EXCRETORY SYSTEM (eliminates out) ascending limb, there are no aquaporin (allow to pass through), meaning water in

Metabolic waste – C02, nitrogenous waste, which occurs from the breakdown of filtarate cant get out. But there are proteins in NaCl can now travel through to leave,
proteins and reabsorbed; So in the thin segment of ascending limb, NaCl will diffuse out (high
Excretory System focuses on 1. Maintain Homeostatic Balance 2. Remove metabolic to low concentration). In thick segment, NaCl continues to get out of nephron, but
waste this time its pumped out by active transport .
The skin can excrete water and substances. The liver involved in detoxification and
produces urea -- more on urea later. The lungs which excrete the gas waste C02. Distal Tubule, in the first area of it you’ll see (H+, Ammonium, K+) that is secreted,
Kidneys plays hug role on excretory system; means into filtrate it goes. Whereas, (NaCl, bicarbonate, water) will be reabsorbed
Bladder, single sac that will hold meaning theyre exiting the filtrate be reabsorbed into interstitial fluid
urine. Ureters, 2 tubes that carry distal tubule contributes also on pH regulation.
urine from kidneys to gallbladder,
Urethra, single tube where the urine Collecting Duct, time to the filtrate to become urine, NaCl and water will be able to
will travel out of the body. get reabsorbed but hormonal control regulates the amount of water (the
permeability). There is a significant amount of urea in this filtrate but since the high
Blood is filtered by the kidney concentration; some ure will be reabsorbed by diffusion into interstitial fluid.
producing urine, which is a portion of
the body’s waste product that need to A person who is dehydrated needs to have much water to be reabsorbed into the
be excreted. interstitial fluid, the filtrate will be very concentrated.
Nephron:
Glomerulus, specialized mass of capillaries; Surrounded by Bowman’s Capsule; Blood
pressure forces fluid from the blood in the glomerulus into Bowman’s. Once the fluid
is in Bowman’s the fluid is called filtrate (contains, Glucose, Water, NaCl, Amino acids,
Urea, Vitamins, bicarbonate ion, H+).

The nephron is going to take this filtrate through ride of its life while it processes;
some of the filtrate is reabsorbed (means some of the filtrate will cross the barrier of
the nephron back into the fluid surrounding nephron also called interstitial fluid) And
eventually circulating again to the body, but in order to get rid of some, those items
will in the tube of nephron eventually to form urine.

Proximal tubule, NaCl moves to the interstitial fluid by active transport (low to high;
require ATP). –important to pH regulation

Loop of Henle, descending limb, water can get reabsorbed because the water can get
out of loop and into the interstitial fluid, by osmosis, water would travel that way as
the interstitial fluid is hypertonic; The solute concentration inside the filtrate of the
descending limb continues to increases
Urine that is produced by nephron will travel to Ureters (2 tube), then the urine will
stored in the bladder before it is expelled to the body through Urethra.

Osmosis, movement of higher area

concentration to area of lower
concentration through permeable
membrane that is a cell membrane,
they have small openings, that let
water molecules to pass through but
won’t allow larger molecules like NaCl.
Marine = most are isoosmotic Freshwater = Hyperosmotic
Lower level of concentration is where
there is a high solutes like salt and sugar. And higher concentration is the opposite. Animals that temporary lives in water
These animals enter a dormant state when their habitats dry up, an adaptation called
Osmoregulation maintains the balance of salt and water. Osmolarity, measurement anhydrobiosis (“life without water”).
of solute concentration
A disaccharide called trehalose seems to protect the cells by replacing the water
Cell is hyperosmotic to surroundings; net flow of water into cell that is normally associated with proteins and membrane lipids. Many insects that
Cell is isoosmotic to surroundings; no net water movement survive freezing in the winter also use trehalose as a membrane protectant, as do
Cell is hypoosmotic to surroundings; net flow of water out of cell some plants resistant to desiccation. A waxy cuticle the body coverings of most
Osmoregulation, the general term for the processes by which animals control solute terrestrial animals help prevent dehydration.
concentrations and balance water gain and loss.
All osmoconformers are marine animals. Because an osmoconformer’s internal Land Animals
osmolarity is the same as that of its environment. Osmoconformers change their Land animals maintain water balance by drinking and eating moist foods and by
body fluid osmolarity to match the concentration of the medium. producing water metabolically through cellular respiration.

In a hypoosmotic environment, an osmoregulator must discharge excess water. In a Energetics of Osmoregulation

hyperosmotic environment, it must instead take in water to offset osmotic loss. Osmoregulators must expend energy to maintain the osmotic gradients that cause
Osmoregulation enables animals to live in environments that are uninhabitable for water to move in or out. They do so by using active transport to manipulate solute
osmoconformers concentrations in their body fluids.

Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers. Their osmolarity is the same as that The body fluids of most animals that live in fresh water (which has an osmolarity)
of seawater. have lower solute concentrations than the body fluids of their closest relatives that
live in seawater
Other marine bony fishes constantly lose water by osmosis. They balance water loss
by drinking a lot of seawater. The excess salts ingested with seawater are eliminated
through the gills and kidneys.
Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation Forms of Nitrgeneous Wastes
- In insects and other animals with an open circulatory system, the fluid surrounding Ammonia is very toxic, Because ammonia can be tolerated only at very low
cells is hemolymph. In vertebrates and other animals with a closed circulatory system, concentrations, animals that excrete ammonia need access to lots of water.
the cells are bathed in an interstitial fluid Therefore, ammonia excretion is most common in aquatic species.
- Osmoregulation and metabolic waste disposal rely on transport epithelia—one or
more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled
amounts in specific directions. Transport epithelia are typically arranged into tubular
networks with extensive surface areas. Some transport epithelia face the outside
environment directly, whereas others line channels connected to the outside by an
opening on the body surface

An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat Urea very low toxicity and its high solubility in water.
In regulating and safeguarding their internal fluids, animals must deal with ammonia, they mainly excrete a different nitrogenous waste, urea. In vertebrates, urea is the
a toxic metabolite produced by the dismantling of nitrogenous product of an energy consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon
dioxide in the liver.
 Nonessential solutes and wastes remain in the filtrate or are added through selective
Uric acid, relatively nontoxic and does not readily dissolve in water. However, uric secretion. The final step is excretion, releasing the processed filtrate as urine.
acid is even more energetically expensive than urea, requiring considerable ATP for
synthesis from ammonia. Flatworms, lack a coelom or body
cavity and have excretory systems
The Influence of Evolution and Environment on Nitrogenous Wastes called protonephridia. These consist
-Natural selection, the type and amount of nitrogenous waste a species produces are of dead-end tubules that branch
matched to its environment. throughout the body, with cellular
-Terrestrial turtles excrete mainly uric acid, while aquatic turtles excrete both urea units called flame bulbs capped by
and ammonia. each branch. Each flame bulb has a
tuft of cilia projecting into the
tubule. During filtration, the beating
Diverse excretory
of the cilia draws water and solutes
systems are variations
from the interstitial fluid, releasing
on a tubular theme
filtrate into the tubule network. The
By both disposing of
processed filtrate moves outward
metabolic wastes and through the tubules and empties as
controlling body fluid urine, helping to balance the
composition, excretory osmotic uptake of water from the
systems play a central environment.
role in homeostasis.
Excretory processes Most metabolic wastes diffuse out of the animal across the body surface or are excreted
begin when body fluid into the gastrovascular cavity and eliminated through the mouth. In contrast, parasitic
(blood, coelomic fluid, flatworms that are isosmotic to the surrounding fluids of their host organisms have
or hemolymph) is protonephridia that primarily function in the disposal of nitrogenous wastes;occurs in
brought. acoelomate.

The epithelial Metanephridia (singular, metanephridium),

membrane in the body excretory organs that collect fluid directly from
fluid allows water and the coelom. Earthworms experience a net
solutes to cross, uptake of water by osmosis through their skin.
forming a filtrate. This In producing a hypoosmotic filtrate, the
filtrate is converted transport epithelium reabsorbs most solutes
into a waste fluid and returns them to the blood in the capillaries.
through selective Nitrogenous wastes, remain in the tubule and
reabsorption, which are excreted to the environment. The
recovers useful metanephridia of an earthworm serve both an
molecules and water. excretory and an osmoregulatory function.
Malpighian Tubules
 Insects and other Kidney functions in both osmoregulation and excretion. Like the excretory organs of
Malpighian tubules that most animal phyla, kidneys consist of tubules. The tubules of kidneys are closely
remove nitrogenous wastes associated with a network of capillaries. The vertebrate excretory system also
and that also function in includes ducts and other structures that carry urine from the tubules out of the
osmoregulation. The kidney and, eventually, the body. Vertebrate kidneys are typically non segmented.
Malpighian tubules extend However, hagfishes, which are jawless vertebrates (see Concept 34.2), have kidneys
from dead-end tips with segmentally arranged excretory tubules.
immersed in hemolymph to
openings into the digestive
tract. The filtration step
common to other excretory
systems is absent. Instead,
the transport epithelium
that lines the tubules
secretes certain solutes,
including nitrogenous
wastes, from the
hemolymph into the lumen
of the tubule. Water follows
the solutes into the tubule
by osmosis. As fluid passes
from the tubules into the rectum, most solutes are pumped back into the hemolymph;
water reabsorption by osmosis follows. The nitrogenous wastes— mainly insoluble uric
acid—are eliminated as nearly dry matter along with the feces. The insect excretory
system is capable of conserving water very effectively, a key adaptation contributing to
the tremendous success of insects on land

Kidneys
In vertebrates and some other chordates, a compact organ called the kidney
functions in both osmoregulation and excretion. Like the excretory organs of most
animal phyla, kidneys consist of tubules. The tubules of kidneys are arranged in a
highly organized manner and are closely associated with a network of capillaries.
The vertebrate excretory system also includes ducts and other structures that
carry urine from the tubules out of the kidney and, eventually, the body.
Vertebrate kidneys are typically nonsegmented. However, hagfishes, which are
jawless vertebrates, have kidneys with segmentally arranged excretory tubules. that serve the renal medulla, including the long loop of Henle of juxtamedullary
Because hagfishes and other vertebrates share a common chordate ancestor, it is nephrons.
possible that the excretory structures of vertebrate ancestors were
also segmented.
(paste the pic violet here)

Each nephron consists of a single long

THE NEPHRON IS ORGANIZED FOR STEPWISE PROESSING OF BLOOD FILTRATE
tubule as well as a ball of capillaries
In the human kidney, filtrate forms when fluid passes from the bloodstream to
called the glomerulus. The blind end
the lumen of Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular capillaries and specialized cells
of the tubule forms a cup-shaped
of Bowman’s capsule retain blood cells and large molecules, such as plasma
swelling, called Bowman’s capsule,
proteins, but are permeable to water and small solutes. Thus, the filtrate
which surrounds the glomerulus.
produced in the capsule contains salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
Filtrate is formed when blood
nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules. Because such molecules pass
pressure forces fluid from the blood
freely between glomerular capillaries and Bowman’s capsule, the concentrations
in the glomerulus into the lumen of
of these substances in the initial filtrate are the same as those in blood plasma.
Bowman’s capsule. Processing occurs
as the filtrate passes through three
(Paste 44.13)
major regions of the nephron: the
proximal tubule, the loop of Henle (a
hairpin turn with a descending limb
and an ascending limb), and the
distal tubule. A collecting duct
receives processed filtrate from many
nephrons and transports it to the
renal pelvis. Each nephron is supplied
with blood by an afferent arteriole, an offshoot of the renal artery that branches
and forms the capillaries of the glomerulus. The capillaries converge as they leave
the glomerulus, forming an efferent arteriole. Branches of this vessel form the
peritubular capillaries, which surround the proximal and distal tubules. Other
branches extend downward and form the vasa recta, hairpin-shaped capillaries
 Upon leaving the proximal tubule, filtrate enters the loop of Henle, which further reduces
filtrate volume via distinct stages of water and salt movement. In the first portion of the
loop, the descending limb, numerous water channels formed by aquaporin proteins make
the transport epithelium freely permeable to water. In contrast, there are almost no
channels for salt and other small solutes, resulting in very low permeability for these
substances. For water to move out of the tubule by osmosis, the interstitial fluid bathing
the tubule must be hyperosmotic to the filtrate. This condition is met along the entire
length of the descending limb because the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid increases
progressively from the cortex through the medulla. As a result, the filtrate loses water and
increases in solute concentration all along its journey down the descending limb. The
highest osmolarity (about 1,200 mOsm/L) occurs at the elbow of the loop of Henle.

Proximal tubule. Ascending limb of the loop of Henle.

Reabsorption in the proximal tubule for recapture of ions, water, and valuable nutrients The filtrate reaches the tip of the loop and then returns to the cortex in the ascending
from the huge volume of initial filtrate. NaCl (salt) in the filtrate enters the cells of the limb. Unlike the descending limb, the ascending limb has a transport epithelium that lacks
transport epithelium by facilitated diffusion and co transport mechanisms. There, Na+ water channels. Consequently, the epithelial membrane that faces the filtrate in the
ions are transferred to the interstitial fluid by active transport. This transfer of positive ascending limb is impermeable to water. The ascending limb has two specialized regions:
charge out of the tubule drives the passive transport of Cl-. a thin segment near the loop tip and a thick segment adjacent to the distal tubule. As
As salt moves from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid, water follows by osmosis, filtrate ascends in the thin segment, NaCl, which became highly concentrated in the
reducing filtrate volume considerably. The salt and water that exit the filtrate diffuse from descending limb, diffuses out of the permeable tubule into the interstitial fluid. This
the interstitial fluid into the peritubular capillaries. Glucose, amino acids, potassium ions movement of NaCl out of the tubule helps maintain the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid
(K+), and other essential substances are also actively or passively transported from the in the medulla. In the thick segment of the ascending limb, the movement of NaCl out of
filtrate to the interstitial fluid and then into the peritubular capillaries. the filtrate continues. Here, however, the epithelium actively transports NaCl into the
Processing of filtrate in the proximal tubule helps maintain a constant pH in body fluids. interstitial fluid. As a result of losing salt but not water, the filtrate becomes progressively
Cells of the transport epithelium secrete H+ into the lumen of the tubule but also more dilute as it moves up to the cortex in the ascending limb of the loop. Although the
synthesize and secrete ammonia, which acts as a buffer to trap H+ in the form of loop of Henle has a small net effect on filtrate composition, it is a major site for the
ammonium ions (NH4 +). The more acidic the filtrate, the more ammonia the cells recovery of water (descending loop) and salt (ascending loop) from the filtrate. It is this
produce and secrete, and a mammal’s urine usually contains some ammonia from this recovery that underlies water conservation in landdwelling vertebrates, as we will explore
source (even though most nitrogenous waste is excreted as urea). The proximal tubules shortly.
also reabsorb about 90% of the buffer bicarbonate (HCO3 -) from the filtrate, contributing
to pH balance in body fluids. Distal tubule
As the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule, materials to be excreted become The distal tubule plays a role in regulating the K+ and NaCl concentration of body
concentrated. Many wastes leave the body fluids during the nonselective filtration fluids. This regulation involves variation in the amount of K+ secreted into the
process and remain in the filtrate while water and salts are reabsorbed. Urea, for filtrate as well as the amount of NaCl reabsorbed from the filtrate. The distal
example, is reabsorbed at a much lower rate than are salt and water. In addition, some tubule also contributes to pH regulation by the controlled secretion of H+ and
materials are actively secreted into the filtrate from surrounding tissues. reabsorption of HCO3.
Descending limb of the loop of Henle.
Collecting duct
 The collecting duct processes the filtrate into urine, which it carries to the decrease. This is because pure water flows from the cell, causing solute to pile up
renal pelvis. As filtrate passes along the transport epithelium of the collecting in front of the cell.
duct, ho rmonal control of permeability and transport determines the extent to
which the urine becomes concentrated. CCONCENTRATING URINE IN THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
When the kidneys are conserving water, aquaporin channels in the
collecting duct allow water molecules to cross the epithelium. At the
same time, the epithelium remains impermeable to salt and, in the
renal cortex, to urea. As the collecting duct traverses the gradient of
osmolarity in the kidney, the filtrate becomes increasingly
concentrated, losing more and more water by osmosis to the
hyperosmotic interstitial fluid. In the inner medulla, the duct becomes
permeable to urea. Because of the high urea concentration in the
filtrate at this point, some urea diffuses out of the duct and into the
interstitial fluid. Along with NaCl, this urea contributes to the high
osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the medulla. The net result is
urine that is hyperosmotic to the general body fluids.
When producing dilute rather than concentrated urine, the
collecting duct actively absorbs salts without allowing water to follow
by osmosis. At these times, the epithelium lacks aquaporin channels,
and NaCl is actively transported out of filtrate. As we’ll see, the
presence of water channels in the collecting duct epithelium is
controlled by hormones that regulate blood pressure, volume, and
osmolarity

SOLUTE GRADIENTS AND WATER CONSERVATIO

Solute gradients are differences in concentration. Solutes can move
through membranes in either direction, but always toward areas with lower Filtrate passing from Bowman’s capsule to the proximal tubule has about the same
osmolarity as blood. A large amount of water and salt is reabsorbed from the filtrate as it
concentrations. As the concentration gradient of solute increases, so does solute
flows through the proximal tubule in the renal cortex. As a result, the filtrate’s volume
movement. In the kidney, water conservation occurs by diluting urine as it passes
decreases substantially, but its osmolarity remains about the same. As the filtrate flows
through the loop of Henle, and then concentrating urine in the distal tubules and from cortex to medulla in the descending limb of the loop of Henle, water leaves the
collecting ducts. tubule by osmosis. Solutes, including NaCl, become more concentrated, increasing the
The kidney also uses countercurrent multiplication to reabsorb solutes, which osmolarity of the filtrate. Diffusion of salt out of the tubule is maximal as the filtrate
increases the concentration of solutes in the interstitial space. This causes water rounds the curve and enters the ascending limb, which is permeable to salt but not to
and solutes to move down their concentration gradients until they are equal in water. NaCl diffusing from the ascending limb helps maintain a high osmolarity in the
the descending tubule and interstitial space. Cells can also disturb solute interstitial fluid of the renal medulla. The loop of Henle and surrounding capillaries act as
gradients. As a cell moves, it causes the solute concentration behind the cell to a type of countercurrent system to generate the steep osmotic gradient between the
medulla and cortex. Recall that some endotherms have a countercurrent heat exchanger mOsm/L, the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the inner medulla. Although isoosmotic
that reduces heat loss and that countercurrent gas exchange in fish gills maximizes oxygen to the inner medulla’s interstitial fluid, the urine is hyperosmotic to blood and interstitial
absorption (see Figures 40.13 and 42.21). In those cases, the countercurrent mechanisms fluid elsewhere in the body. This high osmolarity allows the solutes remaining in the urine
involve passive movement along either an oxygen concentration gradient or a heat to be excreted from the body with minimal water loss.
gradient. In contrast, the countercurrent system of the loop of Henle involves active
transport and thus an expenditure of energy. The active transport of NaCl from the filtrate ADAPTATIONS OF THE VERTEBRATE KIDNEY TO DIVERSE ENVIRONMENTS
in the upper part of the ascending limb of the loop maintains a high salt concentration in Vertebrates occupy habitats ranging from rain forests to deserts and from some
the interior of the kidney, enabling the kidney to form concentrated urine. Such of the saltiest bodies of water to the nearly pure waters of high mountain lakes.
countercurrent systems, which expend energy to create concentration gradients, are
Comparing vertebrates across environments reveals adaptive variations in
called countercurrent multiplier systems. What prevents the capillaries of the vasa recta
nephron structure and function. In the case of mammals, for example, the
from dissipating the gradient by carrying away the high concentration of NaCl in the
medulla’s interstitial fluid? As shown in Figure 44.12, the descending and ascending
presence of juxtamedullary nephrons is a key adaptation that enables these
vessels of the vasa recta carry blood in opposite directions through the kidney’s terrestrial animals to shed salts and nitrogenous wastes without squandering
osmolarity gradient. As the descending vessel conveys blood toward the inner medulla, water. Differences among species in the length of the loop of Henle in the
water is lost from the blood and NaCl is gained by diffusion. These net fluxes are reversed juxtamedullary nephrons and in the relative numbers of juxtamedullary and
as blood flows back toward the cortex in the ascending vessel of the vasa recta, with cortical nephrons help to fine-tune osmoregulation to particular habitats.
water reentering the blood and salt diffusing out. Thus, the vasa recta can supply the
kidney with nutrients and other important substances carried by the blood without Mammals
interfering with the osmolarity gradient in the inner and outer medulla. Mammals that excrete the most hyperosmotic urine, such as Australian hopping
mice, North American kangaroo rats, and other desert mammals, have many
The countercurrent-like characteristics of the loop of Henle and the vasa recta help to
juxtamedullary nephrons with loops of Henle that extend deep into the medulla.
generate the steep osmotic gradient between the medulla and cortex. However, diffusion
will eventually eliminate any osmotic gradient within animal tissue unless energy is
Long loops maintain steep osmotic gradients in the kidney, resulting in urine
expended to maintain the gradient. In the kidney, this expenditure largely occurs in the becoming very concentrated as it passes from cortex to medulla in the
thick segment of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle, where NaCl is actively collecting ducts. In contrast, beavers, muskrats, and other aquatic mammals that
transported out of the tubule. Even with the benefits of countercurrent exchange, this spend much of their time in fresh water and rarely face problems of dehydration
process—along with other renal active transport systems—consumes considerable ATP. have mostly cortical nephrons, resulting in a much lower ability to concentrate
Thus, for its size, the kidney has one of the highest metabolic rates of any organ. urine. Terrestrial mammals living in moist conditions have loops of Henle of
intermediate length and the capacity to produce urine intermediate in
As a result of active transport of NaCl out of the thick segment of the ascending limb, the concentration to that produced by freshwater and desert mammals.
filtrate is actually hypoosmotic to body fluids by the time it reaches the distal tubule.
Next, the filtrate descends again toward the medulla, this time in the collecting duct,
which is permeable to water but not to salt. Therefore, osmosis extracts water from the Birds and Other Reptiles
filtrate as it passes from cortex to medulla and encounters interstitial fluid of increasing Most birds, including the albatross (see Figure 44.1) and the ostrich (Figure
osmolarity. This process concentrates salt, urea, and other solutes in the filtrate. Some
44.16), live in environments that are dehydrating. Like mammals but no other
urea passes out of the lower portion of the collecting duct and contributes to the high
species, birds have kidneys with juxtamedullary nephrons. However, the
interstitial osmolarity of the inner medulla. (This urea is recycled by diffusion into the loop
of Henle, but continual leakage from the collecting duct maintains a high interstitial urea nephrons of birds have loops of Henle that extend less far into the medulla than
concentration.) When the kidney concentrates urine maximally, the urine reaches 1,200 those of mammals. Thus, bird kidneys cannot concentrate urine to the high
osmolarities achieved by mammalian kidneys. Although birds can produce physiological processes that are driven by the movement of ions across a
hyperosmotic urine, their main water conservation adaptation is having uric acid membrane.
as the nitrogenous waste molecule. The kidneys of other reptiles have only
cortical nephrons, and they produce urine that is isoosmotic or hypoosmotic to
body fluids. However, the epithelium of the cloaca from which urine and feces
leave the body conserves fluid by reabsorbing water from these wastes. Like
birds, most other reptiles excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid.
(paste blue thingy here)
Freshwater Fishes and Amphibians
Hyperosmotic to their surroundings, freshwater fishes produce large volumes of
very dilute urine. Their kidneys, which are packed with cortical nephrons, produce
filtrate at a high rate. Salt conservation relies on the reabsorption of ions from the
filtrate in the distal tubules. Amphibian kidneys function much like those of
freshwater fishes. When frogs are in fresh water, their kidneys excrete dilute
urine while their skin accumulates certain salts from the water by active
transport. On land, where dehydration is the most pressing problem of
osmoregulation, frogs conserve body fluid by reabsorbing water across the
epithelium of the urinary bladder.

Marine Bony Fishes

Compared with freshwater fishes, marine fishes have fewer and smaller
nephrons, and their nephrons lack a distal tubule. In addition, their kidneys have
small glomeruli or lack glomeruli entirely. In keeping with these features, filtration
rates are low and very little urine is excreted. The main function of kidneys in
marine bony fishes is to get rid of divalent ions (those with a charge of 2+ or 2-)
such as calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and sulfate (SO4 2-). Marine fishes
take in divalent ions by incessantly drinking seawater. They rid themselves of
these ions by secreting them into the proximal tubules of the nephrons and
excreting them in urine. Osmoregulation in marine bony fishes also relies on
HORMONAL CIRCUITS LINK KIDNEY FUNCTION, WATER BALANCE, AND BLOOD
specialized chloride cells in the gills. By establishing ion gradients that enable
PRESSURE
secretion of salt (NaCl) into seawater, the chloride cells maintain proper levels of
In mammals, both the volume and osmolarity of urine are adjusted according to
monovalent ions (charge of 1+ or 1-) such as Na+ and Cl-. The generation of ion
an animal’s water and salt balance and its rate of urea production. In situations of
gradients and the movement of ions across membranes are central to salt and
high salt intake and low water availability, a mammal can excrete urea and salt in
water balance in marine bony fishes. These events, however, are by no means
small volumes of hyperosmotic urine with minimal water loss. If salt is scarce and
unique to these organisms nor to homeostasis. As illustrated by the examples in
fluid intake is high, the kidney can instead eliminate the excess water with little
Figure 44.17, osmoregulation by chloride cells is but one of many diverse
salt loss by producing large volumes of hypoosmotic urine. At such times, the
urine can be as dilute as 70 mOsm/L, less than onefourth the osmolarity of
human blood. How are urine volume and osmolarity regulated so effectively? As
we’ll explore in this final portion of the chapter, two major control circuits that
respond to different stimuli together restore and maintain normal water
and salt balance.