WEBBER JILL STEVENS Venta os BRIAN BOUGHTON C. ENG, MJ. STRUCT. E 5 | eee 2 ont Bee Pe 7 | 170 | [280 1 is os Price £1:50Reinforced Concrete Detailer’s Manual BRIAN W. BOUGHTON, cene., mustructe. Lecturer in Structural Engincering, Erith College of Tevlinvlogy CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON LTD., 26 ULD BROMPTON ROAD, LONDON, S.W.7© Brian Boughton, 1969 All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, électronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owner. First published 1969 Second edition 1971 ISBN 0 258 96818 4 Printed Offset Litho in Great Britain by Cox & Wyman Ltd., London, Fakenham and ReadingPART 1 ‘The reasons for detail drawings Basic presentation procedure Elementary Knowledge of the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete PART 2 SECTION 1 — FOUNDATIONS Single base Combined footings Cantilever foundation Lift shaft base Simple pile caps (two three and four piles) Pile caps with wind moments Ground beams Retaining Walls Cantilever type Counterfort (tie and buttress) Propped Cantilever (basement) Two storey (double basement) Raft foundation Waffed raft SECTION 2~ SLABS Ground floor on fil Suspended ground floor Beam and slab construction (One way spanning Two way spanning Fiat soffit —hotlow rib One way spanning ‘Two way spanning Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet ? 8 2 Sheet 10 Sheet 11 Sheet 12 Sheet 13 Sheet 14 Sheet 15 Sheet 16 Sheet 17 Shoot 18 page 10 12 4 16 18 20 22 26 2B 30 32 36 38 42 CONTENTS Pure flat stab Roof stabs Piiched Folded plate Flat (treatment around openings) Shells :— Barrel vault Dome Hyperbolic paraboloid :— Normat Inverted SECTION 3 — BEAMS AND STAIRS Beams :— Single span and cantilever Continuous (tight loading) Continuous (heavy shear) Deep beams (with service holes) Ring beams Stairs :— Single flight (long and cross spans) Half flights with landings Cantilevers from main wall Jack-knife Open spiral Spine beam with open risers Precast flights to insitu landings SECTION 4 — COLUMNS AND WALLS Columns :~ lightly reinforced heavily reinforced (staggered laps) raking struts spread colurnns (tapered section) Sheet 19 Sheet 20 Sheet 21 Sheet 22 Sheet 23 Sheet 24 Sheet 25 Sheet 26 Sheet 27, Sheet 28 Sheet 29 Sheet 30 Sheet 31 Sheet 32 Sheet 33 Sheet 24 Sheet 35 Sheet 36 Sheet 27 Shoot 38 Sheet 39 Sheet 40 Sheet 41 Sheet 42 52 5a BS 60 62 66 68 70 2 "4 6 B 80 2 seeeJunction details (column to beam, offsets and reductions Walls -— normal load bearing (treatment at openings) shear walls (multi-storey construction work) stair and lift walls circular walls (normal and water retaining) square water tank Box — culvert SECTION 5 ~ FRAMEWORKS Portals = 2 pinned flat beam 2 pinned pitched roof Sheet 43 Sheet 44 Sheet 45 Sheet 46 Shoot 47 Shoot 48 Sheet 49 Sheet 50 Sheet 51 92 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 3 pinned pitched roof 3 pinned with crane gantry and haunched joints water tower support H and A frames for precast wall units box frames for elevated corridors PART 3 Scheduling of steel reinforcement Example 1 Example 2 Index Sheot 52 Sheet 83 Sheet 54 Sheet 55 Sheet 58 no 2 114 16 118 121 124 125 126INTRODUCTION ‘The purpose of this book is to provide a means of both guidance and reference for the young draughtsman in a consulting engineer's or contractor's office who Wishes to specialise in reinforced concrete work. It should also provide a useful text book for students in universities and technical colleges following courses in struc: ‘ural or civil engineering, quantity surveying and architecture. ‘The subject matter covered in the detail shoets deals with all the types of rein- forced concrete structures that would be likely to occur in a normal drawing office | does not include specialist precast or prestressed conerete work since this is limited to @ relatively small number of offices and invariably consists of factory Droduced items rather than site work. Because of the proposed change to the metric system of measurement in 1969 it was decided at the outset to make all the detail sheets conform to this system, ‘The book has been presented mainly in graphicél form with esch detail sheet supplemented by a sketch sheet on the opposite page explaining points of particular Importance with regard to the structural behaviour of the particular member i.e. where and why the reinforcement is needed. ‘Scheduling of steel reinforcement is dealt with in a separate section at the end of ‘the book, rather than by producing a sample sheet for each drawing, since the procedure is basicaly similar for ell types of reinforced concrete structure, It is also Quite likely that scheduling could become computerised on a wide scale in the near future, but this will not necessarily affect the smaller drawing offices until much later. For this reeson, both methods are covered, ‘The ettention of readers is drawn to the recent publication by the Concrete Society of “The detailing of reinforced concrete: the report of the joint committee”, This is envisoged as a frst step towards standardizing the detailing of reinforced Concrete and is intended to be read in conjunction with BS4466:1969, ‘The detail sheets conform in all respects to this report with regard to arrangement ‘and calling up of reinforcement and basic presentation. Although the practice of detailing with the aid of computers is beginning it is at present not widespread. It is only economic for very large contracts where no changes are visualised during the period to construction (an unlikely event on most contracts). ‘A few amendments to the text have been made since the firs edition and these are due primarily to the introduction of BS 4466:1969. It must be mentioned that, although a new code of practice covering CP114, 118 and 1 16is in draft form, it isnot known when it will be approved and then published. It is emphasised that, in the ‘meantime, the text follows the recommendations of CP114:1957, the Structural Use of Reinforced Concrete, October 1970PART 1 ‘The reasons for detail drawings Basic presentation procedure Elementary Knowledge of the structural behaviour of reinforced concreteThe reasons for detail drawings Because of the composition of the construction industry in this country, the chance of one contractor, complete with steelwork reinforcement fixers, working continually in conjunction with one reinforced concrete design engineer over a Period of, say, ten to fifteen years, is virtually non-existent. A far more likely sit uation is that one design engineer may deal with as many as twelve different contrec. tors over a period of two years with the ability of the stee! reinforcement fixers varying from excellent to very inexperienced, There is danger, therefore, in attempt ing @ ‘short-hand’ method of conveying the wishes of the design engineer to the reinforcement fixer, To ensure that the possibility of error is reduced to a minimum it is advisable that the contractor should know the precise requirements with regard to sizes and Positioning of reinforcement, cover distances, concrete strengths, etc, The detail Grawing gives all this information and will normally also provide dimensions and Outlines of the structural unit, though this information, in complex outlines, can be ‘covered by a general arrangement dravving, Since there is a known variation in the experience of steel reinforcement fixers it is essential that a detail drawing is easy to read and understand. It is of little use to Produce a drawing that looks impressive to an engineer but cannot be fully under. Stood by the man actually placing and fixing the reinforcement, This can lead to ‘humerous telephone conversations and site visits which slow down site progress and incur unnecessary expense. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the detail drawing is to an easily read scale, in as simple a form as possible, with all Necessary sections provided so that even the youngest apprentice can see and under- stand what is required, 't should always be borne in mind that office conditions can be completely different to those on site where the steel reinforcement fixer Is out in the open in all weathers trying to translate the drawing to the actual physical article. The reinforcement, therefore, should stand out from any other information shown end should incorporate a sensible arrangement of bars. Any extra time spent on producing 4 drawing in the office that can effectively do this is more than made up by time saved on the site, Many students of engineering forget the basic fact that the detail drawing is the only positive link between the design engineer and the contractor and that site meetings and visits are of secondary importance to good clear detail drawings. ‘They feel, for some misguided reason, that once a knowledge of structural theory {and design has been aquired it is no longer important to remember anything about the detail work. They fail to realise that a drawing cannot be properly checked or 2 detailer properly instructed unless they have a thorough working knowledge of reinforced concrete detailing themselves. Indeed the detailing knowledge and require- ‘ments can often affect the basic design method. It is of equal importance that details 8 well as calculations, should be thoroughly checked (possibly more important) since with calculations a safety factor or the behaviour of the structure can compen- ‘sete for an error, whereas a wrongly placed system of reinforcement or the omission Of some bars due to a badly produced drawing can lead to local failure: i.e. severe Cracking or deflection after the buildirg is occupied, From a purely financial view a man who can produce good, clear, accurate drawings is worth more to an office than a designer of average ability, whose work ‘has to be checked thoroughly. This isreflected in the respective salaries paid where the first class detailer in his mid-twencies can often command a salary equal to that Of a fully qualified engineer. This should serve to illustrate that there is absolutely no logical reason for not attempting to reach a high standard of detail drawing if career in structural engineering is visualised since the knowledge thus gained will never bbe wasted. This is even more the case if an eventual private practice is the aim.Basic presentation procedure ‘Adrawing should alwaysbe easy to follow, and certain basie fundémeotals should 16. Certain standord abbreviations may be used in calling up reinforcement bbe standardised as follows: eg. for type of reinforcement 1, Assensible seale should be adopted e.9. steel round bars R General arrangement drawirigs 1:10 or 1:60 high tensile round bars and ‘Simple wall and slab details 1:50 high tensile square twisted bars Y More complex slab details and other types x sab and wall sections 1:20) for placement of reinforcement Beam and column elvations 1:20 errant fecal 5 ‘Beam and column sections 1:20 0r 1:10 t 2. Grid lines, where used, should run in sequence on plans, numbers 1, 2, 3 etc. NE. from top to bottom and letters A, B, C etc. from left to right of the drawing FF. so that beams and columns, and also floor bays, can be easily referenced ie ‘when shown in isolation on detail drawings or called up on schedule sheets 3, Plans, elevations and sections should be clearly defined. for arrangement of reinforcement “4, Sections through plans should alwaysbe taken looking a) to the left b) upwards peat) es 5, Sections through elevations should always be taken locking a) to the left Cen eee } downwards. 6. Dimension lines of structural units, where no general arrangement drawing is provided, should always be taken outside the member considered and should be clear but in thinner line form than the outline of the member to avoid confusion; however a general arrangement drawing is preferable in which case 7. (these should be mentioned in notes column} ‘The bar mark and size should be grouped into a single numeral where the diameter precedes the bar mark thus:— bar diam in millimetres the reinforcement drawing will not show unit dimensions. é 7. In the interest of clarity, section outlines should be in thicker line form than 8 ‘those of the plans and elevations. 8, Reinforcement should be in heavy line form since itis the most important Pr an Se item on the drawine. 9. An indication of the reinforcement with one (or two if alternate) typical bar only in full should be shown on plans and elevations. The bar should also be fully located either on plan or section. 18, ‘Spacing of reinforcement should be in 25 mm increments from 50 to 200 mm ‘and 50 mm inerements above this up to a maximum of 350 mm as follows: 50, 76, 100, 125, 160, 175, 200, 250, 300, 350. 19, normelbardametae sed shout be: 6,8, 10, 12,16, 20, 25, 52 and 40mm Bars shou! fully call ynce only, this being on the plan or elevation 7 « menaer No. ¢ 4 10. Bs a le ny ng on te nr nao i cat ap ne nia rn, nyt CTE a ace Tec ca Sitar ar isc in another it onthe same dang estore grea ar eer ieerec Reem 0 Riba = NOD eb eee ered ae This signifies that 20 mild steel bars of 12 mm diameter, bar mark 5, are 18 Fad davis a fom a np unto anther more 180m enter te top fhe a, aera bro ‘on a drawing ere it is constant in be cal in the notes a a eibereL an oe ave) ores. 21. Where only one dimension is used in a note e.g calling up blinding, a kicker, 16. Where only one type of reinforcement is used throughout a drawing it is unnecessary to indicate its type on overy set of bars since it can be called up in the notes column e.g. bars to mild steel round throughout. packing te. mm should be used for example 75 mm kicker.Elementary Knowledge of the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete. A structure can be subject to any of the following conditions regardless of its structural material. 1. bending 2. buckling 3. stretching 4-twisting 5. shearing ‘The forces set up in the member by these conditions are tension, compression, torsion and shear. Since reinforced concrete is a composite material there is also the ‘question of the transfer of stress from the reinforcement to the concrete and for this tobe effective the concrete must grip the reinforcement securely. This is known ‘bond and is related to tension, compression and shear forces. ‘The majority of reinforced concrete members are subject to several of the con: ditions noted above rather than one condition only. Foundationsare mostly subject to bending and shearing, the latter being usually the critical condition for depth. But also, where tied together by beams, stretching in the beam may occur. Retaining Walls are mostly subject to bending and shearing, the former being Usually the critical condition for thickness. But also, where subject to loading from ‘above, they may be subject to buckling. Columns are mostly subject to bending and buckling, the latter being usually the critical condition for size. But also, where subject to side pressure from wind loading, they can be subject to shearing. Beams are mostly subject to bending and shearing, the former being usually the critical condition for depth. But also, if slender in relation to their span, they can be subject to buckling and if subject to heavy eccentric loadings they can be subject to twisting Slabs are mostly subject to bending, this being critical in determing depth. In the case of flat slabs, the shearing at column heads can be critical and in two-way spanning slabs, twisting can occur at corners of slab panels. Shells are mostly subject to buckling and/or stretching and these dictate the thickness. Where concentrated loads occur, they may be subject to shearing and, where openings occur, they may be subject to twisting, Considering each of these conditions in turn a size of member and its reinforce- ‘ment can be determined thus:— Bending 4 v4 ee Yt COompressio? ee deflecion Se Suan ension ‘The diagram above shows that, under bending, @ member will deflect a certain ‘amount below the support level and stresses will be set up in the member so that ‘one face is in compression and the other is in tension. On simply supported beams oF slabs the bottom face is in tension and the top face in compression, whereas on continuous spanning slabs and beams a reversal of stress occurs so that at mid-span {tension is normally in the bottom face but at internal supports the tension is in the top face. The position of the tension reinforcement required can be seen at 2 ance by referring to the bending moment diagram for the member being considered eg. 1 co simply supported beam, 7 Tension in bottom, : cantilever beam a Tension in top. Pah propped cantilever boom “Tonsonin top ffom left point X. | Tension in bottom rom pont X orig 4 moe the 1 ‘continuous spanning beam. Tension changes from top to bottom and continues to do so for each span and support,The deflection caused by bending, although not critical from the aspect of structural safety, can have a disastrous effect on applied finishes above and below ‘a beam or slab and is therefore limited to 1/240th of the span during construction {where the member considered may be supporting upper floors) and 1/360th of the span after the application of finishes. The designer can check that this is not exceeded by caleulation or he ean refer to spanidepth ratio tables based on years of site experience. ‘The tension caused by the bending is taken on the steel reinforcement placed inthe tension face of the member and this is known as the “area of steel in tension” ‘or Ast Bars required for this may be conveniently curtailed, where no longer required thus providing an economic placing of reinforcement. Where bars need to be lapped {e4. in very long spans) a lap length sufficient to transmit the stress from one bar to thenext must be provided, this being based on the bond stress between the concrete and steel ‘The compression caused by bending is normally taken on the concrete in the ‘compression face down to the neutral axis of the member but in beams of restricted depth and columns, where the concrete would be overstressed, additional reinforce: ment is placed in the compression face of the momber and this is known as the “area of steel in compression” or Asc, ‘The effect of these two forces, tension and compression, is to combine about & “coupling” or “lever arm” to provide a moment of resistance equal to, or slightly ‘greater than, the bending moment incurred by the loading. This lever arm will vary and is dependent on the depth to which the compression concrete extends. It cannot, however, be smaller than 0.78 x the effective depth of the member. When the compressive foree is large enough to cause the maximum concrete stress to exceed the allowable value, compressive reinforcement must be provided. ‘The remaining moment is then covered by a second resistance moment caused by a coupling” arm between the compression and tension reinforcement. Budl ‘The diagrams above show, that under extreme compression, member will buckle so that its resistance to the compressive force is no longer effective. This buckling will occur in the plane least able to resist it 90 that in columns either plan dimension is eritical and in beams the breadth becomes critical. To eliminate the buckling effect a stress reduction is made in the concrete and the compression steet above @ certain slenderness ratio of the section. For columns the critica ratio is effective height + least lateral dimension = 1. Any column with a ratio of tess than 15 is known as a short column and full compressive stresses can be used. For beams the critical ratio is span breadth of compression flange = 30. Stress reduction tables ‘are provided in CP114 but logically any member working on a reduced stress is not economic and should be avoided if possible. Stretching This condition occurs mostly in members of a framework which act as ties and the whole of the tensile force is taken on the reinforcement. The conerete has no structural value and only provides protection to the reinforcement. Twisting ‘The diagram above shows the effect of a side force or eccentric load which tries ‘to twist and distort the member. \Vhere this is allowed, the beam will not be capable of resisting buckling and bending so readily, and to prevent this from happening the member must be stiffened. Rather then increase the size of the member this can be done more economically by increasing both the main and link reinforcement. In two way spanning slabs a layer of mesh reinforcement in the top and bottom at 45° to the main reinforcement has the same effect. Shearing ‘The diagram above shows the shearing effect on a beam. This is usually eriticat at supportsbut in some instances (ea, heavy point load) can be critical over the entire span, An additional effect is that the reinforcement will tend to Pull away from the support resulting in a bond failure. The shearing force is taken on the concrete initially but where the force is greater than the resistance of the concrete, shear reinforcement is provided. This is available in two forms i.e. stirrups and cranked tars, the former being the more common arrangement. Their effect is to strap the ‘top and bottom bars together to resist fracture along the shear line. In slabs and slab bbases the resistance to shearing must be provided by the concrete alone so that shear reinforcement occurs only in beams and occasionally columns. It should be noted that the diameters of stirrups should preferably not exceed 10 mm and in no case execed 12 mm since at diameters above this they would displace maint stee! considerably. Cranked bars by necessity are of large diameter and are usually of high tensile steel which makes thelr use costly in comparison to stirrups which are of small diameter mild steel. They are normally only considered for beams with heavy point loads. The bond requirements are met by providing a sufficient area of steel incontact with the concrete (i.e. the perimeter of the main steel) so that in certain conditions it may be necessary to reduce the diameter of reinforcement used and increase the number of bars to maintain the same eross sectional area, All of these conditions are caused by loading the member and may be foreseen in the design of any structural unit, Because of this they can be overcome in the design calculations though such items as bond and shear requiremants, curtailment Of reinforcement and lop lengths are left to the detailer to determine. There are, however, secondary stresses which oceur in reinforced concrete construction. mostly during the construction stages—which connote assessed to any its, For these Stresses provision of reinforcement must be made by the detailer based on experience rather than calculation. In slabs, distribution reinforcement is provided at right angles to the main rein forcement to distribute the loading equally to main reinforcement bars and also to Provide anti-crack steel to minimise shrinkage cracking. In addition edges of slab Should have top steel to prevent ‘curling’ during the drying out stages, in beams, links are provided along the span, even where not required for shear, {© act a stirrups to make the handing of reinforcement simpler, to minimise shrink ‘9@ cracking and to help maintain correct concrete cover. |r columns, linksare provided to tie the main bars together, prevent displacement of steel during concreting and to minimise shrinkage cracking. Corners of openings in slabs and walls are particularly prone to cracking during ‘the working life of the structure andshould be reinforced with bars at 45° to the main reinforcement. “To enable the detailer to determine the reinforcement for bond and shear require- iments and to decide when reinforeement is needed for distribution and secondary stresses etc. the following information is required: ‘Shear 2) shear resistance of conerete in a beam Q=qbla Where Q= shear resistance a= permissible shear stress b= breadth of beam la= lever arm Note:— this cannot be used when the value of span exceeds 30. b b) shear resistance of concrete in a flat slab or slab base, Q=apla where Q = shear resistance = permissibie shear stress Perimeter of slab effective (perimeter of col +4 x depth of slab) la= lever arm, ) shear resistance of stirrup reinforcement. Q= Aw x pst x la where Q= shear resistance ‘Aw cross sectional area of stirrup legs Pst = permissible tensile stress of stirrups la= lever arm $= _ spacing between stirrups or stirrup groups Since the sheor resistance has to be equal to the shear force applied, this equation is Usually transposed to obtain the spacing of stirrups 9. 5= AWX pst x la a di shear resistance of cranked bars, Q= Asx pst x sine 0 where Q= shear resistance As = area of shear bar pst = permissible tensile stress in cranked bar = angle of erank to horizontal 'Note:— spacing of bent up bars should be equal to Cosee 0 x effective depth (centre to centre of top and bottom portion) Bond. a) bond requirements at beam supports Local bond stress =_ ao where Q = shear force a= lever arm © perimeteris) of reinforcement ‘Thisis usually transposed in order to find the perimeter requited since the allowable stress is known. eg. 0-0 : la x local bond stress (allowable) ') compression laps bar diameter x the compressive stress in the bar five times permissible average bond stress ) tension laps bar diameter x tonsile stress in the bar four times permissible average bond stress in the case of deformed (or patterned) bars bond strssses can be increased by 25% Note:Reinforcement for distribution and secondary stresses Foundations The minimum area of reinforcement for mild steel must be not less ‘than 0.15% of the gross cross sectional area in each direction or for high tensile deformed bars not less than 0.12% of the gross cross sectional area. The reinforce: iment is also bent up into the sides of the slab to stop layer cracking. In rafts, chairs may be required to support top reinforcement and these should be of 12 mm or 16 mm diameter at not more than 1,000 mm centres in each direction, (See sketch on page 36) Reinforcement from piles should be bent into the reinforcement system of the pile cap and the cut off level of the pile should be 75 mm above the bottom of the pile cap. Columns. a) Main reinforcement must not exceed 8% of the gross cross sectional ‘area at any point due to the difficulty of placing the concrete effectively and must not be less than 0.886, This means that, since the maximum amount of reinforcement ‘will occur at floor level (i.e. lapping onto lower bers), if all the bars are tapped at the same level the effective area of bars in compression is cut to 4%. In heavily rein- forced columns, therefore, half the main bars are lapped at alternate floors spanning ‘two floor heights instead of one: the effective area being 5.33%. b) link reinforcement — the diameter must not be less than % of the diameter of the main steel and the spacing must not exceed the least of the following:— 1, 12 x diameter of main bar 2. least lateral dimension of column ;portant to realise that, in addition to providing a rigid cage of reinforcement during handling and pouring of concrete, these links act to prevent buckling of the ‘main reinforcement so that each main bar must be tied securely in two directions at ‘90° to each other. This will be explained more fully in the detail drawings. Walls reinforcement should be not less than 0.2% of the gross cross sectional area in either direction except, where vertical reinforcement is nominal, lateral reinforce- iment may be reduced to 0,125. The spacing should never exceed 300 mm in either direction to keep shrinkage cracks to a minimum, Beams. top steel, when not acting in compression or tension is provided to form the ‘cage’ for handling and is normally of 10 or 12. mm diameter. In deep beams lateral reinforcement is also provided in the beam sides of similar diameters to the top steel mentioned, at not greater than 400 mm centres. This reduces the spread of shrinkage and temperature cracks. f compression reinforcement is used, links must tie this in two directions as in columns and must not excaed the lever arm distance in pitch. Where links are nominal they provide against shrinkage cracking and should be at centres not greater than 400 mm or the lever arm depth of the bear whichever is the smaller. Slabs. the minimum amount of reinforcement for mild steel is 0.15% of the gross cross sectional area and for high tensile deformed bars is 0.12% of the gross cross seetional area. The spacing of the main bars must not exceed 3 x effective depth of slab and the spacing of the distribution bars, at 90° to these, must not exceed 5 x effective depth. Note. the effective depth is the distance from the compression face to the centre of the tension reinforcement. In hollow ribbed slabs a light mesh reinforcement should bbe provided in the topping of the slab, and in ground floor slabs on fill, that are not ‘connected te the main structure, a mesh reinforcement should be provided in the top of the slab to prevent crazing and shrinkage cracking of the surface.PART 2 Section 1—FoundationsSieqou Suey {| caer Load eo j \\ ground pressure: Single Base ‘Tension is caused in the underside of the base only by the resultant ground pressure, as shown, and so reinforcement is needed in the tottom only. However this is bobbed up at the sides to prevent layer cracking in theplacing of the concrete ‘Side cover is the same as that to the underside and the bobs are of a convenient length to round off the overall length of bar for scheduling purposes. Starter bars are provided to the column and need to be of such a length 9s 10 sive sufficient compression lap above kicker level. The cover to these is the same {as for the columns above or the foundation steel whichever is the greater. Stirrup spacings and diameters are as specified in CP 114 Combined footing ‘This has tension in both faces along its length due to the two columns causing ‘a span moment in addition to cantilever moments so that reinforcement isrequired in the top between columns and in the bottom outside the columns as shown in the bending moment diagram. However, there should be some reinforcement in the bottom, throughout the length, so that in practice the lesser of the two stoe! areas required is carried through to provide a nominal lap with the other bottom steol, It also provides distribution steel for the cantilever steel provided in the other direction. ‘Crosssteel is provided in the top for distribution purposes and also helps locate column starters which are considered in the same way as with the single base. Cross steel both in the top and bottom of the base is bobbed and tied to provide support for the main top reinforcement. Note that the foigitudinal steel top and bottom, being the main reinforcement passed outside the cross steel in order to ‘obtain a greater lever arm. Column Leads Ay I Berdivg Mowent DiagrewDETAIL Sueet 4 | y4R aon | 1 § —} recites |g a4 | Ej— ee | 1 1 | L 4 1 1 S ease tre 1 Buse Tyre 2 Pd & ue ws qSxejou Suet 2 Column Leacts Cantilever foundation This type of base is necessary where 8 column lines up against an existing structure. In order not to exert pressure on any existing substructure or found- ations the new foundation hasa cantilever arm with a compressible material below it. It is commen in this case to combine threo or more columns in the foundation 0 a to pull the main base well back from the end column. The pressures shown ‘cause the foundation to act basically in the same manner as with the previous ‘combined footing except that in addition a beam section running across the top hhas a cantilever arm which is subject to tension in the upper face and also quite heavy shear from the column. Additional reinforcement is therefore required \with the top steel of the cantilever erm being taken back a bond length past the ‘centre line of the central column. Shear stirrups are provided as necessary and the ‘complete beam reinforcement is normelly prefabricated in cage form and dropped over the starter bars to the internal columns. All cover dimensions should be to CP 114 requirements. 10Dew sucer 2 AR20u by. Dense ae | aneee : | =afssonat oe TSacomr | Pam] zim “Bysz06 qaecre jeveer [[ARedqgso Mery [F964 a) a (| Peace=s J ar SSSSktTcu Suet 3 { Wall Leads \ ] vib found pressure Lift shaft base Al perimeter walls cause downward forces so that the resultant ground pres- sure, as shown, ereates tension in the top of the foundation. However, due to the fixity of the walls, there is also tension in the bottom around the perimeter of the foundation. This is taken care of by L-shaped bars which provide starters for wall stee! and normally continue. lap length above the kicker at ground floor level. Because ground floors are normally not structural (eg. rest directly on consol: dated hard core) @ paper joint should be provided between the walls and the ground floor slab to allow for differential settlement. This means that reinforce: ‘ment for the rib at floor level cannot be accommodated by means of a U-bar into the slab, as at upper levels, but that wall stee! needs to be bent back as shown on ‘the detail. Although not required by ground pressure amesh of bottom reinforce: ment should be provided in the foundation to provide against cracking and impact shocks caused by the lift overunning its stops. 24Reos | “See lose elevation wall 4 ELEVATION wall 7 Elevanion wall 4. =| = 19 tes cover +o remforcement | gs wall 1 base slob c> ee oat walle-cuherfare 40. | t = — $8 wwmarfoca 15 L} [nly @eoa= door | | al i a || j : Joos” ee oy 3 g 33 3 = > @ = 3 er 3 | © 7 Ree 0 | | lene ia Jat g wall & Secon A-A 13SxetoH SueeT 4 Nines of — ny tre | win Mob 25D 4a3 Simple pile caps The primary function of the pile cap isto transmit the load from above on to the piles Ideally, then, the lines of thrust at 45° as shown should determine the depth of the ple cap to the top of pile cutoff level. This cut-off refers only to the concrete of the pile since its reinforcement continues above this for @ bond length and is splayed into the cap. The conerete cutoff provides an ideal seating for any bottom steel in the cap so that by adding 2 further 75 mm to the thickness of the cap and overall thickness may be determined, If this thickness is used there is no need, theoretically, for any reinforcement in the pile cap but in practice a layer of bottom steel is provided to counter any tendency towards bending. The reasoning behind this is that, because piled foundations have been used, the ground is not capable of withstanding any pressure. Therefore the pile cap acts ‘as a beam with the column (or wall) above acting as a point load and the pile heads acting as columns. “The spacings of the piles shown, with relation to each other and to the edges of the pile cap are minimum dimensionsand are often increased to 3D and 1.6D respectively sinoe this allows for a degree of error in driving the piles plumb. Groups of four and five are almost as common when using small bore piles and the same rules apply to these for determining the thickness of cap and the placing of reinforcement, however the normal thickness of this type of pile would rarely be less than 700 mm. ‘Another point which should be noted is that, in order to avoid any serious settlement stresses being set up in the structure, any pile cap should be tied edequately in two dlicections at right angles to each other by means of ground beams. In extremely poor soil ‘where the permissible bearing pressure is so low that it cannot take the ground slab, or where an involved system of ducts are used, the ground beams may also support the slab. 14,i | 4 | I neta LL anens Ao ae Kiar 7h oa itt iso tT covmoetorg, F 4 RE09 300 || BRO1p:300 Ls 4RBIO= 300 ‘Bande-Ro 4Ne tos 22 321-1058, BRI = Ibe PILE cap Type 3 \o Ne THUS Nowe 75 cover to all cap reinfathSxKetToH SueeT © 16 Pile caps with wind moments In multi-storey construction, shear walls are often provided in the struc- ture to cater for the pressures caused by winds acting on one face of the building, This, however, is only of use to the superstructure of the building since by the time the various pressures are taken down to foundation level the resultant overturning moment becomes extremely large. ‘This is most simply countered by regarding the pile groups as being @ single unit and determining a suitable section modulus to take the applied moment. The pile strength specified is for direct stress only and when inc: lading ses om wnd moment in aon 05,8 eae nig caectyay eieeadby 262 lng eos ot xe hi fare Tor le wou tobe vary evi hi ay th lr shou 0 sins ll eanvaly would contribute no!ae at al, Thiscan mens ht in order o Kw he ds simple some of he pitpmoy be wllusie he ect he vel memo she, oud ray berate tenkehedapia ita acetone tool ro tha on upd eam lp eke ey ey veer namer ern or ine of pls ute th ns tre, havev ur can toate anton fea eve The dpi is naa determin Oy tha ogee eh Steps feundatons encp ta these rcs a Sony hp aes her In this type of foundation it is usual to provide a continuous run of reinforcement both in the top and bottom faces of the cap so that lateral reinforcement will need to be bobbed to provide support for the main bars. ‘Again itis normal to provide starter bars of sufficient length so that column and wall steel can be lapped above ground floor level.: Deal SHeet 5 erases |, Note = cover te wall and colown starters 50 wun cover to pile cap reinforcement — 75 wm IS 8205-1258 = ==] 4 a? Pile cap type 4 4 Ne TwsSxutou Surety 6G : Case { | $< brick pane! wath — 1 [fi } Ground beams is mentioned on sketch sheet 4, pile cap have to be ted in two directions by ground bars, but thie hte often provide between pa foundations to take anal walsinwhich cae they ac primarily in Benn, | 2s showin, or they may be used a the beams for port Lace of fromed structures when they at purely in esion portal frame Zz Uihichever way they may be used one things con mono tml the ends he bear must be scarey tid into the foundations between which they spen anc the east wey 0 do the ls by passing Ube around the column or wal starters and lapping them ith the beam sta for 2 full tendon lap. Renfor = ment fs normaly the same forthe top and bottom ot the beam and straps are provided at lover am pith __ ae 18Goons BEAM ON ao LINE A caps 2-3 ¢ 3-4 smlsc Deal SueeT GS [4 te Te BAM Jo Peal on aap Line 4 BEAMS ON Gans 24. cmilse- GrieTo0s Es 3a) | D0 cover [Ses 44op 10 r as mm. cover. btw ‘et! ey | | t60, lait ell 4 ell ‘Sowm.cover ig | Spa!SKETCH Sueet 7 wae \ \ ae we. 4 Case | — wee 7 £ = we Case 2 Cantilever retaining walls {As will be seen from the sketches, these may be loaded in either direction and in fact, areoften loaded inboth directionsin the case of liquid-etaining structures It is important therefore to ascertain which is the tension face so that the main reinforcement may be placed correctly... in case 1 the main steel should be in the botiom of the slab and the wall fece in contact with the retained material. Incase 2 the main steel should be in the top of the slab and the wall focs in contact wih the retained material. When constructing e retaining wall iti normal to have working space between ‘the wall and the earth to be retained and this is often utlisad to provide a toe" or ‘heel to the wall, Also a downstand nib is often provided to increase the resistance of a wall against siding: its most sensible position is immediately below the wall, If these two steps are taken the arrangement of reinforcement is simplified considerably since unequal U-bars can be provided as will be seen on the detail sheet. Since the pressure lessons considerably towards the top of the wall and the limit of the base itis sometimes useful to provide two different lengths of bar which are spaced alternately. This then provides more steel at the angle ofthe wall and base where the moments are greatest. ‘When the compression face is exposed itis usual to use mesh reinforcement to reduce the chance of shrinkage cracking. Ths is shown inthe detail sheet 20A see ER Wey = Sas Boe FH "loti Mh ay "le a, + 7 TLL Tied ona 1208 50 atemale FR elevation PLAN GETAINNG WALL ON Gam LINE A @ Bays Thus 21 | Deqail SueeT 7 Is75 5, leoe * ee! Neco NOTE 90mm blinding to onderside: 50 min.cover to all rawgult excopt where voted charwieeSkKtICH SHeeT & , "Al £5 Tie x Sa _£1C Counterfort retaining walls ‘As with the cantilever type of wall the loading may occur on either side of the wall, If loading is on the same side as the counterfort (sketch 1) the tendency is for the wall to pull away from the counterfort causing tension to occur on all three planes of the counterfort If loading is on the opposite side of the wall, however, the tendency is for the wall to close up on itself causing compression on all three planes of the counter fort. ‘The wall itself spans between these counterforts and can therefore be treated in a similar way to a slab, continuous over several supports, Consequently, at supports, the tension occurs in the face in contact with the loading material and, between supports, the tension occurs in the face away from the loading material. ‘The only difference between the walls and continuous slabs are that, whereas with slabs, the loading is normally constant with the walls of a counterfort retaining wall the loading varies across the height of the wall and the width of the base. It must be realised therefore that the main steel in a counserfort type wall is the horizontal stee! so that this will lie outside the vertical steel which acts as dis- ‘tribution reinforcement. 2—h ——E i 4} oneg * = Bee | 7 toy Tl) epee on By foo _| io I} lorie = ot PLAN, ‘el FORT WALL ADIACENT To Grip Line 23 \ eR toad-3e0 'v'bars a \ et 1005-150 "0! bare eH ati" ericos-2c0 SO bare SECTION 5-5 showing coohefor retefath,Siezqou Suey O Propped cantilever ‘The effect of a prop, created by a floor slab or some similar means is to stop the top ofthe wall from deflecting so that it will now take the bent form shown. ‘The tension hus transfers trom the outer to the Inner face of the wall ark, because the bending moment is reduced, reduces the amount of reinforcement required compared with a cantilever type of similar dimensions and loading It is important, however, to provide only nominal top reinforcement in the slob s0 that a furthor reversal of stress does not occur in the wall which could ‘couse cracking. This is provided most simply by using U-bars out of the wall on to which the slab bottom steol can be lapped. There is no need in this type of Wal 10 provide alternate bars of uiferent lengths singe the outer steel is cut off a lap length above the point of contraflexure, Once more, vertical steel isthe ‘ain reinforcement and distribution steel lies inside this 2IBY 1205 ~ 250 NF UR le06-200 TT Xo! bare 8 sca 9 Sr. “3 g § . vice & See Deyall. SHEET 9 25 te} | DETAIL OF END WALL oN Grip LINE A Cover! 50 teal extemal faces 25 to all Wheel facesSkeTcH SueeyT 10 26 Two storey type ‘The behaviour of the wall is similar to that of the normal propped cantilever except that, being of two-storey height, there are two further reversals of stress. ‘Tension occurs at basement and semi-besement levels in the outer face of the wall and between floors in the inner face of the wall ‘Again, the reinforcement between the floors and the wal is only nominal so that no moment is transfered into the slabs. Because of the large reduction in pressure towards the top of the wall the reinforcement in the upper wall is much lower than that in the bottom lift of wall© © Detail SHEET .10 L a 4 Boo —§_ — | aT | ot Le = lew w3ea—0 4 7 { se | — I! | | i| jist ald —seone {| Fer ent. nivulh | 3 iy] i sar beg NE | $ | | [i] (epee —toomn 81 {| ||) | one A | a | | | | a \| if; 2 as 5 | elevation yen ||) [+p teuepdetce 4 j = | til oe IL pein atee st — | | & = ,S«etoH Sueet 11 Raft foundation. ‘The principle here is that, because the ground pressure is limited to a low figure, the load from the columns and ground ‘loor is spread over the whole area of the building ‘The effect is that the ground pressure pushing upwards creates tension in the top of the raft between columns and in the bottom of the raft under the columns. It is normal to provide beam strips between the columns to counter this so that both top and bottom steel are provided slong these strips. Thus, only the centre of a panel of the raft is singly reinforced and even here @ light ‘mesh is provided in the other face in case thete is a weak pocket of earth at this 28B4co a Fl i Oi B — |. ley Wood — 2007 & | _8Y tes ~acop tt & pI =k 4 —— g |_ IBY 2e0?-sc08 § a 4 @ 4 r noe 4S ____& Se L 27v 20012008 $7 | | 4 is (2 ~ @t—3 — es act g j 18 Y te05-Bc07 i [yj 16Y 1e15 Soot 4s mon x a 3 Of} pt ee e |E_ PLY 2011 ~Zo08 sr y | =. a + | ie : | se : i aes. a | R |} Henaeaee O== Ez = = =~ = a , pa Al | AFT FOUNDA — BAYS C~H QEPEAT AS B- TON ie 6 CORT AS By Bc 29SKETCH SHeet 17 Watfled Raft ‘The principle here is similar to that of the normal raft except that, in extremely poor soils, particularly those of anon-cohesive nature, the soil has to be contained to give an effective bearing pressure. This is achieved by making downstand beams in place of beam strips which, in addition to containing the soil, reduce the necessary thickness of the raft. Because of this reinforcement is placed in both faces of the raft over its complete area,© Seco i | Deal Sueer 12 31 Al mane TOE Timo | ; tof) i o ! & q {Fasvtotog 1) i ae ti iy ery 4 yi ft * |) feed | iy eid ay ls A | 4 aH le i ij ‘3 4 a u fh as |) & aipis i a tee) 3 § a di, JIL if is oe 40 mm.cever to slob rail Somm.cover to bec rainfut 75 mm.covet te colmo skirlars Somm. binding 4o beau lake NP ose bars 5164 § 25194Section 2—Slabs Seto Suey |S Ground floor on fill (One of the main problems with this type of slab is shrinkage cracking which ccan be overcome to 2 large extent by good construction. In detailing such slabs provision should be made for construction joints (as distinet from day joints or expansion joints) to form a chequer board pattern as shown on the sketch. The shaded panels are laid first and the remainder a few days later. The section shows a typical joint detail, though these may vary slightly Where the non-structural slab butts against structural units @ sliding joint should be provided around the perimeter of such units to allow for slight seztle- ment. If this is not done cracking can occur. If there is a serious problem of damp penetration this can be overcome by providing a notch in the top of the slab and filling it with a flexible bitumastic compound. ‘This type of slab is often used in factories where heavy machinery is situated, (on plinths and for this condition a flexible joint should be provided around their perimeters so as to isolate vibrations from the main slab. The reinforcement for this type of slab is straightforward since, being non: structural, the only provision is against cracking. This is provided by a mesh reinforcement in the top of the slab (25 mm cover) of 150 mm square with laps of 150 mm minimum. As a further precaution against cracking the slabs should bbe founded on 150 mm well consolidated hardcore with 50 mm blinding imme diately under the slab.lobe All mech tebaputt in top. 25 mm. cover to slab reinfu't. 15O mi. sain, lap on reinfi,SketcH Suet 14 34 ‘Suspended ground floor Itis generally necessary to provide structural ground floor slabs only when the site iscomposed of a layer of made up ground. A typical example of ths is where piled foundations are used and the ground to slab level is back filled. The problem with made up ground is that it has net had sufficient time to compact naturally so that there is always a risk of uneven settlement. This could cause weak pockets below the slab and so to allow for this the slab must be supported by the framework of the structure. ‘The ketch shows. typical arrangement of top and bottom steel for a one wey spanning slab of a continuous nature. This arrangement shows how costs can be kept down by staggering alternate bars in both faces of the slab e.g length of top steel 0.45 of span instead of 0.5 length of bottom steel 0.875 approx instead of 1.00 approx. (half the bottom steel should pass over the support for about 12 to 15 bar diameters) ‘Also by breaking the curtailment line of the top stee! the risk of a crack form: jing on such a fine is avoided. ‘The placement of the reinforcement is dictated by the shape of the bending ‘moment, as can be Seen from the sketch, so that if a line is drawn parallel to the base line at half the depth of the bending moment maximum this shows where half the steel may be curtailed. Note however that the steel must continue for 2 further 12 diameters past such a point (C.P.114 — bond requirements) |When continuous spans are approximately equal (e.g. longest not more than. 1.25 x shortest span in a system) the values given in the sketch will apply. Again note ant-crack steel provided at final support. ‘The pitch of this main reinforcement (i.. distance between bars) must not exceed 3 x effective depth. The pitch of the distribution reinforcement (which passes inside the main reinforcement) must not exceed 5 x effective depth. ‘The area of the steel in either direction must not be less thon 0.15% of the gross crass sectional area of the slab.14 T DETAIL SHEE a q dos seu1 hea = ee i Tizos 12081008 ~HEEa a long _teod Figen toad ra wi big) Note = 50 mm binding 42 ofsile 15 mu.cover to bottom steal 12 wm.covar to top steel AWA SECTION 35alkemate bottle bars continue \5Owm lepper)paat ¢ 36 Beam and slab construction, one way spanning The same rules as these for structural ground floor slabs apply to suspended slabs so they are not mentioned again on this sheet. Instead & ‘ew typical detail points are elaborated. If a downstand perimeter beam finishes flush with the slab anti-crack steel can be provided by continuing the beim stirrup across the slab. ‘This simplifies fixing but means thet the alternate bars will not be stag ‘ered since this would make the steel fixing for the beam stirrups far ‘00 lengthy. If the beam does not finish flush, or is an upstand, an uneven U-bar can be used. This also provides for tying in the bottom reinforcement. Ona thick slab, however, this is rather wasteful and a bobbed bar should be used. Downstand beams which form T-beams can make use of the slab ‘top steel to tie the stirrups so that ‘open’ stirrups may be used, Where stair flights occur itis better to utilise the slab reinforcement rather than use small bent bars lapped in ata later stage so a few points should be observed. Stair starter barsshould provide 2 sufficient bond length (tension lap) above kicker height to tie in with the main stair reinforcement, Bars that crank down should be accurately located (e.9. dimensioned 1 the crank point on the slab layout). Openings in the slab for services etc., unless circular or sufficiently small to pass within the normal pitch of the reinforcement, should be reinforced at their corners by diagonal bars top and bottom except where ‘rimmed by beams. For deep slabs (more than 160 to 200 mm thick) itis often necessary to support the top steel on ‘chairs’ during placing and this should be indicated on the reinforcement detail giving its position (usually 750 mm each way) and scheduled with the dab reinforcement.© f Deyall SHEET 15 Pe seco te age 4 4 aoe Too [t= a gt] 3 : a [1 8F . 3 ++ ist] gg & " [lcs fel Ff s pee 3 8 aoe ay Ii { +H 4 et Hl i—-——P ¢ la foo HET gt Tega $14 a (= ;crt ¥ g | +++] 9 | g > 3 | ge 7| 2 g Ile | 38 * eanoos 320 S| hum tein secon] 4! s Be [hed ar {|e [rine 28 SRiow i i et 4A ee = Be z | % u + aR tewb-ste'r || | | tole toy acer | TE a il dee pif . 3 fot Hee vevfath i, i a srt ¢ begne ie 4 I Reinforaemant +4+—+} — Lt We Sst boot bath gx 2°—-§ | TI S| “| | 43 f tecae eS / KA ret / Smmaner toall exinpullSketouH Sueer 16 + top of clab Yielp Line PATTERNS Beam and slab construction, two way spanning Two way spanning slabs are not particularly common since they require supporting beams on all four sides. The cost of providing these often overrides ‘the savings in cost by spanning the slab both ways. However they have some advantages e.g. for particularly large spans they save on slab thickness. ‘The sketches show the yield lines (or cracking planes) of a two way spanning slab where the angle © varies between 45° for equal sides and 30° for long span equals twice the short span. The yield lines for the underside also show how much of the slab is carried by each of its perimeter beams so that, where the long span becomes greater then ‘twice the short span, the slab becomes one way spanning. The yield lines for the top of the slab show the effects of torsion on the slab which can be provided for by placing a diagonal sheet of mesh reinforcement in the top of the slab. Since the shorter span takes the greater load and therefore has the larger bend- ing moment, it is essential that its steel has the greater effective depth e.g. the reinforcement to the short span (top and bottom) should lie outside that of the long span. Because of the difficulty of analysis for two slabs of differing spans, they are invariably used where continuous spans are equal. In these conditions the curtail- ment of reinforcement in both direction is similar to that for the main steel shown on sketch sheet 14, wach rewforewant ace oF right: to yield Imes angles 38® ® @ Deal SHEET |e _ deco htc Ate0 ie | | ale cover te reivgwit Nete ~ to be IS mm. miniurnSuetcu Sueeq 17 Flat soffit floors:-- hollow rib one way spanning Whereas the solid slab is considered as a series of ‘beam strips the hollow ribbed slab is considered as series of T-beams with the structural topping acting as, ‘a compression flange for span moments, The ribs can be formed in several ways, the most common being by using clay pots or wood-wool formers. When clay pots are used clay slip tiles should be provided to avoid pattern staining. When wood woo! formers are used they normally provide a soffit for, the rib. In these instances (e.g. where the rib is pro- tected) the cover to the rib reinforcement can be brought down to 15 mm: or thesize of the aggregate if larger. With clay pots the centres between ribs may vary according to design requirement as may the with of the rib. With wood wool units the centres between ribs is usually constant at 600 mm with ribs 125 mm wide, In this case the rib reinforcement may comprise ‘a maximum of two bars. ‘A hollow ribbed floor may be designed in one of ‘wo ways;either as simply supported between beam of beam strip supports; or 2s a continuous system over several supports. With the first system main reinforce- ment occurs in the rib with only anti-crack steel over ‘the supports. With the second system main steel occurs in the rib for the span moment and over the support for the support moment. It is essential to find out from the designer which method he has employed since with the simply sup: ported method the formers can run to within 60 mm ‘of a beam, whereas with the continuous span method compression zones must be formed in the bottom of the slab where the rib alone cannot take the compres- sion set up by the support moment. For this reason the first method of design is often used where compression occurs only in the structural ‘topping. This topping is reinforced with a square mesh reinforcement (150 mm each way) placed contratly in its depth to prevent shrinkage and temperature crack ing and to span between ribs. If beam strips (e.g. beams within the slab thick ress) are used the rib reinforcement will need to be cranked. This is shown in more detail on sketch sheet 18.DETAIL SHEET 7 van rebpath,SKETCH SueeT 18 mesh reinforcer a —————— r weed-wedl wake up erik cross— section ‘ireegh shert span (vio steel for long span shown clotted) = <= eae ow crank 1a is 1Ox Crew lee a) = cross-section Wrough leng span (fib steel for short span drown dotted) 42 Flat soffit floors:— hollow rib two way spanning Here again the floor acts as a series of T-beams except that they now span each way. The method of forming the pots is again similar to the previous example as is the cover requirement. It must be remembered, however, that the shorter span, having the greater bending moment requires ‘the greater effective depth. In two way spanning hollow ribbed floors the problem again arises on the question of design though, except in extremely critical cases, they are designed as simply supported. It Is however necessary for the detailer to ‘check this. Wood woo! unitsare becoming more common, in flat soffit construction than clay pots since make-up units can be obtained to provide a surface below the beam strips consistent with that of the remainder of the floor soffit. ‘The steel arrangement for the beam strip type of construction is quite straightforward as can be seen from the sketches and the detail sheet. The rib reinforcement for the longer span has the shorter effective depth and so passes over the rib steel for the short span. Because of this it can also pass ‘over the reinforcement to the beam strip with no need for any cranking. It should normally continue for about 25 dia into the beam strip or for 10, diameters past the centre line, whichever is the shorter. As with solid slabs half the steel may be curtailed before the support beam {or beam strip) ‘which means that for the rib reinforcement to the shorter span only one tend of each bar needs to be cranked since the alternate bar can be reversed. ‘The second sketch shows the reason for cranking the reinforcement (e.9. ‘to avoid beam steel) and this also applies to the reinforcement in the beam strips. Usually itis easier to let the steel in one direction run straight across column heads whilst cranking all steel in the other direction where it ‘crosses beam strips. ‘The anti-crack steel over supports also ties in beam links thus allowing them to be open (this makes fixing easier) and these should continue for 30 diameters past the edge of the beam strip or 0.2 of the span from the centre line of the beam strip, whichever is the greater.18 = a a a wu ay) oo} = Re hae ¥ || | |) j ial = j ry 2etB 9502 Goo ® sigeSketcH Sueet 19 Flat soffit floors:~- pure flat slab | 1 A flat slab ison entirely ferent concept of desgn to any of those = dolumn strip Le det with ofr thos mo beam but sented es plates died 4 f. | fe} son Ech oft enored ee cortius sti of Ho: having top stat er vapors, Brome ts wert Tor the mill tps oe ‘ etecivly to column spe, ovouon sels pronded in he coal | part ofthe column sip e9, between clams fo support te tp steel = elie of the middle stip. | Consequently, in all but the central quarter of the slab (which has bottom steal only each way) there are four layers of steel: one each way top and one each way bottom. This makes the slab very stiff over column heads and s0 no additional torsion reinforcement is necessary. | | ‘The arrangement of reinforcement in the slabs is dealt with extensively | in CP. 114 but briefly the requirements are that ! | | | 2) two thirdsof the reinforcement in the column strip should be housed th cen tcc a | | ‘the column centre line {in practice half is curtailed at this point and half @ regular grid is used (e.g. constant spacing of columns each way)Deal suHeetT 19 ABce ~e6 = - } i g2 A a “i = § h y ee ri % —— ae $ rr ~ ~ For rein Sacred london 3st * Nobe = IS mmcover toall reinfut, "Wyte? igh Yb okt SecTION “A-A’Seen Sueet 7O Pitched roof slab If the roof is of beam and slab, or frame and slab construction the roof slab ‘will actin exactly the sarne way as it would if flat (see 1.) e.g. it will span between ‘supports with the main reinforcement running longitudinally. The only extra precautions that need to be taken are provisions of anti-crack steel at changes of direction and increased cover to the reinforcement on the upper surface. If, however, the construction is based on the flat slab (or plate) method of design, a change of direction in the slab will bring about a reversal of stress, so that both top and bottom steel are required at such a point (see 2) Normally this type of roof is constructed in reinforced concrete only when a new building needs to have similar elevations to previous or neighbouring prop- erties. In such a case it is quite normal to have dormer windows and parapet utters incorporated in the in situ work. Note: if dormer windows are incorpor- ated it is advisable not to use a flat slab method of design but rather a frame and slab type of construction. 46Sketen Sueet 71 Folded plate stab (On some large span roofs the client or architect may decide to make 4 feature of the roof and a pleasing way of doing this is to use a folded plate type of structure. The roof is in effect corrugated so that the upper jcints house the compression flanges and the lower joints house the ‘tension reinforcement. In this case the roof must span longitudinally, as shown in the sketch, since if it spanned in the other direction excessive deflection would ‘occur. Roofing of this type is invariably of a simply supported nature 30 that only nominal top reinforcement needs to be provided from the support beams (for about 0.16 of the span). ‘Shear is taken in the diagonal portions of the roof and these should be checked accordingy (nominal reinforcement 0.15% for mild steel, (0.12% for high tensile is usually adequate) 48,Deyall SHEET 21 Sie rly a im 49Seton Sueet 27 Support slab ~ (acts as cantilever) a Flat roof ‘The main problems which occur on flat roofs are 1) ventilation and lighting 2) drainage 3) expansion and contraction With the first problem 2 dome light or ventilator is usually fixed to an upstand rib of sufficient depth to allow for finishes and rainwater (approximately 200 mm). This cannot however be regarded as structural unless the upstands tie back into main beams. The solution is to provide a beam within the slab thickness (easy if a hollow ribbed system is employed! ar in {an extreme case thicken the beam strip thus reducing screed above. Wherever possible an open ing for a dome light or ventilator should be positioned as close as possible to a main beam (or ‘beam intersection) in order to keep bending on the beam strip to a minimum, Drainage falls are usually provided by varying the thickness of the screed e.g. 40 mm max. ‘to 25mm. min. In cases where extremely large spans are involved this may not be practical since ‘the maximum thickness would have to be increased, to comply with fall requirements, to too large an extent. In such cases it is normal to pitch the slab very slightly (to the fall required) ‘and keep the screed constant. Note if the roof is asphalted it is advisable, to use a lightweight soreed in order to avoid excessive thermal movement of the asphalte. Thermal movenent is @ particular problem for flat roofs due to their large surface area and ‘exposure to the elements. Expansion joints are provided to overcome this problem, and since this problem is special to the roof itis not necessary to continuesuch a joint through the complete structure. This makes the ‘split frame" type of joint rather pointless (where columns back-te-back ‘continue down the building) as wall as being expensive. The correct position for such joints, on ‘a one-way, spanning, continuous roof slab, is between the support beams at the points of cantra flexure of the slab. This joint will have to be continued to include perimeter beams. Expansion Joints are normally provided every 30 m or so in each direction, dependent on the shape of the building.beowalric showing netsh to perimeter beam at expansion Joint Shows as varh. on ovtar face, DeTAL SHEET 22Seetcu Suter 23 Cross section Mrough barrel vaults arch reinforcement ZX _(placed cantrally) Cress section through valley bean compression zone tension reinforcement Shell roof:— barrel vault ‘This type of roof structure is a refinement of the folded plate but, Instead of having tension and compression flanges inthe slab, is considered {as @ series of parabolic arched slabs (or segmental arched slabs) each span- ning, simply supported, onto beam sections which ocour at the valleys. Barrel vault roofs can span very large distances compared with more conventional types of roof structure and for the extremely large spans can bbe a combination of normal reinforced conerete (for the arches) and pre- stressed concrete (post-tension for valley beams). The arches, if parabolic, are in compression only so that nominal rein: forcement only, of small diameter bars, is required. Being light, the reinforcement does not require bending to shape prior to placing since it should take up the shape of the arch on placing. ‘The valley beams, being subject to side thrusts, will need extra stirrups 10 resist torsion so that the pitch of such stirrups will probably not exceed 0.5 of the effective depth of the beam. These stirrups can then be bent and placed alternately (see sketch) to provide starters for the arch steel7 Bee DeTAll SHEET 23 Rose PLAN a 27 20 Jip == r = = | | a a 8 8 ta | ee ¥ ect iso q $ | i i i— % qt qi & | [—] a - he —— ea I TfSKETCH Sueet 274 ereviae ground diagoval groonct areviar ground beam ab parwnater beaus tie the comers beam Hes the of shell. _ yo c1eulag Dove S@quace Dome TRANGLAR DOME: main steel bent to main steel bette main shee! bentto rads and lopped constant radius and = constantradivs with with tersion lap. bobbed at comers. reducing length and bobbed at comers. Shell roof:— dome The principles of domed roofs, circular, square or triangular on plan are simply that the vertical plane is in compression and the horizontal plane is in tension. The longitudinal reinforcement is, therefore, the main ste! resisting tension wh t the steel which takes the shape of the dome is nominal, providing for distribution and to counter shrinkage cracking. The distribution steel, there‘ore, being of small diameter can assume its shape on placing but the main steel must, where necessary, be bent to shape prior to placing. Supports are subject to an inclined force and act as buttresses so that they must be effectively restrained. This may be effected, on a triangular roof by provision of a ring beam, and on a square roof by diagonal tie beams at ground level. Dome lights can be accommodated fairly easily by closing the spacing of reinforcement into tension bands above and below them. They should, however, preferably be of circular shape to avoid cracking due to the com: pression forces in the concrete. 54n mo 4 Detal Sueet 24 Noke' Cainforcament 4e be arranged cavtrally in slab. Bars lect and Gos vay in levgh with ‘shortoct hare ab ouleide. 56SKETCH SueeT 25 glazed infill hip. indicahes high point Lip. indicates low point Single panel" bypar’ Four pavat * taypor ive panel hypar’ with glazed ribs butresses onto ring beam 56 Hyperbolic paraboloids Hyperbolic paraboloid roofs (sometimes known as ‘hy: pars’) are becoming increasingly popular with architects and clients since they use far less concrete to cover a large span than do conventional flat roofs, They are also distinctive in their form, adding character to buildings. ‘The principles, as with domes, are simple: the plane which ‘curves downwards is in tension and the plane which arches ‘upwards is in compression. An added advantage is that all reinforcement, with the exception of the perimeter beams, is composed of straight bars. Reinforcement is placed contrally in the slab to allow for cover, the bars being eithor in direct compression or tension. Edge beams need to be reinforced against torsion which means that stirrups will be fairly closely spaced. Although @ single hypar can be used to act as a complete roof (see sketch) it has more commonly been the practice in the U.K. to use groups of four, five or six in combination (again see sketch) Where used in the normal way the two low points sit on either a buttress or a ring bear in a manner similar to the domed roof. If used in combination the low points of adjacent panels are sometimes spaced apart from each other forming a triangle between the base and the apex of the Units. These may be filled either with concrete or glazing, bearing in mind that it the second is used it must be water: proofed at the joints.ella 7 620 mb ee Deja. SHEET «75 foor PLAN ALL Panels @epeat BEAM SECTIONS Slowing THE-N WITHA SLAB ReFoRcEMENT. 87SKetcy Sueet 276 hp hy hp. P Four panel inverted ‘hypar’ rwp. housed in column. 6A Root plan of factory using wvarbed “hypar’ units wilh infill glazing strips BGwetres x Z| metres: ‘An alternative method of using hypers is to invert them ‘and pitch them so that three corners are level with the fourth fone on a lower plane. These are normally used in groups of four, the only support being at the tow comers of each which are seated on a single column. The column has a rainwater pipe inside it to take care of roof drainage since the shape dictates the passage of the rainwater. ‘An advantage of this second type of roof is that column centres can be well spaced in each direction making the system ideal for alarge single storey factory. Natural lighting can be provided by spacing the roofs a set distance apart (e4g. 1200 to 1500 mm) in each direction and infilling with ppatent glazing (see sketch).Detail suEtT 7S TB, {160 4 116j__ Hloog i mF, a Sa ; ee | Ider owt to eine slope oft ploety = q = |+_* | sections stewne { ' EDGE AND SPE BEAMS. oor PLAN 59Section 3—Beams and Stairs Sweten Sueet 27 iletergen 60 Beams:— single span and cantilever Aithough reinforced concrete is primarily regarded a8 monolithic material, providing continuity between beams, columns and slabs, there are instances where single ‘span beams are used. e.g. i) cross spans on narrow buildings where no internal columns are required. ) trimmings to openings for stair wells ete. In these cases it is normal to make the beams discontinuous with the columns ie. to create a simple support rather than carry moment into the columns. This increases ‘the bending moment on the beam since support steel is now only for anti-crack provision. Hi problem of shear reinforcement is eased sl ‘to the increased depth compared with a similar span and loading fora continuous beam. The sketches show typical joint details for beam to columa or beam to beam connections. ‘Sometimes, in order to keep a beam within a limited depth, compression reinforcement is introduced (log- ically ‘on the opposite face to the tension reinforee- ment) and in these circumstances it must be remem- bred that each compression bar must be tied by beam stirrups in two directions at 90° to each other (see sketch). However this is not a reqular occurrence since the single span beam can be designed as a T= beam, using the slab as its compression zone. Cantilever beams can be basically of two types i) stub cantilevers il) cantilever ends to 8 continuous system. The stub cantilever, unlike the simply suppor- ted beam, must be fully fixed, imparting its complete ‘moment into the column. It is limited in its applica- tion, sinceit is uneconomic to take very high moments into columns, and can therefore only be used effect- ively on short spans such as internal balconies, supports to fire escape stars ete. ‘The second type, however, dependent on the beams into which it runs, can cantilever quite large distances e.g. 5 m is quite commonplace. It is normal for this type (can also be applied to stubs) to rake the soffit, since all the stresses decrease towards the end of the: beam. In acantilever all the moment issupport moment 0 that tension steel is placed in the top of the beam. Only in extreme cases would compression steal bo considered since with this type of beam the depth is Coften governed by deflection limitations. If, however, compression steel is used the same rules as for normal beams apply. The sketches show the provisions for tying the beam in with the column oF continuous beam, this being a critical detail since this isthe most likely place for the beam to fal.2 250 aver aio th Detail SHEET 27 - ___I7 & 1904 B00SkeyeH Sueey 78 onti-crack 3 ut. sont mae Continuous beams:— lightly loaded wk s - —-- - Inaconventional lightly loaded system of continuous beams moment Set WE Span mh. ~~ coefficients are taken directly from CP 114 (providing that spans are | . similar) in which case no bending moment diagrams will be showa in the Bending Moment Diagraw. calculations. Cut off points are therfore similar to those for or tinuous slabse.g. 0.25 of span for top steol, 0.16 of span for anti-crack. However reinforcement is not staggered alternately, as in the slab, but inside bars “teen eran ere reba 7 re a it of woe do ren te nuit lah ey neo enge | 1 = required. For lightly loaded beams with probably only three bars top | ] and bottom this can be taken as 0.2 of the span for support steel (top) Sra ub of tsp ripen sel boon shear Shear reinforcement is usually only necessary at the first and last vd internal supports and should be designed as shown on page 00. Bond | requirements should similarly be checked, this being critical on the end p support only. these bans have Wvereasad Where one beam system frames into another, such es with two-way oe spanning slab design or with perimeter beams, the reinforcement to one Of the beams must be cranked to avoid that of the other. Since the ‘outline of the beam section at right angles to the system is shown on the detail drawing the position of the main reinforcement can be shown by an open circle (see sketch). tis customary to show cross sections (at twice the scale of elevations) wherever, either the reinforcement or outline of the beam changes.Detal SuEET 78 a ® , © Bir ARIoos 4 ; , 4 A] enn 3] nye, | BEM Za (2g sintlar but handel) 3 Be WR low 200 al a 7 | cm | sasleni tr ase fae tlie 1810 io Be 0 Beam Ze (2a similar) Beam 2d. BEAM on Gam Line 2 (3/5 x 775) 63SkeTcu Sueet 79 Main steel con be vbilised for shear reinforcement where no longer required in tension face of beam, * doutte syskon, giving twice as mudh shear resistave , provides extra bars at half pitch, Nae sete 7 6e Continuous beams:— heavy shear (On some continuous beam systems heavy shear forces aré imposed by either heavy uniform loads or point loads. Also a widely varying system of spans can produce this. In such cases the shear reinforcement will vary considerably along ‘the systems links ranging from single to groups of three or four. This will in turn affect the main steel since each link should pass around a bar at its corners e. 9 links in pairs require three main bars, links in thraos require four main bars ete {In some cases link reinforcement is not sufficient to take the shear force imposed e.g. a column stopping at first floor level and a system of bent up bars {is then used in conjunction with the links. This is also dealt with in the earlier ‘chapter on shear reinforcement. ‘The main reinforcement is also usually heavy in these circumstances and can be in two or even three layers in @ beam of restricted width. If so spacer bars must, be provided, these usually being off cuts of the main steel, and should be detailed ‘and scheduled. Spacing of this reinforcement, in heavy beams, is usually at centres of 1 metre, If a two way spanning system is used in these conditions cranking of bars ‘become both costly and makes things difficult for the steel fixer. It is adviseable, therefore, to use splice bars so that all main bars can be straight. This of course only applies to the bottom steel, the top steel being given extra cover in one direction (see sketches) When a column starts from a beam, then starter bars must be provided as part of the beam’s reinforcement system and should be detailed and scheduled accordingly. In certain circumstances, where beam reinforcement is to be placed insitu, rather than prefabricated in cage form, itis useful to provide open stirrups to facilitate placing of the main bars. These stirrups can be finished with a closer bar (see sketch below) (th X closer bars Open stirrups“Sa a _ 3250, a ® a 2Y x0 ' ea vac? sees ||tluame amt. ang [3¥ 2009 | janes Byes sylece Detail SHEET 29 Pool Bet Nok | ook Yet fo a fec9, wa ise a bore in two layere GRIMY BY Pode 3Y%I8 2¥M04 VE LI Wy 2516 ay2sie | \2Y 2526, 2 ¥ 2545 spocer bare im two layers 2x39 R 102e— Io 12519 5] BEAM 3G 65 —Sketou Surety 30 top in coinetna't mai cate att rewapu'k diagonal alsotriws holes ctewpavalore changes cavsz cracking at corners ol opering anti - crack Deep beams with service holes In @ building where an air conditioning or heating system has to be ‘accommodated with the depth of the structural system any cross runs of ducting will need to pass through the beams. The problems here are mainly for the designer but careful detailing is essential and so some knowledge of the beam’s behaviour is essential ‘The beam becomes, in these circumstances, a framework with vertical members framing the openings and horizental members running above {and below the openings, all members being in direct tension or com: pression. Small columns are thus formed within the depth of the beam with compression struts over the openings. Links must, therefore, be provided as for column reinforcement. Holes should also be framed with diagonal reinforcement, where possible, to avoid temperature cracking and anti-crack (shrinkage) rein forcement should be provided in the solid portions of the bear: unless aaheed for by rainforonuent 663] Al «Detail SHeeT 30 anicie are Ries 2RIa, ay seelias aaa Ts BYiea1 | BY os BY 202 2Y 06 20 lewrm ietzeee, [Fomeneeatlte rere 2) Sil ng, . o, Qo mae Qe tone onan i 00. tn —1 en t . i at vet. Yo + lor. ew,ecu SuHeet 31 SS nel gre Canad dmorcions on banding schaciles, Laivjoreing bar detuil oo IY Groom Ban hy. Lock Bae \ ww * Keking colown cractes toréien in each case 68 create hoop taxsion Ring beams Ring beams are subject to compression, tension, shear, bond and torsion stresses, but all these problems are for the designer. The effect for the detailer is that similar reinforcement is provided top and bottom, stirrups are at close centres throughout the beam and all laps should be as required for tension. Ring beams can occur in various situations, e.g roof, ground beams, cylindrical water tanks ete. but the same provisions apply in each case the only vari- ations being for starter bars, different cover etc. Because of the beam shape all reinforcement, other than stirrups or starter bars must be bent to radius prior to placing, this being indicated on the bending schedule sheets.eintwit vapects for rewonder of ring bean, 2Y A803 69 Devil SueeT 31 Pon loo? Note 40 nim, cover to main vaiugustt.SkKeTcu Sueet 37 lle eae Single span flight downstand beams. allow For win. span Stringer beams with cross spanning treads ben dean dept Soletion to problem arising from Varying finishes to slabs and stains to allow for variation of finishes 70 Single flight stairs:~- long and cross spans ‘The structural behaviour of a stair flight is very similar to thet of a simply supported slab, its effective thickness being its waist. When considering single flights between floors it should be realised that it is uneconomic to span the flight between landings, since an extra distance of about 1 m at either end of the flight would result in a long span of up to 6 m. If, however, downstand beams are provided at the edges of the landings the effective span may be reduced to four metres for the same flight which would result in a bending moment reduction of over 50%. The arrangement of the reinforcement (top sketch) shows slab reinforcement bent up to provide starter bars for the stair reinforcement. By lapping bars in this manner an allowance for bending errors to the steol is made. If, instead, the stair rein- forcement was bent at both ends into both landing slabs an error of even 5 mm on the steel or slab level could result in set'ous loss of cover to the reinforcement. An alternative method of providing a single flight stair is to Use stringer (or edge) beams to take the bending moment with the stair treads spanning between them (eee middle sketch). However the saving in concrete is usually offset by the extra shuttering costs and also the stars tend to look heavier from the side elevation. further problem for the detailer in outlining the stairs is ‘the variation in finishes. It is quite usual for stair treads to have a different thickness of finishes to the main floor area: the finish to the risers is also different but this is no problem ‘on single flights. Because the rise of all the stairs must be equal whan finished, a problom arises on the rise to the first and last ‘weads. The first rise is increased by the difference in finishes and the simplest way to compensate the last rise is to notch down to the floor slab (sae lower sketch). By doing this the normal rise can be easily determined by dividing the structural floor to floor dimension by the number of rises and adding to the first rise the difference in finishes.Detail Sucet 37 1 Requal Joo _|__ 1280 | eo aaa (Secwal risers 220 : o | i rE rren la Is 3 | TEN pt 1 a 1 | +| Uy— i g ‘STaecase Ned . Smiecase ne 2 nSete Sueet 33 Steirs Spanning — bebween holf landings TE y0m Kicker dighanee to main) bar Treatment at botom of half fight Cose | + finished vosings trough. Nine — Ji ehemal anghes open 7 eraotivg tension on underside = foci Shope onder lead. Leffective span 1 \ e Case 7 :~ finished soffits line 7 Through, \ mon reinforcement Treatment ot top of half flight. Half flights with landings Where half landings are incorporated itis normal tor stairs ‘tc span onto the landings with the landings spanning eross- ways. Because flights are usually composed of only seven or eight treads this is not critical so that no beams are required. The first sketch shows the structural behaviour of this type of flight, emphasising the fact that tension occurs on the Underside of the waist only. Itis, therefore, both unnecessary ard uneconomic to include steel in the top of the waist at the lower angle of the flight. The only reason why it is provided at the upper angle is for ease of placement. ‘The sketches show the arrangement of the main reinforce: ment with steel from the slab or half landing bent up to Provide starter bars. The steel from the slab or half landing at the top of the flight is bent down into the waist of the {light for a full tension lap past the intersection point with the flight reinforcement which is bent into the top of the slab. In addition to the problems of tread and floor finishes, which are dealt with in a similar way to the single flight (sketch sheet 32) there are added complications with finishes either to the rise or soffit of the stairs. The architect will usualy require one of two possibilities. CASE 1:—the finished stairs will have the nosings of the top ofthe lower flight and the first tread of the upper flight line ‘through, so that when viewed from above the stairs look balanced or CASE 2:~the angle between the flight and slab at the soffit, (or underside] ofthe flights ines through so that when viewed, from below the stairs look balanced. {In the first cose the solution is simple, the structural stairs being offset by twice the vertical finishes so that after thair application the treads line through (see sketch). In the second case the solution is nat so simple, it being necessary to draw out the joint to a large scale (preferably half or full size) to determine the position of the treads to produce this effect.DETAL SHEET 33 Qo |, Noegutteads = 2ec0 |, 1 180 | 260 =" = 2 Nepal 73SKETCH SueeT 34 Main remforezmant react in top Each shep cantilevers individvally from the wall (Sloping soffit ophcnal) 1 Half Hights cantilever \| as before but spiral i oT ctreatwent at end provides wore treads for sama __ Plan dimension, T | Uolf Flights cantilever — about ceutral wall. Stob beam requid for | half landing, | ae a2 Section showing cantilever stub bean to belf laveting Cantilever stairs Cantilever treads occur most commonly on fire escape stairs where the vertical ‘wall offers protection in addition to its structural use. These may be adapted to many forms: full flight, half flight or semi-spiral and {are shown in sketch form. Because the span of the cantilever is the same for each 052 the waist thickness is no different for full flight as for half fight, the determining factor being the plan area occupied ‘The main reinforcement is placed in the top of the tread — this being the tension zone ~ and is tied back into the far face of the supporting wall for a full tension lap. If the stairs are in half flights either side of the wall the moment on the wall is balanced out. Also if a half landing is incorporated (see middle sketch} it is necessary to provide a stub cantilever beam out of the wall to support this half landing. If the stairs are spiralled at the end of the wall this beam is not required but the shuttering to the soffit is not so easy to visualise. It is not, however, difficult to form since a 3- or S:ply boarding nailed securely to the edge and wal shutters will take up the shape of the soffit. 74Detail SHEET 34 78SKETCH SueeT 35 Case 2:- Lower fight and half landing loaded 76 Jack knife stairs ‘The eck knife stair is not very common, although highly favoured by architects Because the half landing is not supported in any way it behaves in the manner of 8 springboard causing twisting (torsion) in the angles between flights and half landing, ‘The stair waists can be also subject to compression oF tension as well as bend- ing, according to where the joad is applied (see sketches) so that reinforcement. Isrequired in both faces of the waists and landings. This can result in quite a con: gestion of steel at the angles between flights and landings with 2 consequent difficulty in placing and comoacting conerete. For these reasons the use of jack-knife stairs is vary expensive compared with ‘more conventional types and only where a special feature is required are they likely to be used.Deal Suet 35 | 2 ly | tev Wea Loo 5B St 7Sxeqcu Sueey 36 vertical barrel shutter to stair wall dering construction. Open spiral stairs ‘An even mote distinctive and, incidentally, more expensive form of star i the open spiral. This produces torsion throughout the flight and, when under oad, tension at the upper landing and compression at the bottom of the flight. Its location is normally limited to entrance halls, theatre foyers etc..jt cost being some six to seven times that of a normal type of staircase The reinforcement is in helical form for the main bars and plan stapes need to be calculated carefully. Radial reinforcement is by U-bars lapping centrally which ‘act a8 distribution steel and both contain and locate the main bars. Shuttering consists of a central vertical barrel form on which treads and rises ‘are marked out with supports screwed in to support the soffit boards and edge shutters to the outside which are propped during construction and also support the soffit boards. Theseare located by the tread boards which tie across the flight, torsion through out on shar soffit heavy compression in this region BLENATION BDepil SHEET 36 IS ecpel rises = 22¢0 west constant — 180 thick, * Details of foundation on deg. oi Wasa) res, ———) 79SKETCH SHEET 37 finishes apphed normally paving

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