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ITTC Quality System Manual

Recommended Procedures and Guidelines

Guideline

Laboratory Modelling of Waves

7.5 Process Control

7.5-02 Testing and Extrapolation Methods

7.5-02-07 Loads and Responses

7.5-02-07-01 Environmental Modelling

7.5-02-07-01.2 Laboratory Modelling of Waves

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All the information in ITTC Recommended Procedures and Guidelines is published in good faith. Neither ITTC
nor committee members provide any warranties about the completeness, reliability, accuracy or otherwise of this
information. Given the technical evolution, the ITTC Recommended Procedures and Guidelines are checked reg-
ularly by the relevant committee and updated when necessary. It is therefore important to always use the latest
version.
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strictly at your own responsibility. Neither ITTC nor committee members shall be liable for any losses and/or
damages whatsoever in connection with the use of information available in the ITTC Recommended Procedures
and Guidelines.

Updated / Edited by Approved

Specialist Committee on Modelling Environ-
29th ITTC 2021
mental Conditions of 29th ITTC
Date 10/2020 Date 06/2021
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Table of Contents

2.3.1 Deterministic generation of

1. PURPOSE OF GUIDELINE .............. 3 extreme waves .......................... 11
2. WAVE MODELLING ........................ 3 2.3.2 Wave groupness ....................... 12

2.1 Regular waves .................................. 3 2.4 Measurement and analysis of long-

and short-crested waves ................ 12
2.1.1 Linear waves .............................. 3
2.1.2 Non-linear effects – analysis, 2.5 Non-stationary power spectrum
control......................................... 3 (time and space) ............................. 14
2.1.3 Confinement effects ................... 5 2.6 Calibration ..................................... 14
2.1.4 Wave frequency and low 2.7 Interactions with and current and
frequency reflections .................. 6 wind ................................................ 15
2.1.5 Radiation and reflection from 2.7.1 Waves on currents .................... 15
model, beaches, etc..................... 6 2.7.2 Waves on wind ......................... 16
2.1.6 Deviations from ideal conditions 7
3. GENERATION TECHNIQUES ...... 16
2.2 Irregular waves ................................ 7
2.2.1 Wave spectra .............................. 7 3.1 General aspects of wave generation
2.2.2 Bi-modal or multi-modal spectra 8 techniques ....................................... 16
2.2.3 Nonlinear effects - analysis and 3.2 Regular wave generation .............. 17
control......................................... 8 3.3 Irregular wave generation ............ 17
2.2.4 Distribution of extremes ............. 9 3.3.1 Unidirectional wave generation 17
2.2.5 Short-crested wave modelling .... 9 3.3.2 White noise approach ............... 18
2.2.6 Wave breaking – influence on 3.3.3 Directional wave generation .... 19
statistics and kinematics ........... 10
2.2.7 Geographical consistency of 4. REFERENCES .................................. 20
wave spectrum selection........... 10
2.3 Extreme events ............................... 11
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Laboratory Modelling of Waves

1. PURPOSE OF GUIDELINE
2.1.2 Non-linear effects – analysis, control
The purpose of this recommended guideline
is to help laboratories in conducting tests on Real water waves are not exactly linear.
waves. The guideline addresses, among other They are influenced by nonlinear effects which
things, nonlinear effects, extreme events and are of higher order with respect to the wave am-
wave breaking, wave generation and control, plitude. Higher-order solutions may be derived
and interaction with wind and currents. by using the Stokes’s expansion as shown in
Newman (1977) or Dean and Dalrymple (2000),
or they may be derived by using fully nonlinear
2. WAVE MODELLING
methods, as e.g. presented in Rienecker and
Fenton, (1981). In a non-dimensional form, the
2.1 Regular waves wave amplitude is better represented by the
wave steepness ε = kA. With increasing wave
Ideally, regular waves are periodic unidirec-
steepness ε, the wave profile progressively de-
tional progressive wave trains, with a single
viates from a pure sinusoidal wave form and are
(monochromatic) basic harmonic.
characterised by higher crests and shallower
troughs, Toffoli et al. (2005). The asymmetry
2.1.1 Linear waves with respect to the horizontal axis (in this case a
vertical asymmetry) is generally referred to as
For most regular wave applications, the av- skewness, which is defined as (e.g. Babanin
erage wave height H and the average period T (2011))
are of main interest. Amplitudes A, defined by
H/2 or by crests AC and troughs AT, and the av- 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶
𝑆𝑆𝑘𝑘 = −1
erage steepness kA, are also used, where k is the 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇
angular wave number.
and is positive, unless some other phenomena,
Theoretically, properties should be constant such as wave breaking, occurs. In the above
throughout time and in space, but in physical equation AC and AT denote the crest height and
generation in a wave basin, there is always a cer- the trough depth, respectively.
tain level of variation. Time windows for analy-
sis of the generated wave field are selected Nonlinear effects on wave height distribu-
based on criteria such as minimum variations, tions are discussed in Tayfun and Fedele (2007).
minimum transient effects in the model test set- The nonlinear effects in the water waves and, in
up, or minimum reflections from the beach or particular, the vertical asymmetry are also re-
from the side walls. Normally a minimum of 10 sponsible for wave drift.
wave cycles are selected. Parameters are defined
Non-linear regular wave characteristics are
by a time-domain (zero crossing) approach or by
defined by the significant components at higher
a frequency domain (Fourier or harmonic) ap-
harmonics. The asymmetric wave geometry,
proach, mainly with focus on the basic har-
with increased crests (and decreased troughs)
monic. Simple root-mean-squared (RMS) anal-
ysis of elevation records is also applied.
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and associated local steepness, may have im- tank model with wavemaking and absorption ca-
portant consequences in practice, for instance in pabilities, and HOS-Ocean, an open boundary
the case of stability tests. Recent studies also solver to approximate wave field transformation
show that the bound harmonics are also respon- from an initial state. The HOS method owes its
sible for the generation of rogue waves, Fedele accuracy and efficiency to the pseudo-spectral
et al. (2016). approach in solution procedure and has been
proven to be more efficient than finite-base dis-
To distinguish these ‘real’ non-linear effects cretization models, Ducrozet et al. (2012 and
in open-sea wave fields from ‘parasitic’ labora- 2016). The solution procedure details and for-
tory-induced ones, comparisons of laboratory mulation of the problem can be found in the
generated wave profiles with theoretical/numer- original works of Dommermuth et al. (1987),
ical nonlinear reference models are helpful. In and West et al. (1987). As in the Schäffer (1996)
this regard, although referring to a two-dimen- case, nonlinear regular waves of arbitrary order
sional wave system, Henderson et al. (2006) can be generated using the HOS method by se-
showed the relevance of accounting for nonlin- lecting a single wave component. High degree
ear effects in wave generation in order to of accuracy can be achieved using the HOS
achieve a wave pattern that propagates with a model, Ducrozet et al. (2007).
time independent form.
Over the past three decades, significant pro-
For second-order nonlinear regular (peri- gress has been made on the developed of a non-
odic) wave generation for intermediate water linear Fourier analysis methodology (NLFA) to
depth and deep water conditions, the method characterize nonlinear ocean waves in arbitrary
presented by Schäffer (1993) can be used by se- water depth. The work by researchers on this
lecting a single frequency component only. The topic was documented comprehensively in a
numerical algorithm will automatically generate full-length text by Osborne (2010). For waves in
a “clean” second-order Stokes wave containing coastal regions, the Korteweg-de Vries (KdV)
the fundamental component plus its phase- equation governing shallow water wave behav-
locked second-order frequency component only. iour was used. For waves further offshore, the
The unintended and undesirable second-order nonlinear Schrodinger (NLS) equations govern-
free wave induced by incompatible geometry of ing intermediate to deep water was applied (Os-
the wave board will be removed from the wave borne, 2010). Both the KdV and NLS equations
field by a potential wave equal in amplitude but admit both regular waves as well as irregular
with a 180-degree phase shift, thus having a can- wave solutions, and thus are applicable to anal-
celling effect on the second-order free wave (see ysis and simulation of nonlinear waves in both
Schäffer, 1996). categories (Bruhl and Oumeraci, 2016; Mohtat
et al. 2018b)). For regular waves, the nonlinear
Another approach, which is more general periodic waves are cnoidal waves (in the shal-
and can accurately generate nonlinear Stokes low water case) and Stokes waves (in the inter-
waves of arbitrary order, is the higher-order mediate to deep water case) (Mohtat et al.,
spectral (HOS) method developed by the 2020).
LHEEA-ECN (Hydrodynamics, Energetics and
Atmospheric Environment Laboratory of Ecole A note of caution is in order here. Regular
Centrale de Nantes) group. Their High-Order plane waves are stable only up to a limited steep-
Spectral method (HOSM) includes two pack- ness ratio. For long-duration regular wave gen-
ages, namely HOS-NWT, a numerical wave
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eration, as the wave steepness increases, stabil- absorption mechanism is related to wave break-
ity of the one spatial-dimension plane waves ing and viscous dissipation. These issues were
will deteriorate with time and the wave field generally addressed by Chakrabarti (1994) and
may become two dimensional and converge to a USACE (2002).
stable wave surface consisting of rectangular
cells. This nonlinear phenomenon was ex- An important aspect to improve the effi-
plained in Henderson et al. (2006) via the stabil- ciency of the wave absorption device is porosity
ity of the one spatial dimension (third-order) on the surface and inner layers of the devices.
nonlinear Schrodinger equation. Usually, sloped and parabolic beach with porous
layers can have good absorption properties for
long waves and a wide range of wave steepness
2.1.3 Confinement effects
by an optimization of the shape and porosity.
Wave generation in water of finite depths in- Studies on this topic are provided by Straub et
troduces additional effects relative to that in al. (2011) and Lean (1967).
deep water. Dispersion is depth-dependent, with
Most existing wave tanks are of rectangular
shorter wavelengths and reduced speed in de-
shaped with straight corners. In case of wave
creased depths, Newman, (1977), Toffoli et al.
tanks with wave generators on multiple sides,
(2005). This may lead to spatial variations due
two adjacent sides of wave paddles are used to
to refraction effects unless the bottom is per-
generate oblique waves for a wide range of inci-
fectly horizontal and flat. Fully nonlinear solu-
dence angles. The combined movement of the
tions for wave propagation over topography are
paddles changes the wave crests directions for a
provided in Kennedy and Fenton (1997).
continuum wave field generation. However, in
Non-linear wave-wave interactions increase the corner there is at least one paddle with re-
with reduced depth, with sharper peaks but also stricted movements or blocked to prevent colli-
larger set down effects and corresponding return sions. This discontinuous surface (or singular-
currents. ity) at the corner creates a border effect on the
wave field that propagates to the test section of
In a wave basin, reflections on side walls and the wave tank. The simplest solution to prevent
wave generator are present, resulting in unde- a discontinuity of the wave field is adopting a
sired influence on the required wave field. gradual movement fader in the paddles corner
Waves reflected by the wave absorber at the op- but this results in an incorrect wave amplitude
posite end of the tank limit the total duration of propagating to the test section. A more complex
the test. Once the residual energy reflected by solution is provided by Matsumoto & Hanzawa
the (imperfect) absorbers and accumulated in (2001) who modified the paddle movement to
tank becomes unacceptably high compared to maintain the wave field stability. An optimiza-
the wave energy of the spectrum, the experiment tion of paddle movements is obtained numeri-
shall be terminated. In computing the accumu- cally before the test execution in the tank.
lated energy, the effects of the side wall also
have to be accounted for.
Another option to overcome a discontinuity
Passive wave absorbers suppress the reflec- at the corner is to use a circular layout of wave
tions and presents a cost effective feasibility for paddles. In this case, the paddle angle changes
a wide range of wave tanks. The physical wave gradually connecting the two adjacent sides of
the tank. In order to prevent collision between
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paddles during movements, a gap between pad- culation may develop. In such cases, the only so-
dles is introduced. Normally, a mechanism lution is to wait enough time before starting a
made by metal strips and fabric connection is new test. The time interval depends on the spec-
used to cover the gap between the paddles. ifications by the client as well as on the specific
test and dimensions of the facility.
It is also important to make the transition
from the wave generator to the wave absorption 2.1.5 Radiation and reflection from model,
parts as smooth as possible, regardless if the beaches, etc.
wave absorption is active or passive.
As anticipated, wave reflected from the side
2.1.4 Wave frequency and low frequency re- walls and/or waves radiated or reflected by the
flections model and subsequently reflected by either the
side walls and/or the damping beaches may en-
In order to limit the effects of confinement ter the measuring field.
on wave generation, wave absorbers are usually
employed to suppress or substantially reduce the For instance, in a two-dimensional wave
reflections for the side walls of the tank. As al- tank, three-dimensional waves, albeit of small
ready discussed, sloped and parabolic beaches amplitude, can be generated due to the interac-
with porous layers are generally used but their tion with the structure and/or tank walls. The
effectiveness in absorbing the incoming wave phenomenon is noticeable for single flap wave-
changes with frequency and steepness. makers: in such cases the effect can be sup-
pressed, or at least significantly reduced in a
Theoretical approaches for the design of given range of wavelength, by using straighten-
wave absorption devices in shallow water are ers in the upstream portion of the tank. Multi-
provided in Lean (1967) for different bottom segmented wavemakers, with paddles of small
shapes. Laboratory tests to measure the absorber size compared to the tank width, can be properly
performances for different wave absorption so- controlled to suppress the phenomenon. The use
lutions when varying wave frequencies and of control system also allows suppression of
steepness are shown in Straub et al. (2011). other disturbances (e.g. reflection from the
beach, transverse standing wave and reflections
Different techniques to measure the reflec- from the model test).
tion coefficients based on two or three wave
probe signals are provided in Isaacson (1991). A Active absorption by the wave generator
technique to separate incoming and reflected contributes to reduce these effects. When the
waves in a deep water towing tank based on the model reflects or irradiates waves, it creates
Doppler shift in frequency domain from a standing waves between the wave generator and
known velocity of a single measuring probe is the model. The interaction of incidence and re-
presented in Drzewiecki and Sulisz (2019). flected waves changes the wave field by non-
linear effects, even induces wave breaking.
Particularly for long wave tanks, long and Thus, active absorption in the wave generator is
very low frequency oscillations may occur. often used to decrease the resonance of stand-
Such long waves cannot be effectively damped ings waves, as presented in a study by de Mello
out neither by passive nor active absorbers. Be- et al. (2013). Similarly, cross–tank waves could
sides the seiche waves, in long wave tanks, cir-
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occur as standing waves. To prevent such trans- ity, e.g. Tulin and Waseda (1999). The phenom-
verse waves, one of the tank sides could be used enon is partly reduced by the increased role
for passive or active wave absorbers. played by the viscous dissipation, Ma et al.
(2012) but a careful check of accuracy and re-
The time interval of 20 minutes between peatability of the wave quality is needed when
subsequent repeats is suggested in ITTC (2014) using relatively small scales.
as acceptable for a typical facility. However, the
time interval can be tank specific and it has to be
2.2 Irregular waves
long enough to pitch down the residuary tank
disturbance beneath 1% of the next target wave
height, as pointed out in the document. 2.2.1 Wave spectra

In Van Essen et al. (2014 and 2016) methods Sea states are generally specified by the
to avoid/suppress long standing waves in test fa- short-term variance spectrum S(f) or S(ω),
cilities are described. where f and ω are the frequency and the angular
frequency respectively. Primary spectral param-
eters are the significant wave height Hs, defined
2.1.6 Deviations from ideal conditions
as 𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 𝐻𝐻𝑚𝑚0 = 4�𝑀𝑀0 and a characteristic
Ideally, a regular wave model would require wave period, e.g. the peak period Tp or the zero-
a unidirectional periodic wave field with ampli- crossing period Tz defined from the spectrum as
tude, period and direction constant throughout 𝑇𝑇𝑧𝑧 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚02 2𝜋𝜋�𝑀𝑀0 ⁄𝑀𝑀2 , the mean wave period
time and space. In practice, deviations from the 𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚01 2𝜋𝜋 𝑀𝑀0 ⁄𝑀𝑀1 where Mi is the i-th spec-
ideal situation are observed, for various reasons, tral moment (DNV, 2011) defined as
which are associated with wavemaker, basin and
∞
wave absorbing devices. 𝑀𝑀𝑛𝑛 = ∫0 𝜛𝜛 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆(𝜛𝜛)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1)
Model testing procedures must take these ef- 𝑆𝑆(𝜛𝜛) being the power spectral density.
fects into account, in one or several of the fol-
lowing ways: a) avoiding them, b) reducing Many widely-used models for the spectrum
them, c) documenting them and interpreting of waves measured at a point (without regard to
their effect on vessel and offshore structure re- wave direction) are of the Bretschneider (1959)
sponses. form
If the disturbances cannot be suppressed, 𝐴𝐴
𝑆𝑆(𝑓𝑓) = 𝑓𝑓 5
exp(− B⁄𝑓𝑓 4 ) (2)
their effects on the measurements can be re-
duced by choosing a proper combination of lo-
cation and time windows. In all cases, reflec- where f is the frequency and A and B are con-
tions or other disturbances have to be measured stants. Among this class are those referred to as
and documented. Pierson & Moskowitz (one- and two-parameter
forms), see ITTC (1999, 2002, 2017a, and
Another important aspect concerns the 2017b) and Liu et al. (2018). These presenta-
model scale. When reducing the scale of the tions differ only with respect to the parameters
problem, and thus the wavelength, the waves are that are used in determining A and B.
keener to develop natural modulational instabil-
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Other spectra include those related to the In case the wave theory in use is not able to
basic Bretschneider form, for cases where there capture all non-linear phenomena and basin ef-
is a limited fetch (JONSWAP), a finite water fects and the wave spectrum is not correctly re-
depth (TMA), or a combination of a known produced with the required accuracy, a Black-
wind speed and limited fetch, Mitsuyasu (1972). Box approach can be used to account for the ef-
A specified duration of random simulations is fects of nonlinearities. The Black-Box approach
important to achieve stationary irregular wave is based on calibration of the control signal in
conditions: typically, a duration of 1 hour (full the frequency domain using the ratio between
scale) for seakeeping and 3 hours (full scale) in the required and realized wave energy spectrum
offshore engineering is applied. as presented in Drzewiecki (2018).

For second-order nonlinear irregular (ran-

2.2.2 Bi-modal or multi-modal spectra
dom) waves generation for intermediate water
In some cases the spectrum is characterized depth to deep water conditions, as in the regular
by two (or more) energy peaks occurring at dif- wave cases, the method presented by Schäffer
ferent frequencies and/or directions. This is the (1993) can be used by selecting multiple fre-
case when a swell generated remotely, combines quency components. The numerical algorithm
with a wind sea generated by a local storm close will automatically generate a superposition of
to the observation point. “clean” second-order Stokes waves containing
the fundamental components plus their phase-
Bi-modal spectra, that is, wind-sea plus locked second-order frequency components,
swell, are recently more frequently specified Schäffer (1993). Sulisz and Hudspeth (1993)
thanks to improved field data documentation. have also developed a complete second-order
Bi-modal spectra are generally built by combin- solution to wave generation in unidimensional
ing different solutions for wind sea and swell. It wave flumes. A stream function solution ap-
is typically specified as the sum of two unimodal proach was developed by Zhang and Schäffer
spectra, or by an integrated formula, with a (2007).
given set of parameters. Bi-modal spectra com-
monly used in laboratories include those by The more general higher-order spectral
Ochi and Hubble (1976) and Torsethaugen (HOS) method developed by the LHEEA-ECN
(1993). Each component is often modelled uni- group, as in the Schäffer case, nonlinear irregu-
directionally, collinear or in different directions, lar waves of arbitrary order can be generated us-
while directional spreading is sometimes in- ing the HOS method by selecting multiple wave
cluded. components. A high degree of accuracy can be
achieved using the HOS model, Ducrozet et al.
(2016).
2.2.3 Nonlinear effects - analysis and control
As mentioned earlier in the regular wave
Generally, for waves of very low steepness, section, a nonlinear Fourier analysis methodol-
nonlinear effects are of secondary importance ogy (NLFA) has been developed to characterize
and can be neglected. However, the importance nonlinear irregular waves in arbitrary water
of nonlinear effects increases with increasing depth using the KdV equation for shallow water
wave steepness, in particular for irregular and the NLS equations for intermediate to deep
waves, and as a result affect the measured wave water. Applications of NLFA to irregular ocean
spectrum in the wave basin. waves are documented in Osborne (2010). In
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this case, the irregular waves for the shallow wa- wave crests become less important when the di-
ter case are a superposition of cnoidal waves rectional spreading increases. For very large
plus their nonlinear interaction terms, and the ir- spreading the distribution of extremes ap-
regular waves for the intermediate to deep water proaches the second-order distribution, DNV-
case are a superposition of Stokes waves plus GL (2015) and Toffoli and Bitner-Gregersen
their nonlinear interaction terms (Osborne, (2011).
2010).
2.2.5 Short-crested wave modelling
2.2.4 Distribution of extremes
Most likely, the multi-modal sea is also mul-
From linear wave theory under an ideal ran- tidirectional. Generally, the swell component is
dom sea state, for a narrow-banded wave spec- unidirectional with very little directional spread-
trum, the wave crests follow the Rayleigh distri- ing whereas the wind sea may be characterized
bution (see Longuett-Higgins, 1952). However, by a more substantial directional spreading with
because of the nonlinearity of real waves, the central (peak) direction oriented with a cer-
higher-order effects should be accounted for and tain angle to the swell. A proper account for all
thus the Tayfun distribution is more representa- the peaks of the frequency spectrum as well as
tive for wave heights, Tayfun and Fedele of the directions of the different wave systems is
(2007). A probability distribution based on sec- fundamental for an accurate prediction of the
ond-order wave simulations was proposed by ship response.
Forristall (2000), which represents the wave
crest distributions of moderately steep short- A more general and detailed discussion of
crested waves quite well. the laboratory modelling of multi-modal and
multi-directional wave spectra is provided in the
However, there may be cases in which ef- Guideline 7.5-02-07-01.1, whereas a discussion
fects of third and higher order are relevant. It is on the methods generally employed for the
shown in Buchner et al. (2011) that the tail of measurement of directional seas are reported in
the distribution rises substantially when increas- the following.
ing the wave steepness. This result confirms
what was found by Onorato et al. (2006 and For modelling purposes, the directional
2009) who observed that for long-crested, steep characteristics of waves are sometimes assumed
and narrow banded waves, the probability of to be uncoupled from their spectral properties,
finding an extreme wave can be underestimated and then the spectrum of waves travelling within
by more than one order of magnitude if only sec- a given range of headings is taken to be some
ond-order theory is considered. proportion of that measured at a point. On this
basis, the directional spectrum is usually pre-
Considering the effect on the wave height sented in the form
and particularly the crest height, a proper ac-
count for the higher order effects in large waves 𝑆𝑆(𝑓𝑓, 𝜃𝜃) = 𝑆𝑆(𝑓𝑓) 𝐺𝐺(𝜃𝜃), (3)
is essential for a correct estimate of air gaps, im-
pact loads as well as green water conditions. where the spreading function G depends only on
the direction θ. Its most common form is
Results based on experiments or numerical
simulations indicate that higher order effects on 𝐺𝐺(𝜃𝜃) = 𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) cos2𝑠𝑠 [(𝜃𝜃 − 𝜃𝜃1 )⁄2], (4)
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where θ1 is the predominant wave direction, and affect both the breaking occurrence as well as
s is an index that determines the width of the di- bubble entrainment.
rectional spread. In other forms of G(θ), the
power 2s is replaced by s, or the argument of the 2.2.7 Geographical consistency of wave spec-
cosine may omit the factor 1/2. In another ap- trum selection
proach it can be expressed just in terms of its
angular harmonics, see e.g. Frigaard et al., In order to achieve an accurate prediction of
(1997) for further details. The function the responses of ships or offshore structures to
wave loading, it is important that wave spectrum
22𝑠𝑠−1 Γ2 (𝑠𝑠+1)
𝐹𝐹(𝑠𝑠) = , (5) characteristics are correctly reproduced in the
𝜋𝜋 Γ(2𝑠𝑠+1)
laboratory. When performing tests for ships or
ensures that the total variance of the directional offshore platforms and devices required to oper-
spectrum S(f,θ) is the same as that of the point ate in certain regions, it is strongly recom-
spectrum S(f). mended that the specific wave conditions are
employed as long as they are producible.
Beside the changes in the distribution of ex-
tremes discussed in the previous section, the di- There is evidence that some places in the
rectional spreading also changes some statistical world are characterized by specific wave condi-
properties of the waves like skewness and kur- tions which may be seasonal. Examples of the
tosis, Toffoli et al. (2010). inter-annual variability of the wind-sea and
swell significant wave heights are presented in
Semedo et al. (2011) for different Oceans and
2.2.6 Wave breaking – influence on statistics noticeable differences in Pacific and Atlantic
and kinematics Oceans have been observed. During winter in
the Northern Hemisphere, a strong north–south
In irregular seas, the occurrence of wave
swell propagation pattern is observed in the At-
breaking limits the maximum steepness and re-
lantic Ocean.
duces the probability of occurrence of extreme
events, Buchner et al. (2011). Another very important example is repre-
sented by the West Africa region investigated in
In some cases, the occurrence of breaking
the WASP-JIP (West Africa Swell Project JIP).
prevents the achievement of the specific spec-
The wave spectra at sites off West Africa are
trum. In order to overcome this problem, differ-
dominated by the constant presence of one or
ent seeds are used to generate the random phases
more swell wave systems (Olagnon et al. 2013),
until a reduction of the breaking occurrence is
with swell spectra exhibiting a strong narrow-
obtained. However, it can also indicate that the
ness, both in frequency and direction. Again
selected theoretical spectrum is not an appropri-
concerning the seasonal variations Prevosto et
ate representation of the actual wave spectrum
al. (2013) show that during the austral winter
at that steepness, i.e. the theoretical input spec-
swells approach the West Africa coast from
trum might not be suitable to describe a very
south to south-westerly direction whereas dur-
steep sea state with a lot of occurrence wave
ing the austral summer north-westerly swells are
breaking, as also described in Huang et al.
observed.
(2018). When performing tests in model scale
the increased role played by surface tension Several examples are briefly summarized
changes some of the breaking feature and may below:
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Co-existence of wind seas and swells at differ- 2.3 Extreme events

ent coastal regions in the Indian side of the
Arabian Sea and how their relevance varies 2.3.1 Deterministic generation of extreme
with the season is presented in Rashmi et al. waves
(2013).
Similar information for the Bohai sea are pro- There is evidence that extreme events may
vided in Wu et al. (1995). It is shown that the be responsible for accidents on ships and off-
Mitsuyasu directional spectrum is the proper shore structures. Although there is not yet a con-
choice in fully developed conditions. sensus about the probability of occurrence and
In the Yellow Sea, the wave spectrum is mostly the extreme waves (also referred to as rogue or
unimodal and a specific wave spectrum is freak waves) are not included in the classifica-
provided in Yang et al. (1984). tion society rules and offshore standards, in the
For the East China Sea, an analysis of the inter- last decades there has been a growing interest
nal structure of waves is provided by Wu et towards the understanding of such events as
al. (1998) who showed that the measured well as in their reproduction in laboratories. A
waves are well represented by the JON- review of some research work done on the sub-
SWAP spectrum. ject is provided in the DNV-GL position paper,
The Campos Basin wave climatology in Brazil- DNV-GL (2015).
ian coast was presented in Parente et al.
(2017). More general wave climatology for Although there is a debate about the physics
Brazilian coast was presented in Pianca et al. behind the occurrence of rogue waves in Fedele
(2010). et al. (2016), a rather reliable technique to gen-
For the South China Sea, a spectrum under ty- erate rogue waves in a specific location and time
phoon is proposed in Lan (1984). Other in a wave basin is proposed in Chabchoub et al.
spectra are proposed in different regions by (2012). The technique, developed for unidirec-
Chen et al. (1990), Hong-Kong region, Li et tional waves only, is based on a weakly nonlin-
al. (1992) for the Beibu Gulf, whereas Shu ear formulation and exploits some solutions of
et al. (2012) recommended a JONSWAP the nonlinear Schrödinger equation to form a
spectra with γ=1.9205 for the coast of rogue wave. In particular, the so called Pere-
Yangxi, Guangdong. grine breather solution is considered. The local
For the North Sea, a bimodal wave spectrum free surface elevation is expressed by
was proposed by Torsethaugen (1993).
For the North Atlantic, a bimodal wave spec- 𝜂𝜂(𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑅𝑅e� 𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) exp[𝑖𝑖(𝑘𝑘0 𝑥𝑥 − 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡 +
trum was proposed by Ochi and Hubble 𝜑𝜑]� (6)
(1976).
The characteristics of the spectrum in the West- where q(x,t) is the equation of the envelope of
ern Pacific are provided in Fan et al. (1992) the Peregrine breather:
and Hemer et al. (2011).
For the Japan sea, a unimodal wave spectrum 𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘02 𝑎𝑎02 𝜔𝜔0
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎0 exp �− 𝑡𝑡�
decaying as f-4 was measured by Mori et al. 2
(2002). 4(1−𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘02 𝑎𝑎02 𝜔𝜔0 𝑡𝑡)
× �1 − 2 �
For the Pacific Coast of the USA, an extensive 1+�2√2 𝑘𝑘0 𝑎𝑎0 (𝑥𝑥−𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡)� +𝑘𝑘04 𝑎𝑎04 𝜔𝜔02 𝑡𝑡 2
2

data base of short-crested wave spectra is (7)

available from NOAA buoy measurements.
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In the above equations, a0, ω0 and k0 are the Ocean waves often appear in sequences of
amplitude, frequency and wave number, respec- wave groups. The response of marine structures
tively, and cg is the group velocity which can be on successive wave groups is quite different
estimated as half the phase velocity. from regular waves and an isolated wave group.

The above solution is valid for deep water. An interesting study is under development at
More recently, the solution has been generalized the University of Michigan in which a large da-
to finite water depth. The solution, which is pro- tabase of field data has been analyzed with the
vided in Onorato et al. (2013), is basically the aim of identifying the wave groups in Seyffert
same as above but the equation of the envelope et al. (2016). These real time series could then
is a little more complicated: be the basis for generating an ensemble of wave
time series, all of which contain wave groups of
𝑞𝑞𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎0 exp(−𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎02 𝑡𝑡) known runs and probability of occurrence. The
4𝛼𝛼(1−𝑖𝑖2𝛽𝛽𝑎𝑎02 𝑡𝑡) (8) study is not yet mature and consolidated to be
×� 2 − 1� used as a practical approach for testing, but it
𝛼𝛼+𝛼𝛼�2𝛽𝛽𝑎𝑎02 𝑡𝑡� +2𝛽𝛽𝑎𝑎02 𝑥𝑥 2
seems to be a very interesting and promising di-
where: rection to follow.
1
𝛼𝛼 = �𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑔𝑔ℎ sech2 [𝑘𝑘0 ℎ](1 An envelope approach to simulate wave
2𝜔𝜔0 𝑔𝑔 groups was proposed by Xu et al. (1993). Two
− 𝑘𝑘0 ℎ tanh2 [𝑘𝑘0 ℎ])� parameters, i.e. the groupness factor height
(GFH) and groupness factor length (GFL) were
and introduced to represent the group. An empirical
wave envelope with given GFH and GFL is pro-
𝜔𝜔0 𝑘𝑘02 8 + cosh[4𝑘𝑘0 ℎ] − 2tanh[𝑘𝑘0 ℎ]2
𝛽𝛽 = � − posed in Liu et al. (2013) together with a gener-
2 8sinh[𝑘𝑘0 ℎ]4 ation procedure for random waves with deter-
2
�2𝜔𝜔0 cosh[𝑘𝑘0 ℎ]2 + 𝑘𝑘0 𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 � mined wave groupness.
�
(𝑘𝑘0 sinh[2𝑘𝑘0 ℎ])2 �𝑔𝑔ℎ − 𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔2 �
2.4 Measurement and analysis of long- and
short-crested waves
2.3.2 Wave groupness
For unidirectional waves with assigned di-
Although extreme events are very important
rection, one wave probe is sufficient. If direc-
for estimation of the extreme loading, there is
tional measurements are required, an array of
difficulty in using them for design as there is not
wave probes is needed.
much indication about the probability of occur-
rence in DNV-GL (2015). Moreover, not neces- Several approaches can be used to estimate
sarily one single event, although extreme, repre- short-crested waves and directional spectrum,
sent the most critical situation. Considering the differing from each other by the minimum num-
coupling of the wave system with the response ber of wave probes needed and the method of
of the ship for instance, the passage of a wave analysis employed. The Maximum Entropy
group with a sequence of a sufficient number of Method (MEM) exploits the similarity between
waves of critical height and length may be even the directional distribution function and a prob-
more dangerous than a single wave, even if of ability density function. There are different ver-
higher amplitude.
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sions developed which seem to reproduce mul- The capacitive probe consists of two metal
tiple spectral peaks reasonably well, but as for rods immersed in water in parallel, where at
parametric models (and all other methods as least one rod is covered with an electrical insu-
well), the estimates will be affected by the actual lator and the capacitance measured between two
method and the way it is applied. Another mutually insulated rods is linearly dependent on
widely used group of methods is based on the the immersion depth, Clayson (1989).
principle of Maximum Likelihood. It is nor-
mally easier to use and more computationally The ultrasonic probe emits the ultrasonic
efficient than MEM. wave vertically downward, where the time
elapsed from emission to the absorption of the
Generally, MEM is more accurate but less ultrasonic wave reflected from the water eleva-
robust: it does not always converge to an esti- tion, is linearly dependent on the distance to wa-
mate and in some cases the estimate is far off. ter elevation, Payne (2008).
The MLM method is more robust (its estimates
are never far off) and takes far less time to com- The optical probe consists of the camera and
pute, Van den Berg (2011). The accuracy im- the laser, where the laser spot at the water eleva-
proves if wave slopes and elevation instead of tion is captured by the camera and images are
the point elevation measurements are employed, processed into a value of wave height based on
particularly for a small footprint array. the triangulation method, Payne (2009).

Another method, based on a complex Morlet The finger probe, consist of the servo-drive
wavelet transform, which can be used with just mechanism tracking the water elevation, where
three probes located arbitrarily, was proposed the motions of the mechanism, that correspond
by Donelan et al. (1996). As the data are first to the water elevation, are measured using a
resolved in time and frequencies by the wavelet servo-drive encoder, Payne (2008).
transform, the stratification of the spectral con-
tent of the data in the time domain can simplify Each of the indicated solution, has certain
the directional estimation procedure. Compared advantages and disadvantages. The rods of the
with the estimation methods of maximum like- resistive and capacitive probes are immersed
lihood (MLM) and maximum entropy (MEM), into water. Therefore, the rods can start vibrat-
the wavelet based method could give the best es- ing under the wave loads and disturb the meas-
timation of the directional spectra, Donelan et ured wave elevation, especially at forward
al. (2015). speed. Direct contact with water causes the sed-
iments to settle on the surface of the immersed
Several types of probes can be used to meas- rods which need to be cleaned regularly. The re-
ure the waves: resistive probe, capacitive probe, sistance and capacity between the rods are de-
optical probe, ultrasonic probe, finger probe, as pendent on the temperature and chemical com-
described in Payne (2008). Each of these probes position of water and thus it has to be included
has a different design and operation principle: in the calibration of the wave probes. Conse-
quently, it is recommended to calibrate the
The resistive probe consists of two thin probes with cleaned rods in their operating en-
metal rods immersed in water in parallel, where vironment and check the calibration regularly.
the resistance measured between the rods is lin- The calibration determines the relation of the
early dependent on the immersion, Clayson probe output signal to the height of the wave
(1989). profile permeating the rods. The height of the
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wave profile for calibration is simulated by the order 6 HOSM model with formulation of West
vertical immersion of the rods into the water. et al. (1987) corresponds to a nearly fully non-
The calibration has to be performed by measure- linear model, Clamond et al. (2006).
ment of the output signal of probe at enough
points of reference immersion depth. The num- In the pseudo-spectral method of solution,
ber of points should be large enough to deter- computation of some of the equations, usually
mine a relationship based on a mathematical including products of variables, are performed
function with a satisfactory accuracy. The pre- in the physical domain and the rest, usually in-
ferred relationship is given by a linear function. cluding the derivatives of the variables, in the
The scope of the calibration has to be deter- Fourier space. This approach exhibits some
mined in accordance with the measurement amazing convergence properties. The addition
scope of the probes and generation scope of the of a second-order wave maker theory in the
wave profiles. HOS-NWT makes this package even more suit-
able for validation and prediction of the wave
The tips of the ultrasonic and optical probes conditions. Details of the additional wave maker
are not in contact with water. Thus, they are not boundary condition and the solution procedure
exposed to the water and do not intrude the is well defined in Ducrozet et al. (2012).
measured waves. However, the ultrasonic
probes have a specified operating range of the Nonlinear ocean wave governed by the KdV
wave steepness to be reliable, Payne (2008) and for shallow water and the NLS for intermediate
the speed of sound in the air at given tempera- to deep water will appear as non-stationary in
ture and humidity has to be included into cali- the linear spectral sense as they contain Stokes
bration. waves and breathers (phase-locked Stokes wave
modes), both of which contain phase-locked
harmonic components. However, the wave
2.5 Non-stationary power spectrum (time
modes are stationary when viewed from a non-
and space)
linear Fourier analysis perspective (Osborne,
In recent years, there have been an improved 2010).
implementation of HOS packages that provide a
large database of validation available and the 2.6 Calibration
code can be considered matured for engineering
practices, Ducrozet et al. (2016). Some of the The wave environment needs to be cali-
applications that could be more appealing to the brated prior to the test to ensure the correct en-
energy industry and deep-water wave modelling vironment modelling has been achieved. The ef-
are, but not limited to, modulational instabili- fective duration of the wave field with transient
ties, Fernandez et al. (2014) and Toffoli et al. part removed needs to be sufficiently long as
(2010) and freak waves, Ducrozet et al. (2007) specified. The required tolerances for wave cal-
and Xiao et al. (2013). It should be noted that ibration are usually ±5% for both significant
HOSM is a strong nonlinear model can include wave height and peak wave period.
the wave-wave interactions up to a defined or-
der, which is called the order of HOSM. For in- The shape of the wave spectrum can be cali-
stance with an order of 3 HOSM model, an ac- brated comparing the measured wave spectrum
curacy equal to that of Zakharov equation in with the theoretical wave spectrum at the target
Zakharov (1968) can be achieved, Sergeeva et location in the basin. Correction factors that can
al. (2013). Further investigation revealed that an be applied to the wavemaker steering signal can
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be calculated based on the frequency-by-fre- wave heights and reduces the wavelength. The
quency ratio between the measured and required problem becomes more complex in case of a
spectrum. depth-varying current (Ellingsen and Li (2017))
and in the open ocean the wave-current interac-
DNV-RP-C205 (2010) recommends to use tion can affect the modulation of the spectrum,
the Forristall distribution for stationary short- the wave breaking rates, and wave statistics
term storms noting that the distribution is based (Romero et al. (2017)).
on second-order wave simulations and extremes
predicted by this distribution may be on the low In the ocean, negative horizontal velocity
side. The criteria of the maximum wave crest for gradients (i.e. an accelerating opposing current
wave calibration test has not been established to or a decelerating following current) make waves
date. Huang (2017) and Liu and Zhang (2018) shorten and heighten which enhances wave
adopted a CFD and a Higher-Order Spectral steepness. As a result, a nonlinear mechanism
(HOS) method, respectively, to investigate this known as modulational instability develops,
subject. They found that third-order nonlinearity leading to the formation of large amplitude
should be taken into account when wave calibra- waves (the so-called rogue waves), even if they
tion is performed for long-crest waves in a wave would otherwise be unexpected. In Toffoli et al.
basin with maximum wave crest being a key cri- (2019), laboratory experiments and numerical
terion. Liu and Zhang (2018) also proposed an simulations with a current-modified version of
empirical model to estimate the maximum wave the Euler equations are presented to assess the
crest height for wave calibration. It must be role of an opposing current in changing the sta-
noted that the resulting crest height in a 3 hour tistical properties of unidirectional random
realization is dependent on the randomly distrib- wave fields. Results demonstrate in a consistent
uted phases. Especially, for very steep sea states and robust manner that an opposing current in-
the crest distribution of different 3 hour realiza- duces a sharp and rapid transition from weakly
tions can vary from one another and from theo- to strongly non-Gaussian properties with a con-
retical distributions. However, this does not sequent increase of the probability of occurrence
mean that a 3 hour realizations with large devi- of rogue waves. The tests were conducted with
ations from high order distributions can be ne- irregular unidirectional waves in a wave flume
glected, but is the result of the random 3 hour and a directional wave basin at Plymouth Uni-
realization of a certain sea state. A better repre- versity. The initial conditions at the wave maker
sentation of the crest distributions of a certain were given in the form of an input JONSWAP-
sea state can be achieved by running multiple 3 like wave spectrum to model waves in the fre-
hour realizations, to fill in the tail of the distri- quency domain. As the wave field entered into a
bution, see also Huang et al. (2018). region of opposing current, the wave height was
observed to increase. Evident breaking dissipa-
2.7 Interactions with and current and wind tion was observed for very strong current fields
for U/Cg > 0.3 (breaking appeared with even
less strong currents in the wave basin). The pres-
2.7.1 Waves on currents ence of the current also accelerated the down-
shift of the spectral peak, with energy migrating
Theoretically, a perfectly steady current that
from high to low frequencies bands within
is collinear with the waves slightly reduces the
scales of tens of wavelengths, in agreement with
wave heights and increases the wavelength.
modulational instability effects, Onorato et al.
Similarly, an opposing current increases the
(2009). The analysis of the statistical properties
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of extreme (rogue) waves with an aid of kurto- Aside from specific studies on wind gener-
sis, the fourth-order moment of the probability ated waves, e.g. Buckley and Veron (2018), in
density function of the surface elevation. The the most practical applications the wind fetch in
kurtosis expresses the probability of extreme laboratory is too short to affect the wave dynam-
events in a record (this assumes the value of 3 ics substantially. In such a case, it is recom-
for Gaussian sea states). The sea state rapidly mended that the wave spectrum has to be chosen
transitioned from a weakly to a strongly non- to match the open ocean conditions, Babanin et
Gaussian condition as current speed increased; al. (2019).
maximum values of kurtosis were detected to
reach 3.5 or higher, which are remarkably high
for water waves. These features were evident in 3. GENERATION TECHNIQUES
both facilities. However, the wave basin exhib-
ited much higher kurtosis (> 4) than the wave 3.1 General aspects of wave generation tech-
flume. Agreement with numerical simulations niques
confirms that this transformation can be at-
tributed to quasi-resonant nonlinear interactions Many different type of wave makers are in
triggered by the background current. use, typically piston or flap type wave genera-
tors with hydraulic or electrical power units suit-
Generally, the specified wave conditions are able for servo-controleld actuation of the wave
calibrated with the current, if current is required boards. Through the motion of the wave board
for the tested location. If waves are calibrated on at prescribed amplitude and frequencies result-
current, changes in the wave height and wave ing in a displacement of the water in front of the
length are accounted for and embedded in the wave board, progressive waves are generated.
resulting wave field. Nonlinear wave-current in-
teraction effects influence the resulting hydro- The hydrodynamic transfer function re-
dynamic forces, such as wave drift damping quired to calculate the required wave board mo-
(and corresponding modification in slow-drift tions has been deduced by Biesel (1951) and ex-
excitation), wave-induced currents and wave perimentally confirmed, for a piston type wave
kinematics. maker, by Ursell (1959). An overview of the ap-
plication of the Biesel hydrodynamic transfer
2.7.2 Waves on wind function is also given in Schmittner et al. (2013).

In most of the cases, waves are the ultimate Piston type wave makers are typically used
effect of the action of the wind over the ocean in water of finite depth, as the entire water col-
surface. The wind modifies the kinematics and umn is moved by the wave maker. And flap type
dynamics of the wave group. In the specific case wave maker are typically used in intermediate to
of extreme waves evolving under the collinear deep water. The hinge depth or underwater
wind, the focus point shifts downstream, Kharif height of the wave board in combination with
et al. (2008). The airflow separation at the wave the maximum amplitude or angle determine the
crest, beside contributing to the momentum working range of the wave maker. Wave maker
transfer, sustains the steep waves, that subse- with large hinge depth can generate larger
quently breaks reaching larger steepnesses com- waves. On the other hand, when generating
pared to the no-wind condition, Iafrati et al. short waves, the mismatch between orbital mo-
(2019). tions and wave board geometry can become too
large, resulting in spurious waves.
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The water depth has to be considered accu- analysis, stability in time should also be docu-
rately to determine the adequate transfer func- mented, as well as stability in space whenever
tion. Depending on the particular frequency, a relevant.
slight reduction of water depth of about 5 %
might result in a wave height reduction up to 50 When regular waves are generated in wave
%. basins, some irregularities may appear due to
discontinuities in the paddle distribution. This
Second order or higher order mitigation can be either due to the end of the wave maker
methods can be applied to reduce the effect of a or to the transition from the wave making to the
mismatch between required orbital motions and wave absorbing paddles. A solution to suppress
flap motions. References describing these meth- or mitigate the problem is provided by Matsu-
ods are given in the following sections. moto & Hanzawa (2001) who introduce a spe-
cific correction to each paddle movement in or-
Directional waves can be generated with der to achieve a more uniform wave field in
multi-flap wave makers. For more details on di- front of the wave maker. The method is well
rectional wave generation refer to Section 3.3.3 documented and can be used to different wave
of this guideline. A more general and detailed maker configurations.
discussion of the laboratory modelling of multi-
modal and multi-directional wave spectra is pro- Regular waves of arbitrary order can be gen-
vided in the Guideline 7.5-02-07-01.1 erated using the HOS method as described in a
series of papers by Ducroset and collaborators
3.2 Regular wave generation (see Ducroset et al. 2007, 2012 and 2016). For
the NLS-based regular wave generation in inter-
The quality of generated regular waves mediate to deep water conditions proposed by
should be carefully monitored as quality degra- Mohtat et al. (2020) by restricting the total num-
dation may occur quickly during propagation, ber of nonlinear modes to just one.
Benjamin and Feir (1967) and Stansberg (1993).
Also, attention has to be paid to the passive or 3.3 Irregular wave generation
active wave absorption of the beach and other
boundaries. For the generation of regular waves, 3.3.1 Unidirectional wave generation
second-order generation techniques for irregular
waves, Sulisz and Hudspeth (1993) and Schäffer Unidirectional (or long-crested, 2D) irregu-
(1996) can be used. Although second-order cor- lar waves are frequently used in most model ba-
rections are very important in the case of steep sins not only because they represent real sea-
waves, the second-order correction of the flap states in a very simple form, but also because it
motions compensate for waves generated due to is assumed that they result in conservative load-
a mismatch of the flap motion with the wave or- ings and responses compared to short-crested
bital velocity. This is particularly relevant for (directional) seas. It is also easier to define a sea
very long and shallow water waves. state in a unique manner.
Depending upon the application, documen- In the generation of 2D irregular waves, it is
tation of possible deviations from ideal condi- important to maintain “true” randomness that
tions such as reflections should be made availa- will prevent unrealistic repetition of the waves.
ble from the tests, see the 22nd ITTC Report on
Environmental Modelling (1999). In the wave
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Also, careful attention should be given to the ef- waves. The longer the duration of wave genera-
fects of the frequency range covered by the tion (determined by the nature of the model
servo system. The test duration and the number tests), the more frequency components are
of frequency components adopted are also im- needed. The specified duration of random simu-
portant if proper natural statistics of the wave lations is important, normally 3 hours (full
field are to be reproduced. Wave reflection from scale) for modelling a full storm, which is most
the beach and diffraction by the basin walls often used in offshore engineering tests. It can
should be monitored carefully. be changed depending on the phenomena the
test is focusing on, however it must be long
Linear irregular random waves can be mod- enough to realize statistical properties if nonlin-
elled as a summation of sinusoidal wave com- earities and extremes are to be studied. For sea-
ponents or as filtering of white noise. keeping tests, at least 100~200 waves have tra-
ditionally been used (typically 0.5~1 hour, full
The linear long-crested wave model with the scale), which is often defined as satisfactory if
summation of sinusoidal wave components is linear effects only are considered.
given by:

η(t) = ∑𝑁𝑁 The lowest frequency interval Δϖ can be

𝑘𝑘=1 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 cos(𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜀𝜀𝑘𝑘 ) (9)
2π
where 𝜀𝜀𝑘𝑘 are random phases uniformly, identi- determined by Δϖ = , where T is the duration.
T
cally and independently distributed between 0 The number of frequencies to simulate for a typ-
and 2𝜋𝜋, i.e., mutually independent of each other ical short term sea state should be at least 1000
and of the random amplitudes 𝐴𝐴𝑘𝑘 which can be (DNV, 2010).
given by
For second-order irregular wave generation,
𝐸𝐸[𝐴𝐴2𝑘𝑘 ] = 2𝑆𝑆(𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 )Δ𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 (10) the methodology proposed by Schäffer (1996),
and later enhanced by Schäffer and Jakobsen
where 𝑆𝑆(𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 ) is the wave spectrum, and Δ𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 = (2003), and the one proposed by Sulisz and
𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘 − 𝜛𝜛𝑘𝑘−1 is the difference between succes- Hudspeth (1993) can be used. For higher-order
sive frequencies. irregular wave generation, the HOS method by
Ducrozet et al. (2007, 2016) is applicable. For
No recommended procedure for determining nonlinear intermediate to deep-water waves
the upper and lower cut-off frequencies has been generation governed by the NLS, the methodol-
agreed. One has to minimize the effect of this ogy proposed by Mohtat et al. (2020) is useful.
truncation by carefully selecting the model scale
for a given spectrum and wave machine. High 3.3.2 White noise approach
frequency truncation lowers the mean period,
reduces the bandwidth and is known to affect the Another approach to generate irregular sea
slow drift motion due to wave-wave interaction states is to use a digital white noise w(t), charac-
(induced by difference frequency effects). terized by a density content W(f). By definition,
the power spectral density of white noise is Sw(f)
Increasing the number of frequency compo- = 1. An example is provided in Cuong et al.
nents increases the frequency resolution and im- (1982) which is briefly summarized below.
proves the statistical representation of the
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Given the characteristic function of the wave which represents the Fourier transform of the
generator, H(f), the problem is to find a function wave maker control time history.
y(t) to be used as input to the wave maker in or-
der to obtain the desired spectral density func- The white noise approach has the advantage
tion to be realized, Sz(f). The idea behind the of generating non-repeating records.
white noise generation approach is that the func-
tion y(t) can be obtained from w(t) through a 3.3.3 Directional wave generation
specific filter Q(f). The filter Q(f) may be
viewed as the inverse of that needed for whiten- Many basins now use multi-directional wave
ing the function y(t). generators to achieve more realistic wave envi-
ronments. Wave generators usually consist of
Hence, if Z(f) is the desired frequency con- many small wave boards, which can be con-
tent of the wave system to be generated, it is ob- trolled independently by electric or electric-hy-
tained as: draulic actuators.
𝑍𝑍(𝑓𝑓) = 𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓) ∙ 𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓) ∙ 𝑊𝑊(𝑓𝑓)
Due to the effects of the Biesel limit on the
and thus the frequency content of y(t) is size of the wave board, Biesel (1954) and reflec-
tion from the walls, wave characteristics in the
𝑌𝑌(𝑓𝑓) = 𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓) ∙ 𝑊𝑊(𝑓𝑓) test region need to be carefully determined. As
a reference, the relation of the length of each el-
Correspondingly, the spectral density func- ement of wave makers and the angle of emission
tions are related by: of waves is practically shown as follows:
𝑆𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑓𝑓) = |𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓)|2 |𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓)|2 𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑤 (𝑓𝑓) 𝜆𝜆
𝑙𝑙 =
As already stated, Sw(f) can be assumed to be √2 + sin𝜃𝜃
unity and then:
Here, 𝑙𝑙 is the length of each element of wave
𝑆𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑓𝑓) = |𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓)|2 |𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓)|2 makers, 𝜆𝜆 is the generated wave length and 𝜃𝜃 is
the angle of emission of waves.
which leads to:
𝑆𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑓𝑓) Modelling directional spectra in the labora-
|𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓)|2 = tory is generally associated with a significant
|𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓)|2
random scatter, especially in the finer features
By introducing the additional constraint that of the measurements. This reflects features of
Q(f) has to be a real function, the above equation real sea data, reflecting natural statistical scatter,
finally provides Stansberg (1998). Therefore, a robust descrip-
tion of the directional sea conditions is often re-
�𝑆𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑓𝑓) stricted to a few parameters only, such as mean
𝑄𝑄(𝑓𝑓) =
|𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓)| direction, directional spread, and a simple shape
parameter that expresses the bimodality such as
and then: skewness and kurtosis, see Kuik et al. (1988)
and Stansberg (2001), or simplified smooth par-
�𝑆𝑆𝑧𝑧 (𝑓𝑓)
𝑌𝑌(𝑓𝑓) = 𝑊𝑊(𝑓𝑓) ametric models such as the cos2s(θ) model.
|𝐻𝐻(𝑓𝑓)|
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For second-order directional wave genera- Biesel, F., 1954, “Wave Machines”, Proceed-
tion the method by Schäffer and Steenberg ings of the First Conference on Ships and
(2003) can be used. Ducrozet et al. (2007, 2016) Waves, Hoboken, New Jersey, pp.288-304.
also have developed open-source HOS numeri-
cal codes for directional wave generation. Cur- Bretschneider, C. L., 1959, “Wave Variability
rently there are no known wavemaker theory for and Wave Spectra for Wind-generated Grav-
extensions of the NLS equation to directional ity Waves”, Beach Erosion Board, U.S.
wave generation, which is governed by the Army Corps of Engineers, Washington
Davey-Stewartson equation (see Davey and (DC), USA. Technical Memorandum No.
Stewartson (1974) and Osborne (2010)). 118.

Bruhl, M. and Becker, M., 2018, “Analysis of

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