GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 combinations of single amino acids

inside the cell.

GENETIC ENGINEERING
 The synthesis of new polypeptides
Introduction to Genetics requires a coded sequence, enzymes,
and messenger, ribosomal, and transfer
ribonucleic acids (RNAs).
Heredity  Protein synthesis takes place within the
nucleus and ribosomes of a cell and is
 Passing on of traits to parent to regulated by DNA and RNA.
offspring.
Steps in Protein Synthesis:
Genes
 Replication
 The basic physical and functional unit of  The DNA starts to replicate.
heredity.
 It contains the hereditary information of
organism.
 Transcription
 Genes are made up of DNA and each
 Transcription involves using DNA
chromosome contains many genes.
as a template to create mRNA,
which then travels to the
ribosome for translation.

 Translation
 Translation is the process by
which mRNA is translated to
produce a protein.

Example of genes:
 Brown eyes (BEY2 15q11-15)
 Hazel eyes (BEY1)
 Breast cancer 1 (BRCA1) & Breast
cancer 2 (BRCA2)
 are the genes most commonly
affected in hereditary breast and
ovarian cancer.
 Increased risk for autism: PLEKHA8,
PRR25, FBXL13, VPS54, SLFN5,
SNCAIP, and TGM1
 HBB gene provides instructions for
making a protein called beta-globin.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
 A theory stating that genetic information
only flows in one direction, from DNA, to
RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to
protein.
Protein Synthesis
 It is a process in which polypeptide
chains are formed from coded
Alleles  The genetic makeup of an organism.
 is a variant of a gene controlling the Mendel’s Experiment
same traits.
 Alleles usually occur in pairs, depending
on how they are expressed, they may
be dominant or recessive.
Dominant Traits
 are always expressed, even if only one
copy of the dominant trait exists.
Recessive Traits
 are expressed only if both the
connected alleles are recessive.

The Punnett Square

 A tool developed by Reginald Punnett, a
British geneticist, used to predict the
genotype of offspring by figuring out the
probability that an offspring will express
a certain trait.
 Because all characteristics are created
by two alleles, it is possible to predict
the genotype of the offspring.
Monohybrid Punnett Square
 Used to examine only one trait.
 Consists of 4 boxes, each of which
represents a 25% likelihood of getting
offspring with a certain genotype.
Gregor Mendel
Genetic Engineering
 The Father of Modern Genetics.
 In 1856, he studied genetics by using a
pea plant to figure out how genes are
Genetic Engineering
transferred from parents to offspring.
 is the process of using recombinant
During his experiment, he discovered that
DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the
there are two types of Traits:
genetic makeup of an organism.
1. Dominant Trait  Producing a GMO is much more
 Trait that appears in targeted. Rather than crossing two
heterozygous genotype. plants out in the field, they insert a gene
2. Recessive Trait or two into individual cells in a lab.
 Hidden trait that is not expressed
Recombinant DNA Technology
in heterozygous genotype, only
seen when homozygous –  refers to the joining together of DNA
inheriting identical forms of a molecules from two different species
particular gene from each parent. that are inserted into a host organism to
produce new genetic combinations that
Phenotype
are of value to science, medicine,
 An individual’s observable traits, such agriculture, and industry.
as height, eye color, and blood type.
Genotype
 - developing targeted therapies for
diseases such as cancer.
3. Industry
- GM crops could impact food availability
by providing seeds which are resistant
to adverse climate conditions; have an
effect on food access by increasing
farmers' incomes.
- Transforming microorganisms such as
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) bacteria or yeast, or insect mammalian
- is a plant, animal, microorganism or cells with a gene coding for a useful
other organism whose genetic makeup protein.
has been modified in a laboratory using Examples of GMOs:
genetic engineering or transgenic 1. Super Muscled Pigs
technology. 2. Designer Babies
- “An animal that has had a change in its 3. Glow Rats
nuclear or mitochondrial DNA (addition, 4. Arctic Apple
deletion, or substitution of some part of 5. BT Corn
the animal’s genetic material or insertion 6. Zonkey
of foreign DNA) achieved through a 7. Rainbow Papaya
deliberate human technological 8. BT Cotton
intervention.” 9. Golden Rice
Current Uses of GMOs: 10. GM Squash
1. Agriculture 11. Banana Breeding
- Increased crop yields, reduced costs for 12. GM Mosquitoes
food or drug production, reduced need 13. Transgenic Pigs
for pesticides, enhanced nutrient 14. GM Pig Organs
composition and food quality, resistance 15. GM Salmon
to pests and disease, greater food 16. Purple Tomato
security, and medical benefits to the 17. GM Citrus
world's growing population. 18. GM Potato
- Crops that mature faster and tolerate 19. GM Glowing Tobacco
aluminum, boron, salt, drought, frost, Stages of Genetic Recombinant
and other environmental stressors, Technology
allowing plants to grow in conditions 1. Identification and Isolation of Gene of
where they might not otherwise flourish. Interest or DNA to be Cloned
- Increase yield and decrease 2. Insertion of this isolated gene into a
susceptibility to disease. suitable VECTOR
2. Medicine 3. Introduction of this vector into a suitable
- producing vaccines or medicines. organism/cell called HOST
- developing diagnostic tests. (Transformation)
- treating genetic diseases using gene 4. Selection of the transformed host cell
therapy.
 5. Multiplication and expression of the Methods of Genetic Engineering
introduced gene in the host.
Identification and Isolation of Gene of History of Life on Earth
Interest or DNA to be Cloned
 Where do we get this gene of interest? - “The Earth formed roughly 4.5 billion years
Genomic library ago.”
cDNA library “Life probably began between 3.5 and 3.9
chemical synthesis of the gene billion years ago.”
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
Gene amplification Theories on the Origin of Life
- the number of copies of a gene is 1. Theory of Spontaneous Generation
increased without a proportional
• Life arose from nonliving matter
increase in other genes.
• Also called abiogenesis
Example:
• Supporters: Aristotle, Epicurus, Von
Introducing human insulin to bacteria.
Helmont
• They believed:
>>Insects arise from dew
>> fish and frog from mud

>> fly maggots from meat

• Opposers: Francisco Redi, Spallanzani,
Louis Pasteur
 • Opposers disproved this theory
4. Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
• suggests that life arose gradually from
inorganic molecules, with “building
blocks” like amino acids forming first
and then combining to make complex
polymers.

5. Miller-Urey experiment
2. Theory of Biogenesis • provided the first evidence that organic

 Louis Pasteur is credited with molecules needed for life could be

conclusively disproving the theory of formed from inorganic components.

spontaneous generation with his famous

swan-neck flask experiment.

 He subsequently proposed that “life only • replicate the conditions of Earth’s early
comes from life.” atmosphere and oceans to test whether
organic molecules could be created
3. Theory of Panspermia abiogenically, that is, formed from
This theory proposed that life developed chemical reactions occurring between
elsewhere in the universe and then arrived on inorganic molecules thought to be
earth. Microbial spores from space were present at the time
supposedly brought to earth by asteroids or • from his experiments, Miller produced
meteors; which jump-started life on earth. amino acids by mixing methane,
However, this theory states how life spread, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapors at
not how life began. 800°C.
Geologic Time Scale
What is Geologic Time Scale?
• is a record of the life forms and
geological events in Earth’s history
 • describe the timing and relationship of would if it were freshly alive, then the
events that occurred during Earth’s sample is approximately 5,730 years
history old.
• Scientists developed the time scale by EONS
studying rock layers and fossils • broadest category of geological time
• To establish the age of a rock or a fossil, • Earth's history is characterized by four
researchers use some type of clock to eons; in order from oldest to youngest à
determine the date it was formed. Hadeon, Archean, Proterozoic, and
• Geologists commonly use radiometric Phanerozoic.
dating methods, based on the natural • Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and
radioactive decay of certain elements Proterozoic are sometimes informally
such as potassium and carbon, as referred to as the "Precambrian."
reliable clocks to date ancient events • Geologic time begins with
PRECAMBRIAN time ○ Covers 88% of
The Geologic Time Scale Earth’s history
• Today, we are in the Holocene epoch of
the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic
Era.
ERAS
• Eons of geological time are subdivided
into eras, which are the second-longest
units of geological time.
• The Phanerozoic eon is divided into
three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Cenozoic.
• Most of our knowledge of the fossil
record comes from the three eras of the
Radiometric dating Phanerozoic eon.
• The basic logic behind radiometric o Paleozoic ("old life") era is
dating is that if you compare the characterized by trilobites, the
presence of a radioactive isotope within first four-limbed vertebrates, and
a sample to its known abundance on the origin of land plants.
Earth, and its known half-life (its rate of o Mesozoic ("middle life") era
decay), you can calculate the age of the represents the "age of
sample. dinosaurs," though also is
• For example, carbon-14 has a half-life noteworthy for the first
of 5,730 years. This means that half of appearances of mammals and
the carbon-14 atoms in a sample will flowering plants.
decay into nitrogen-14 atoms every o Cenozoic ("new life") era is
5,730 years. If a sample of wood sometimes called the "age of
contains half as much carbon-14 as it
 mammals" and is the era during
which we live today.
PERIODS
• Just as eons are subdivided into eras,
eras are subdivided into units of time
called periods
• Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life) is divided
into six periods. From oldest to youngest
à Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian
• The Cambrian period is the 1st period of
the Paleozoic Era.
○ “Age of the Trilobites” or the
“Age of Fish”
○ Explosion of life in the oceans
began during this era.
○ Invertebrates are dominant –
Trilobites ○ Fish emerged during this
time
○ Fish led to the arrival of the
amphibians
• The end of the Paleozoic era is called
the “Age of Amphibians”
■ Early land plants including
mosses, ferns and cone-bearing
plants.
■ The early coal forming forests were
also formed during this time
(Carboniferous Period)
EPOCHS
• Periods of geological time are
subdivided into epochs.
• Paleogene period is divided into--from
oldest to youngest--the Paleocene,
Eocene, and Oligocene epochs.
• Neogene is divided into the Miocene
and Pliocene epochs.
• Quaternary is divided into the
Pleistocene and Holocene epochs
 1. Species Vary Globally
Mechanisms of Evolutionary Changes - different, yet similar, animal
species inhabited separated, but
Charles Darwin similar, habitats around the
• Charles Darwin is primarily known as globe.
the architect of the theory of evolution example: rheas, ostriches, & the
by natural selection. emu
• With the publication of On the Origin of - but some species are found in
Species in 1859, he advanced a view of only one place on the planet
the development of life on earth that example: kangaroo
profoundly shaped nearly all biological
and much philosophical thought which 2. Species Vary Locally
followed. - different, yet related, animal
• According to Darwin, evolution is the species often occupied different
process through which species change habitats within a local area.
over time, give rise to new species, and Examples: Galapagos tortoises,
descend from a single ancestor. finches
3. Species Vary Over Time
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution  Darwin collected fossils –
• Darwin proposed that: preserved remains or traces of
○ Species can change over time dead organisms.
○ New species come from pre  Some fossils of extinct animals
existing species were similar to living species.
○ All species share a common
ancestor
• The Modern Synthesis has been one of Typological thinking
the greatest intellectual achievements of  Greek philosopher Plato claimed that
biology. every organism is an example of a
■ evolution within a species could perfect essence or type created by God
be explained: Diversity within a and that these types are unchanging
population arose from the  Species are unchanging types and that
random production of mutations, variations within species are
and the environment acted to unimportant or even misleading
select the most fit phenotypes.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Darwin noticed three distinctive patterns of  A population is not evolving, and allele
biological diversity: frequencies will stay the same across
(1) Species vary globally, generations.
(2) species vary locally, and  5 Hardy-Weinberg assumptions:
(3) species vary over time. ○ no mutation
 ○ random mating
○ no gene flow In natural selection, genetic mutations that are
○ infinite population size beneficial to an individual's survival are passed
○ no natural selection on through reproduction. This results in a new
generation of organisms that are more likely to
Mechanisms of Evolutionary Changes survive to reproduce.
 If the assumptions are not met for a • For example, evolving long necks has
gene, the population may evolve for that enabled giraffes to feed on leaves that
gene (the gene's allele frequencies may others can't reach, giving them a
change) competitive advantage.
 Allele frequencies in a population may • Due to a better food source, those with
change due to four fundamental forces longer necks were able to survive to
of evolution: reproduce and so pass on the
○ Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, characteristic to the succeeding
Mutations and Gene Flow generation.

Population
- smallest unit of evolution; A
population is a group of
organisms of the same species
that are found in the same area
and can interbreed.
1. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
 Organisms that are more adapted to
their environment are more likely to
survive and pass on the genes that
aided their success
 “Survival of the fittest”
 Leads to an evolutionary change when
some individuals with certain traits in a
population have a higher survival and
reproductive rate than others and pass
on these inheritable genetic features to
their offspring.

• Those with shorter necks and access to

less food would be less likely to survive
to pass on their genes.
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection where the spores disperse and colonize
• The Darwin’s Finches diagram in different environments forming new
illustrates the way the finch has adapted colonies that may not have the same
to take advantage of feeding in different alleles as the population from which
ecological niches. they were originated.

3. Mutations
● Mutation can be defined as a change
2. Genetic Drift in the DNA sequence within a gene or
• Genetic drift is a mechanism of chromosome of a living organism. ●
evolution characterized by random Many mutations are neutral, i.e. they
fluctuations in the frequency of a can neither harm nor benefit, but can
particular version of a gene (allele) in a also be deleterious or beneficial.
population. ● Deleterious mutations can affect the
• Changes in allele frequencies due to phenotype and in turn, reduce the
chance (luck) fitness of an organism and increase the
• It can lead to large changes in susceptibility to several illnesses and
populations over a short period of time. disorders.
● Beneficial mutations can lead to the
Types of Genetic Drift reproductive success and adaptability of
 Bottleneck Effect an organism to its environment.
• Example: This population has been
affected by a natural disaster where only
some individuals survived, the effect of
gene drifting will influence the surviving 4. Gene Flow
population for many generations. ● Gene Flow (also known as gene
 Founder Effect migration) refers to the transfer of genes
• A small population may be formed due from the gene pool of one population to
to the founder effect when a small another.
number of individuals leave their ● Gene flow may change the frequency
population to start a new colony, these and/or the range of alleles in the
individuals do not necessarily cover the populations due to the migration of
whole genetic set of the population; individuals or gametes that can
therefore, gene drifting effect is reproduce in a different population.
significant within this small population.
• An example of the founder effect is most
commonly found among species of fungi
 ● The introduction of new alleles
increases variability within a population
and allows for new combinations of
traits.

CLADOGRAMS
- Branching diagrams that
represent the phylogeny
(evolutionary history) of a species
or group