).

2. Find the derivative of f (x) = −2x2 + 3x using rst principles.

1
3. Determine the derivative of f (x) =
x−2 using rst principles.
' 2
4. Determine f (3) from rst principles if f (x) = −5x .
2 '
5. If h (x) = 4x − 4x, determine h (x) using rst principles.

4 Rules of Dierentiation
Calculating the derivative of a function from rst principles is very long, and it is easy to make mistakes.
Fortunately, there are rules which make calculating the derivative simple.

4.1 Investigation: Rules of Dierentiation

From rst principles, determine the derivatives of the following:

1. f (x) = b
2. f (x) = x
3. f (x) = x2
4. f (x) = x3
5. f (x) = 1/x

You should have found the following:

f (x) f ' (x)

b 0

x 1

x2 2x
x3 3x2
1/x = x−1 −x−2

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Table 4
If we examine these results we see that there is a pattern, which can be summarised by:

d
(xn ) = nxn−1 (36)
dx
There are two other rules which make dierentiation simpler. For any two functions f (x) and g (x):
d
[f (x) ± g (x)] = f ' (x) ± g ' (x) (37)
dx
This means that we dierentiate each term separately.
The nal rule applies to a function f (x) that is multiplied by a constant k.
d
[k.f (x)] = kf ' (x) (38)
dx

Exercise 9: Rules of Dierentiation (Solution on p. 25.)

Determine the derivative of x−1 using the rules of dierentiation.

4.2 Summary of Dierentiation Rules

d
dx b =0

d
dx (xn ) = nxn−1

d df
dx (kf ) = k dx

d df dg
dx (f + g) = dx + dx

Table 5

4.2.1 Rules of Dierentiation

2
1. Find f ' (x) if f (x) = x −5x+6 .
'
√ x−2
2. Find f (y) if f (y) = y.
'
3. Find f (z) if f (z) = (z − 1) (z + 1).
√
dy x3 +2 x−3
4. Determine if y = .
dx x √ 1
5. Determine the derivative of y = x3 + 3x3 .

5 Applying Dierentiation to Draw Graphs

Thus far we have learnt about how to dierentiate various functions, but I am sure that you are beginning to
ask, What is the point of learning about derivatives? Well, we know one important fact about a derivative: it
is a gradient. So, any problems involving the calculations of gradients or rates of change can use derivatives.
One simple application is to draw graphs of functions by rstly determine the gradients of straight lines and
secondly to determine the turning points of the graph.

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5.1 Finding Equations of Tangents to Curves

In "Average Gradient and Gradient at a Point" (Section 2.4: Average Gradient and Gradient at a Point) we
saw that nding the gradient of a tangent to a curve is the same as nding the slope of the same curve at
the point of the tangent. We also saw that the gradient of a function at a point is just its derivative.
Since we have the gradient of the tangent and the point on the curve through which the tangent passes,
we can nd the equation of the tangent.

Exercise 10: Finding the Equation of a Tangent to a Curve (Solution on p. 26.)

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 at the point (1,1) and draw both functions.

5.2 Curve Sketching

Dierentiation can be used to sketch the graphs of functions, by helping determine the turning points. We
know that if a graph is increasing on an interval and reaches a turning point, then the graph will start
decreasing after the turning point. The turning point is also known as a stationary point because the
gradient at a turning point is 0. We can then use this information to calculate turning points, by calculating
the points at which the derivative of a function is 0.

tip: If x=a is a turning point of f (x), then:

f ' (a) = 0 (39)

This means that the derivative is 0 at a turning point.

Take the graph of y = x2 as an example. We know that the graph of this function has a turning point at
(0,0), but we can use the derivative of the function:

y ' = 2x (40)

and set it equal to 0 to nd the x -value for which the graph has a turning point.

2x = 0
(41)
x = 0

We then substitute this into the equation of the graph (i.e. y = x2 ) to determine the y -coordinate of the
turning point:

2
f (0) = (0) = 0 (42)

This corresponds to the point that we have previously calculated.

Exercise 11: Calculation of Turning Points (Solution on p. 27.)

Calculate the turning points of the graph of the function

f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 15 (43)

We are now ready to sketch graphs of functions.

Method:
Sketching GraphsSuppose we are given that f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then there are ve steps to be
followed to sketch the graph of the function:

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1. If a > 0, then the graph is increasing from left to right, and has a maximum and then a minimum.
As x increases, so does f (x). If a < 0, then the graph decreasing is from left to right, and has rst a
minimum and then a maximum. as x increases.
f (x) decreases
2. Determine the value of the y -intercept by substituting x = 0 into f (x)
3. Determine the x -intercepts by factorising ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 and solving for x. First try to
eliminate constant common factors, and to group like terms together so that the expression is expressed
as economically as possible. Use the factor theorem if necessary.
df
4. Find the turning points of the function by working out the derivative
dx and setting it to zero, and
solving for x.
5. Determine the y -coordinates of the turning points by substituting the x values obtained in the previous
step, into the expression for f (x).
6. Draw a neat sketch.

Exercise 12: Sketching Graphs (Solution on p. 28.)

Draw the graph of g (x) = x2 − x + 2
Exercise 13: Sketching Graphs (Solution on p. 29.)
Sketch the graph of g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4.

5.2.1 Sketching Graphs

1. Given f (x) = x3 + x2 − 5x + 3:
a. Show that (x − 1) is a factor of f (x) and hence fatorise f (x) fully.
b. Find the coordinates of the intercepts with the axes and the turning points and sketch the graph

2. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30 showing all the relative turning points and intercepts
with the axes.
3. a. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 20, showing all intercepts with the axes and turning
points.
b. Find the equation of the tangent to f (x) at x = 4.

5.3 Local minimum, Local maximum and Point of Inextion

dy
If the derivative (
dx ) is zero at a point, the gradient of the tangent at that point is zero. It means that a
turning point occurs as seen in the previous example.

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Figure 5

From the drawing the point (1;0) represents a local minimum and the point (3;4) the local maximum.
A graph has a horizontal point of inexion where the derivative is zero but the sign of the sign of the
gradient does not change. That means the graph always increases or always decreases.

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Figure 6

From this drawing, the point (3;1) is a horizontal point of inexion, because the sign of the derivative
stays positive.

6 Using Dierential Calculus to Solve Problems

We have seen that dierential calculus can be used to determine the stationary points of functions, in order
to sketch their graphs. However, determining stationary points also lends itself to the solution of problems
that require some variable to be optimised.
For example, if fuel used by a car is dened by:

3 2
f (v) = v − 6v + 245 (44)
80
where v is the travelling speed, what is the most economical speed (that means the speed that uses the
least fuel)?
If we draw the graph of this function we nd that the graph has a minimum. The speed at the minimum
would then give the most economical speed.

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Figure 7

We have seen that the coordinates of the turning point can be calculated by dierentiating the function
and nding the x -coordinate (speed in the case of the example) for which the derivative is 0.
Dierentiating (44), we get:

3
f ' (v) = v−6 (45)
40
If we set f ' (v) = 0 we can calculate the speed that corresponds to the turning point.

3
f ' (v) = 40 v − 6
3
0 = 40 v − 6
(46)
6×40
v = 3
= 80
−1
This means that the most economical speed is 80 km·hr .

Exercise 14: Optimisation Problems (Solution on p. 31.)

The sum of two positive numbers is 10. One of the numbers is multiplied by the square of the
other. If each number is greater than 0, nd the numbers that make this product a maximum.

Exercise 15: Optimisation Problems (Solution on p. 32.)

Michael wants to start a vegetable garden, which he decides to fence o in the shape of a rectangle
from the rest of the garden. Michael only has 160 m of fencing, so he decides to use a wall as one
border of the vegetable garden. Calculate the width and length of the garden that corresponds to
largest possible area that Michael can fence o.

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Figure 8

6.1 Solving Optimisation Problems using Dierential Calculus

1. The sum of two positive numbers is 20. One of the numbers is multiplied by the square of the other.
Find the numbers that make this products a maximum.
2. A wooden block is made as shown in the diagram. The ends are right-angled triangles having sides 3x,
4x and 5x. The length of the block is y. The total surface area of the block is 3 600 cm2 .

Figure 9

300−x2
a. Show that y=x .
b. Find the value of x for which the block will have a maximum volume. (Volume = area of base ×
height.)

3. The diagram shows the plan for a verandah which is to be built on the corner of a cottage. A railing
ABCDE is to be constructed around the four edges of the verandah.

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Figure 10

If AB = DE = x and BC = CD = y , and the length of the railing must be 30 metres, nd the values
of x and y for which the verandah will have a maximum area.

6.2 Rate of Change problems

Two concepts were discussed in this chapter: Average rate of change = f (b)−f (a)
b−a and Instantaneous rate
. When we mention rate of change, the latter is implied. Instantaneous rate
f (x+h)−f (x)
of change = limh→0
h
of change is the derivative . When Average rate of change is required, it will be specically refer to as
average rate of change.
Velocity is one of the most common forms of rate of change. Again, average velocity = average rate of
change and instantaneous velocity = instantaneous rate of change = derivative. Velocity refers to the
increase of distance(s) for a corresponding increade in time (t). The notation commonly used for this is:

ds
v (t) = = s' (t) (47)
dt
Acceleration is the change in velocity for a corersponding increase in time. Therefore, acceleration is the
derivative of velocity

a (t) = v ' (t) (48)

This implies that acceleration is the second derivative of the distance(s).

Exercise 16: Rate of Change (Solution on p. 33.)

The height (in metres) of a golf ball that is hit into the air after t seconds, is given by h (t) =
20t = 5t2 . Determine

1. the average velocity of the ball during the rst two seconds
2. the velocity of the ball after 1,5 seconds
3. when the velocity is zero
4. the velocity at which the ball hits the ground
5. the acceleration of the ball

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Connexions module: m32661 21

7 End of Chapter Exercises

1. Determine f ' (x) from rst principles if:
f (x) = x2 − 6x (49)

f (x) = 2x − x2 (50)

2. Given: f (x) = −x2 + 3x, nd f ' (x) using rst principles.
dx
3. Determine
dy if:
a.
2 1
y = (2x) − (51)
3x

b. √
2 x−5
y= √ (52)
x
4. Given: f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4
a. Calculate f (−1), and hence solve the equationf (x) = 0
b. Determine f ' (x)
c. Sketch the graph of f neatly and clearly, showing the co-ordinates of the turning points as well as
the intercepts on both axes.
d. Determine the co-ordinates of the points on the graph of f where the gradient is 9.

5. Given:
3
f (x) = 2x − 5x − 4x + 3. 2
The x -intercepts of f 1
are: (-1;0) ( ;0) and (3;0).
2
a. Determine the co-ordinates of the turning points of . f
f
b. Draw a neat sketch graph of . Clearly indicate the co-ordinates of the intercepts with the axes,
as well as the co-ordinates of the turning points.
c. For which values of k will the equation f (x) = k , have exactly two real roots?
d. Determine the equation of the tangent to the graph of f (x) = 2x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 3 at the point
where x = 1.
6. a. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 20, showing all intercepts with the axes and turning
points.
b. Find the equation of the tangent to f (x) at x = 4.
7. Calculate:
1 − x3
lim (53)
x→1 1 − x

8. Given:
f (x) = 2x2 − x (54)

a. Use the denition of the derivative to calculate f ' (x).

b. Hence, calculate the co-ordinates of the point at which the gradient of the tangent to the graph
of f is 7.
√ dx
9. If xy − 5 = x3 , determine

2 dy
10. Given: g (x) = x−2 + x2 . Calculate g ' (2).
11. Given: f (x) = 2x − 3
a. Find: f −1 (x)

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Connexions module: m32661 22

b. Solve: f −1 (x) = 3f ' (x)

12. Find f ' (x) for each of the following:
√
5
x3
a. f (x) = 3 + 10
(2x2 −5)(3x+2)
b. f (x) = x2
13. Determine the minimum value of the sum of a positive number and its reciprocal.
14. If the displacement s (in metres) of a particle at time t (in seconds) is governed by the equation
s = 12 t3 − 2t, nd its acceleration after 2 seconds. (Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, and
velocity is the rate of change of displacement.)
15. a. After doing some research, a transport company has determined that the rate at which petrol is
consumed by one of its large carriers, travelling at an average speed of x km per hour, is given
by:
55 x
P (x) = + litresperkilometre (55)
2x 200

1. Assume that the petrol costs R4,00 per litre and the driver earns R18,00 per hour (travelling
time). Now deduce that the total cost, C, in Rands, for a 2 000 km trip is given by:

256000
C (x) = + 40x (56)
x

2. Hence determine the average speed to be maintained to eect a minimum cost for a 2 000 km
trip.

b. During an experiment the temperature T (in degrees Celsius), varies with time t (in hours),
according to the formula:
1
T (t) = 30 + 4t − t2 t ∈ [1; 10] (57)
2

1. Determine an expression for the rate of change of temperature with time.

2. During which time interval was the temperature dropping?

16. The depth, d, of water in a kettle t minutes after it starts to boil, is given by d = 86 − 18 t − 14 t3 , where
d is measured in millimetres.

a. How many millimetres of water are there in the kettle just before it starts to boil?
b. As the water boils, the level in the kettle drops. Find the rate at which the water level is decreasing
when t = 2 minutes.
c. How many minutes after the kettle starts boiling will the water level be dropping at a rate of 12 18
mm/minute?

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Connexions module: m32661 23

Solutions to Exercises in this Module

Solution to Exercise 1 (p. 7)
This is written as:

lim x + 2 = 3 (58)
x→1

in limit notation.
Solution to Exercise 2 (p. 8)
Step: Simplify the expression
There is nothing to simplify.
Step: Cancel all common terms
There are no terms to cancel.
Step: Let x → 1 and write nal answer
lim 10 = 10 (59)
x→1

Solution to Exercise 3 (p. 8)

Step: Simplify the expression
There is nothing to simplify.
Step: Cancel all common terms
There are no terms to cancel.
Step: Let x → 2 and write nal answer
lim x = 2 (60)
x→2

Solution to Exercise 4 (p. 9)

Step: Simplify the expression
The numerator can be factorised.

x2 − 100 (x + 10) (x − 10)

= (61)
x − 10 x − 10
Step: Cancel all common terms
x − 10 can be cancelled from the numerator and denominator.

(x + 10) (x − 10)
= x + 10 (62)
x − 10
Step: Let x → 1 and write nal answer
x2 − 100
lim = 20 (63)
x→10 x − 10

Solution to Exercise 5 (p. 10)

Step: Calculating the gradient at a point
We know that the gradient at a point x is given by:

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim (64)
h→0 h
In our case x = 2. It is simpler to substitute x = 2 at the end of the calculation.

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Connexions module: m32661 24

Step: Write f (x + h) and simplify

2
f (x + h) = 2(x + h) − 5 (x + h)


= 2 x2 + 2xh + h2 − 5x − 5h (65)

= 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 − 5x − 5h

Step: Calculate limit
2x2 +4xh+2h2 −5x−5h−(2x2 −5x)
lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
= h
h→0
2
+4xh+2h2 −5x−5h−2x2 +5x
= lim 2x h
h→0
2
−5h
= lim 4xh+2h
h
h→0 (66)
= lim h(4x+2h−5)
h
h→0
= lim 4x + 2h − 5
h→0
= 4x − 5
Step: Calculate gradient at x = 2
4x − 5 = 4 (2) − 5 = 3 (67)

Step: Write the nal answer

The gradient of the tangent to the curve f (x) = 2x2 − 5x at x=2 is 3.
Solution to Exercise 6 (p. 11)
Step: Calculating the gradient at a point
We know that the gradient at a point x is given by:

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim (68)
h→0 h
In our case x = a. It is simpler to substitute x = a at the end of the calculation.
Step: Write f (x + h) and simplify
2
f (x + h) = 5(x + h) − 4 (x + h) + 1


= 5 x2 + 2xh + h2 − 4x − 4h + 1 (69)

2 2
= 5x + 10xh + 5h − 4x − 4h + 1
Step: Calculate limit
5x2 +10xh+5h2 −4x−4h+1−(5x2 −4x+1)
lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
= h
h→0
2
+10xh+5h2 −4x−4h+1−5x2 +4x−1
= lim 5x h
h→0
2
−4h
= lim 10xh+5h
h
h→0 (70)
= lim h(10x+5h−4)
h
h→0
= lim 10x + 5h − 4
h→0
= 10x − 4
Step: Calculate gradient at x = a
10x − 4 = 10a − 5 (71)

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Connexions module: m32661 25

Step: Write the nal answer

The gradient of the tangent to the curve f (x) = 5x2 − 4x + 1 at x=1 is 10a − 5.
Solution to Exercise 7 (p. 12)
Step: Calculating the gradient at a point
We know that the gradient at a point x is given by:

g (x + h) − g (x)
g ' (x) = lim (72)
h→0 h
Step: Write g (x + h) and simplify
g (x + h) = x + h − 1 (73)

Step: Calculate limit

g ' (x) = lim g(x+h)−g(x)
h
h→0
x+h−1−(x−1)
= lim h
h→0
= lim x+h−1−x+1
h
h→0 (74)
= lim hh
h→0
= lim 1
h→0
= 1
Step: Write the nal answer
The derivative g ' (x) of g (x) = x − 1 is 1.
Solution to Exercise 8 (p. 12)
Step: Calculating the gradient at a point
We know that the gradient at a point x is given by:

g (x + h) − g (x)
g ' (x) = lim (75)
h→0 h
Step: Write g (x + h) and simplify
g (x + h) = x + h − 1 (76)

Step: Calculate limit

g ' (x) = lim g(x+h)−g(x)
h
h→0
= lim x+h−1−(x−1)
h
h→0
= lim x+h−1−x+1
h
h→0 (77)
= lim hh
h→0
= lim 1
h→0
= 1
Step: Write the nal answer
The derivative g ' (x) of g (x) = x − 1 is 1.
Solution to Exercise 9 (p. 13)
Step: Identify the rules that will be needed

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Connexions module: m32661 26

We will apply two rules of dierentiation:

d
(xn ) = nxn−1 (78)
dx
and

d d d
[f (x) − g (x)] = [f (x)] − [g (x)] (79)
dx dx dx
Step: Determine the derivative
In our case f (x) = x and g (x) = 1.

f ' (x) = 1 (80)

and

g ' (x) = 0 (81)

Step: Write the nal answer

The derivative of x−1 is 1 which is the same result as was obtained earlier, from rst principles.
Solution to Exercise 10 (p. 14)
Step: Determine what is required
We are required to determine the equation of the tangent to the curve dened by y = x2 at the point
(1,1). The tangent is a straight line and we can nd the equation by using derivatives to nd the gradient
of the straight line. Then we will have the gradient and one point on the line, so we can nd the equation
using:

y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (82)

from grade 11 Coordinate Geometry.

Step: Dierentiate the function
Using our rules of dierentiation we get:

y ' = 2x (83)

Step: Find the gradient at the point (1,1)

In order to determine the gradient at the point (1,1), we substitute the x -value into the equation for the
derivative. So, y' at x=1 is:

2 (1) = 2 (84)

Step: Find equation of tangent

y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
y−1 = (2) (x − 1)
(85)
y = 2x − 2 + 1
y = 2x − 1
Step: Write the nal answer
The equation of the tangent to the curve dened by y = x2 at the point (1,1) is y = 2x − 1.
Step: Sketch both functions

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Connexions module: m32661 27

Figure 11

Solution to Exercise 11 (p. 14)

Step: Determine the derivative of f (x)
Using the rules of dierentiation we get:

f ' (x) = 6x2 − 18x + 12 (86)

Step: Set f '

(x) = 0 and calculate x-coordinate of turning point
6x2 − 18x + 12 = 0
x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 (87)

(x − 2) (x − 1) = 0
Therefore, the turning points are at x=2 and x = 1.
Step: Substitute x-coordinate of turning point into f (x) to determine y-coordinates
3 2
f (2) = 2(2) − 9(2) + 12 (2) − 15
= 16 − 36 + 24 − 15 (88)

= −11

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Connexions module: m32661 28

3 2
f (1) = 2(1) − 9(1) + 12 (1) − 15
= 2 − 9 + 12 − 15 (89)

= −10
Step: Write nal answer
The turning points of the graph of f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 15 are (2,-11) and (1,-10).
Solution to Exercise 12 (p. 15)
Step: Determine the y-intercept
y -intercept is obtained by setting x = 0.
2
g (0) = (0) − 0 + 2 = 2 (90)

Step: Determine the x-intercepts

The x -intercepts are found by setting g (x) = 0.

g (x) = x2 − x + 2
(91)
0 = x2 − x + 2
which does not have real roots. Therefore, the graph of g (x) does not have any x -intercepts.
Step: Find the turning points of the function
Work out the derivative
dg
dx and set it to zero to for the x coordinate of the turning point.

dg
= 2x − 1 (92)
dx
dg
dx = 0
2x − 1 = 0
(93)
2x = 1
1
x = 2

Step: Determine the y-coordinates of the turning points by substituting the x values obtained
in the previous step, into the expression for f (x).

y coordinate of turning point is given by calculating g 1
2 .

1 1 2
− 12 +




g 2 = 2 2
1 1
4 − 2 +2
= (94)

7
= 4
1 7


The turning point is at
2, 4
Step: Draw a neat sketch

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Connexions module: m32661 29

Figure 12

Solution to Exercise 13 (p. 15)

Step: Calculate the turning points
Find the turning points by setting g ' (x) = 0.
If we use the rules of dierentiation we get

g ' (x) = −3x2 + 12x − 9 (95)

g ' (x) = 0
−3x2 + 12x − 9 = 0
(96)
2
x − 4x + 3 = 0
(x − 3) (x − 1) = 0
The x -coordinates of the turning points are: x=1 and x = 3.

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Connexions module: m32661 30

The y -coordinates of the turning points are calculated as:

g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4

3 2
g (1) = −(1) + 6(1) − 9 (1) + 4
(97)
= −1 + 6 − 9 + 4
= 0

g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4

3 2
g (3) = −(3) + 6(3) − 9 (3) + 4
(98)
= −27 + 54 − 27 + 4
= 4
Therefore the turning points are: (1, 0) and (3, 4).
Step: Determine the y-intercepts
We nd the y -intercepts by nding the value for g (0).

g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4

3 2
yint = g (0) = −(0) + 6(0) − 9 (0) + 4 (99)

= 4
Step: Determine the x-intercepts
We nd the x -intercepts by nding the points for which the function g (x) = 0.

g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4 (100)

Use the factor theorem to conrm that (x − 1) is a factor. If g (1) = 0, then (x − 1) is a factor.

g (x) = −x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 4

3 2
g (1) = −(1) + 6(1) − 9 (1) + 4
(101)
= −1 + 6 − 9 + 4
= 0
Therefore, (x − 1) is a factor.
If we divide g (x) by (x − 1) we are left with:

−x2 + 5x − 4 (102)

This has factors

− (x − 4) (x − 1) (103)

Therefore:

g (x) = − (x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 4) (104)

The x -intercepts are: xint = 1, 4

Step: Draw a neat sketch

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Connexions module: m32661 31

Figure 13

Solution to Exercise 14 (p. 18)

Step: Examine the problem and formulate the equations that are required
Let the two numbers be a and b. Then we have:

a + b = 10 (105)

We are required to minimise the product of a and b. Call the product P. Then:

P =a·b (106)

We can solve for b from (105) to get:

b = 10 − a (107)

Substitute this into (106) to write P in terms of a only.

P = a (10 − a) = 10a − a2 (108)

Step: Dierentiate

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Connexions module: m32661 32

The derivative of (108) is:

P ' (a) = 10 − 2a (109)

Step: Find the stationary point

Set P ' (a) = 0 to nd the value of a which makes P a maximum.

P ' (a) = 10 − 2a
0 = 10 − 2a
2a = 10 (110)

10
a = 2
a = 5
Substitute into (114) to solve for the width.

b = 10 − a
= 10 − 5 (111)

= 5
Step: Write the nal answer
The product is maximised if a and b are both equal to 5.
Solution to Exercise 15 (p. 18)
Step: Examine the problem and formulate the equations that are required
The important pieces of information given are related to the area and modied perimeter of the garden.
We know that the area of the garden is:

A=w·l (112)

We are also told that the fence covers only 3 sides and the three sides should add up to 160 m. This can be
written as:

160 = w + l + l (113)

However, we can use (113) to write w in terms of : l

w = 160 − 2l (114)

Substitute (114) into (112) to get:

A = (160 − 2l) l = 160l − 2l2 (115)

Step: Dierentiate
Since we are interested in maximising the area, we dierentiate (115) to get:

A' (l) = 160 − 4l (116)

Step: Find the stationary point

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Connexions module: m32661 33

To nd the stationary point, we set A' (l) = 0 and solve for the value of l that maximises the area.

A' (l) = 160 − 4l

0 = 160 − 4l
∴ 4l = 160 (117)

160
l = 4
l = 40 m
Substitute into (114) to solve for the width.

w = 160 − 2l
= 160 − 2 (40)
(118)
= 160 − 80
= 80 m
Step: Write the nal answer
A width of 80 m and a length of 40 m will yield the maximal area fenced o.
Solution to Exercise 16 (p. 20)
Step: Average velocity
h(2)−h(0)
Ave velocity = 2−0
[20(2)−5(2)2 ]−[20(0)−5(0)2 ]
= 2 (119)
40−20
= 2
−1
= 10 ms
Step: Instantaneous Velocity
dh
v (t) = dt
(120)
= 20 − 10t
Velocity after 1,5 seconds:

v (1, 5) = 20 − 10 (1, 5)
(121)
= 5 ms−1
Step: Zero velocity
v (t) = 0
20 − 10t = 0
(122)
10t = 20
t = 2
Therefore the velocity is zero after 2 seconds
Step: Ground velocity

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Connexions module: m32661 34

The ball hits the ground when h (t) = 0

20t − 5t2 = 0
5t (4 − t) = 0 (123)

t=0 or t=4
The ball hits the ground after 4 seconds. The velocity after 4 seconds will be:

v (4) = h' (4)

= 20 − 10 (4) (124)

−1
= 20 ms

The ball hits the gound at a speed of 20ms−1

Step: Acceleration
a = v ' (t)
(125)
= −10 ms−1

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