.

1
Conducting Materials
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The electron theory of solids explains the structures and properties of solids
through their electronic structure. This theory is applicable to all solids both metals
and non metals. This theory also explains the bending in solids behavior of conductors
and insulators, electrical and thermal conductivities of solids, elasticity and repulsive
forces in solids etc,.. The theory has been developed in three main stages.

1.1.1 Classical free electron theory

This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz. According to this theory, a
metal consists of electrons which are free to move about in the crystal molecules of a
gas it contains mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored and hence potential energy
is taken as zero. Therefore the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic
energy.

1.1.2 Quantum free electron theory

Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties. In
classical free electron theory, we use Maxwell-Boltzman statics which permits all free
electrons to gain energy. In Somerfield developed a new theory, in which he retained
some of the features of classical free electron theory included quantum mechanical
concepts and Fermi-Dirac statistics to the free electrons in the metals. This theory is
called quantum free electron theory. Quantum free electron theory permits only a few
electrons to gain energy.

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 .

1.2 .

1.1.3 Zone theory (or) Band theory

Bloch developed the theory in which the electrons move in a periodic field
provided by the Lattice concept of holes, origin of Band gap and effective mass of
electrons are the special features of this theory of solids. This theory also explains the
mechanism of super conductivity based on band theory.

1.2 ASSUMPTIONS (POSTULATES) OF CLASSICAL FREE

ELECTRON THEORY
1. A Solid metal has nucleus with revolving electrons. The electrons move freely
like molecules in a gas.
2. The free electrons move in a uniform potential field due to the ions fixed in
the lattice.
3. In the absence of electric field (E=0), the free electrons move in random
directions and collide with each other. During this collision no loss of energy
is observes since the collisions are elastic as shown in figure.
4. When the presence of electric field ( E  0 ) the free electrons are accelerated
in the direction opposite to the direction of applied electric field, as shown in
figure.

Fig1.1 Absence of electric field (E= 0) Presence of electric field ( E  0 )

5. Since the electrons are assumed to be perfect gas, they obey the laws of classical
theory of gases.
6. Classical free electrons in the metal obey Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.3

1.3 BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN THE FREE ELECTRON

THEORY
1. Drift Velocity (Vd)
The drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron
in particular direction, due to the applied electric field.
Average distance travelled by the electron
Drift Velocity =
Time taken

Vd  ms 1
t
2. Mobility ()
The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the electron per
unit electric field (E).
Vd 2 1 1
 m V s
E
3. Mean free path ()
The average distance travelled by a electron between two successive collision
is called mean free path.
4. Mean collision time (c) (or) Collision time
It is the time taken by the free electron between two successive collision.

c  sec
Vd
5. Relaxation time ()
It is the time taken by the electron to reach equilibrium position from disturbed
position in the presence of electric field.
l
 sec
Vd
Where l is the distance travelled by the electron. The value of relaxation time is
of the order of 10–14 sec.
6. Band gap (Eg)
Band gap is the energy difference between the minimum energy of conduction
band and the maximum energy of valence band.

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 .

1.4 .

7. Current density (J)

It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane
holded normal to the direction of the flow of current in a current carrying conductor.

I
J A m –2
A

1.4 SUCCESS OR USES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON

THEORY
1. It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical conductivity () and thermal conductivity of
(K) of metals.
3. It is used to derive Widemann-Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.

1.5 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb
energy, but the quantum free electron theory states that only few electrons
will absorb energy.
3. This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, para-
magnetism and ferromagnetism, etc.,
4. This theory cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
5. Dual nature of light radiation cannot be explained.
6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat are not matched.
K
7. By classical theory = T is constant for all temperature, but by quantum

K
theory = T is not a constant for all temperatures.

8. The Lorentz number obtained by classical theory does not have good
agreement with experimental value and theoritical value, it is rectified by
quantum theory.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.5

1.6 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (  )

Definition
The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing
per unit area per unit time at a constant potential gradient.

ne2 
 = Ohm1m 1
m

1.6.1 Expression for electrical conductivity

Fig 1.2 Moment of Electron

When an electric field (E) is applied to a conductor the free electrons are
accelerated and give rise to current (I) which flows in the direction of electric filed
flows of charges is given in terms of current density.
Let ‘n’ be the number of electrons per unit volume and ‘e’ be the charge of the
electrons.
The current flowing through a conductor per unit area in unit time (current density)
is given by
J = nVd ( e)
J = – nVd (e) ... (1)
The negative sign indicates that the direction of current is in opposite direction
to the movement of electron.
Due to the applied electric field, the electrons acquire an acceleration ‘a’ can be
given by

Drift Velocity (Vd )

Accelaration (a) =
Relaxation time ()

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 .

1.6 .

Vd
a =

Vd = a ... (2)
When an electric field of strength (E) is applied to the conductor, the force
experienced by the free electrons in given by
F = – eE ... (3)
From Newton’s second Law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can
be written as
F = ma ... (4)
Comparing equation (3) & (4)
–eE = ma
e E
a = ... (5)
m
Now, substituting the value of ‘a’ from the equation (2),we get
eE
Vd = ... (6)
m
Substitute equation (6) in (1)

  eE 
J = n  (e)
 m 

ne 2 E
J = ... (7)
m
J
The electrical conductivity  =
E

ne2 
 =
m

ne 2
The electrical conductivity  
m
The electrical conductivity of a material is directly proportional to the free electron
concentration in the material.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.7

1.6.2 Correct expression for electrical conductivity of

conductors
By using the classical free electron theory, quantum free electron theory and
band theory of solids we can get,

ne2 
The electrical conductivity, =
m*
Where m*- effective mass of free electron
 - Electrical conductivity
 - Relaxation time
n - Number of electrons

1.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K)

Definition
The thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat flowing
through an unit area per unit temperature gradient.

Q
 =  Wm 1 K 1
 dT 
A 
 dx 
The negative sign indicates that heat flows hot end to cold end.
Where K is the thermal conductivity of metal. Q is the amount of heat energy.
dT
is the temperature gradient.
dx
In general, the thermal conductivity of a material is due to the presence of lattice
vibrations (ie., photons and electrons). Hence the total thermal conduction can be
written as.
K tot al = K electron  K photons

1.7.1 Expression for thermal conductivity (K) of an electron

Consider a metal bar with two planes A and B separated by a distance ‘’
from C. Here T1 is hot end and T2 is cold end. ie., T1 > T2

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 .

1.8 .

 
A C B

Direction of T T2
1
flow of heat



Fig.1.3 Thermal Conductivity

Let ‘n’ be the number of conduction electrons and ‘v’ be the velocity of the
electrons. K B is the Boltzmann constant
From kinetic theory of gases
1
Energy of an electron at A = mv 2
2
3K BT1
= ... (1)
2
The kinetic energy of an electron at
1
B = mv 2
2
3K BT2
= ... (2)
2
The net energy  3K B (T1  T2 )
 ... (3)
transferred from A to B 2

Fig.1.4 moment of electron field

Let as assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the
six directions. Each electrons travels with thermal velocity ‘V’ and ‘n’ is the free electron
density then on average of 1/6 nv electron will travel in any one direction.

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 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.9

No. of electrons crossing per unit area in unit time at C

1
= nv ... (4)
6

(Average energy transfer from A to B)

The energy carried by Q  
the electrons from A to B 
 (No of electron

cros sin g per unit area)

3K B (T1  T2 )  1 
Q =  nv 
2 6 
1
Q = K (T  T )nv ... (5)
4 B 1 2
We know that the thermal conductivity,

Q
K =
 dT 
A 
 dx 
The heat energy transferred per unit sec per unit area
dT
Q = K [A=1 unit area]
dx
K(T1  T2 )
Q = ... (6)
2
 dT  T1  T2 , dx  2

Comparing equations (5) and (6),

K(T1  T2 ) 1
= K (T  T )nv
2 4 B 1 2

1
 Thermal conductivity K = K nv
2 B

K Bnv
Thermal conductivity KK 
2

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 .

1.10 .

1.8 WIEDEMANN-FRANZ LAW

Statement
The ratio between the therm al conductivity (K) and electrical
conductivity (σ) of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal.

K K
T or  LT
 
Where L is called Lorentz number, the value of L is 2.44 × 10–8 WK–2
(as per Quantum Mechanical value).

1.8.1 Derivation
By Classical theory, we can drive Widemann-Franz law using the expressions
for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
The expression for thermal conductivity

K B nv
K =
2
The expression for electrical conductivity

ne2 
 =
m

K 1 / 2K Bnv
=
 ne2  / m
2
K 1 m K Bv   
=   v 
 2 e2   

K 1 2 KB
= mv 2
 2 e
We know that kinetic energy of an electron
1 3
 mV 2 = K T
2 2 B

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 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.11

K 3 KB
= K BT 2
 2 e

2
K 3 KB T
=
 2 e2

2
K 3 KB
=
T 2 e2

K
L  L is called Lorentz number
T

Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
of a metal is directly propotional to the absolute temperature of the metal.

2
3 KB
Where Lorentz number L =
2 e2

L =

3  1.38  1023 
2

2 1.6  1019 
L = 1.12  108 WK 2

It is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only one half of the
experimental value (2.44 × 10–8 WK–2). The discrepancy of L value is the failure of
the classical theory (Experimental and Theoretical). This can be rectified by quantum
theory.

1.8.2 By Quantum theory

By Quantum theory the mass ‘m’ is replaced by effective mass m*

ne2 
The electrical conductivity  =
m

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 .

1.12 .

According to Quantum theory, the expression for thermal conductivity is modified

by considering the electron specific heat as

2
2 nK B T
K=
3 m

  2 nK 2T  
B
  
K
=  3 2m 
  ne  
  
 m 

  2 K 2T 
K B
=  3 e2  T
  

K
= LT

 2 K 2 
B
Where L =  3 2 
 e 

(3.14) 2 (1.38  1023 ) 2

L =
3  (1.6  1019 ) 2
L = 2.44 × 10–8 WK–2
This is gives the correct value of Lorentz number and it in good agreement with
the experiment value.

1.9 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The failure of classical free electron theory paved this way for Quantum free
electron theory. It was introduced by Sommer field in 1928. This theory is based on
making small concepts. This theory was proposed by making small changes in the
classical free electron theory and by retaining most of the postulates of the classical
free electron theory.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.13

1.9.1 Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron

theory
1. In a metal the available free electrons are fully responsible for electrical
conduction.
2. The electrons move in a constant potential inside the metal. They cannot
come out from the metal surface have very high potential barrier.
3. Electrons have wave nature, the velocity and energy distribution of the electron
is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
4. The loss of energy due to interaction of the free electron with the other free
electron.
5. Electron’s distributed in various energy levels according to Pauli Exclusion
Principle.

1.9.2 Advantages of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory explains the specific heat capacity of materials.
2. This theory explains photo electric effect, Compton Effect and block body
radiation. etc.
3. This theory gives the correct mathematical expression for the thermal
conductivity of metals.

1.9.3 Drawbacks of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory fails to distinguish between metal, semiconductor and Insulator.
2. It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall Co-efficient.
3. According to this theory, only two electrons are present in the Fermi level
and they are responsible for conduction which is not true.

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 .

1.14 .

1.10 FERMI – DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Statement
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy
levels as a function of temperature, the probability of finding an electron
in a particular energy state of energy E is given by

1
F(E) =
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 

Where, EF - Fermi energy (highest energy level of an electron)

KB - Boltzmann’s constant
T - Absolute temperature

1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

Case 1:
AT = 0 K and E < E F

1 1
F(E) = 
1  exp (-) 1  0

F(E) = 1= 100 %
It means that 100% probability for the electrons to occupy the energy level
below the Fermi energy level.
Case 2:
AT = 0 K and E > E F

1 1 1
F(E) =   0
1  exp () 1   
F(E) = 0 = 0%
It means that 0% probability (electron) for the electrons to occupy the energy
level above the Fermi energy level.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.15

Case 3 :
At T > 0K and E = EF
1 1 1
F(E) = = = = 0.5
1  exp (0) 1  1 2
F(E) = 0.5 = 50%
It means that 50% probability for the electrons to occupy the Fermi energy
level. (above Fermi energy level are empty and below Fermi energy level are filled).
At 0 K energy states above E F are empty and below E F are filled.

(a)At T=0K (b) at T>0K

Fig.1.5 Fermi Dirac distribution function

1.10.2 Fermi level, Fermi Energy and their importance

These are defined as the highest energy level filled by the electrons in that energy
level with higher energy values.
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of
a particle at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled
energy levels and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy (EF) : The Fermi energy is the maximum energy of the quantum
state corresponding to Fermi energy level at absolute
zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at
any temperature.

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 .

1.16 .

1.11 DENSITY OF STATES

A parameter of interest in the study of conductivity of metals and semiconductors
is the density of states.
The Fermi function F(E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a
given energy state. It does not give the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a given energy state, to know that we should know the number of
available energy states called density of states.
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit
volume in an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number
of charge carriers per unit volume of any solid.

Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N(E) dE =
Volume of the metal

D(E) dE
N(E) dE = ... (1)
V

nz

dn
E+dE
E
n

O ny

nx
Fig.1.6 Positive octant of n space

Let us constant a sphere of radius “n” in space with quantum numbers n n , n y

and n z

n 2 = n 2x  n 2y  n z2

The sphere is further divided into many shells represents a particular combination
of quantum numbers and represents particular energy value.

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 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.17

Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius

4
n =  n3
3
Let us consider two energy values E and E + dE can be found by finding the
number of energy states between the shells of radius n and n+ dn from the origin.
Since the quantum numbers are positive integers, n values can be defined only in the
positive octant of the n – space.
The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius “n” due to one
octant.

1 4 
n    n3 
8 3 
Similarly the number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n+dn
corresponding energy.

1 4 3
n + dn =    n + dn  
8 3 
The number of available energy states between the shells of radius n and n + dn
(or) between the energy levels E and E + dE

1 4 3 4 
D (E) dE =    n + dn   n 3 
8 3 3 
The number of available energy states between the energy interval dE

1 4 
D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 n 3 + dn 3 +3n 2dn+3n dn 2 – n 2 

Since the higher powers of dn is very small, dn2 and dn3 terms can be neglected.

1 4 
 D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 3n 2 dn 

 

n 2dn
D (E) dE = ... (3)
2

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 .

1.18 .

We know that the allowed energy values is

n 2h 2
E = ... (4)
8mL2
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to ‘n’

h2
dE = 2 ndn
8mL2

8mL2
ndn = dE ... (5)
2h 2

2 8mL2 E
From equation (4) n =
h2
1/2

n =
8mL2E 
1/2 ... (6)
 h2 
On substituting equation (6) and (5) in equation (3) we get,
n (ndn)
D (E) dE =
2
1/ 2



 8mL2 E  
8mL2
dE
D (E) dE =
2h 2
1/ 2
2
 
h2

3/ 2


8mL2  E1/ 2 dE

D (E) dE = 3/ 2
4
h2  

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 L3E1/ 2 dE
4h
If volume of the metal, V = L3

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 VE1/ 2 dE
4h

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 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.19

For unit volume of a metal,

V = 1m3
D(E) dE
From equation (1) N (E) dE =
V

Density of States, N (E) dE = 3
 8m 3/2 E1/2 dE  
4h
Each electron energy level can accommodate two electrons as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle. (Spin up and Spin down = 2 (e) × density of states).
N (E) dE = 2 × N(E) dE

N (E) dE = 2 x 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
4h


N (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
2h

1.11.1 Carrier concentration in metals

Let N(E) dE represents the number of filled energy states between the interval
of energy dE, normally all the energy states will not be filled
dN = N (E) dE F(E)

dN = 2 x 3
 8m 3/2 E1/ 2 dE F(E) ... (8)
4h
The actual number of electrons in dE,  F(E) = 1

dN = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE
2h
Normally all the states are not filled states, filling of electrons is a given energy
state is given by Fermi-function F(E). Let dn represents the number of filled energy
states.
In this case of material of absolute zero the upper occupied level is EF and for
all the levels below EF, F(E)=1 (at T = 0 K the maximum energy level that can be
occupied by the electron is called Fermi energy level EF T = 0 K F(E) = 1).
Integrating equation (8) within the limits 0 to EF us can get the number of energy
0
states of electron (N)

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 .

1.20 .

N E Fo

 dN =  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 dE
0 0 2h

E
  E3/2  Fo
N = 3
8m3/2  
 3/2 
2h 0


N = 3
 8m 3/ 2 E 3/F 2 ... (9)
3h o

 3 
E3F/ 2  3Nh 
=  3/ 2 
0
  
 8m 

2/3
 3Nh 3  h 2  3N 
2/3
EF =    ... (10)
0    8m 3 / 2  8m   
 

Hence the Fermi energy of a metal depends only on the density of electrons of
that metal.

1.11.2 Average energy of an electron at 0 K

Average energy of electron

Total energy of the electrons at 0 K (E T )

Eavg = ... (11)
Number of energy states at 0 K (N)

Total energy of   Number of energy   Energy of 

= 
electrons at 0 K (E T )    
 States at 0 K   electron 

E Fo

ET =  N (E) dE E
0

E Fo
2
=  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 E dE
0 4h

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 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.21

EFo
2 3/2
ET = 8m  E3/2 dE
3
4h 0

E Fo
5/ 2 
 3/2  E
= 8m   
2h 3  5 / 2  0

2  3/ 2
=  3  8m E5/ F
2
5 2h o


ET = 3
8m 3/ 2 E5/Fo2 ... (12)
5h

Substitute equation (12) and (9) in equation (11)


3
8m 3 / 2 E5Fo/ 2
E avg = 5h

3
8m 3 / 2 E Fo 3 / 2
3h
The average of  3
  Eavg = EF
electron at 0K is  5 o

1.12 WORK FUNCTION

It is defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the metal surface at absolute zero (0 K) is called as work function.

1.12.1 Explanation
Let EF be the maximum energy of an electron called Fermi energy and EB be the
energy of the metal barrier surface.
1. If we supply energy EB greater than EF, then no of electron escapes from the
metal.
2. In order to make it to escape, an additional amount of energy equal to
(E B – E F ) is required. i.e., EB + (EB – EF )

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 .

1.22 .

3. This difference in energy EW = EB – EF is called Work function of a

metal.
4. This Concept is shown in energy diagram.
5. Different metals have different work functions.

Fig. 1.7 Work function

Work functions for Some Metals

Metal Work function (eV)

Cu 4.30
Fe 4.74
K 1.90
Na 2.00
Al 3.00

.
 Electron emission from metal

Electron emission definition

Generally, emission refers to a process by which any object becomes

free. In the similar way, the process by which the free
electrons becomes free from the metal and enters into the vacuum is
called electron emission.

Atom

We know that every solid, liquid, and gas is made up of atoms. The size
of these atoms is very small. These atoms consist of even smaller
particles such as protons, electrons, and neutrons.

The strong nuclear force between the neutrons and protons makes
them stick together to form a nucleus at the center of an atom. Protons
have positive charge and neutrons do not have any charge. Hence, the
overall charge of a nucleus is positive.

Electrons are the negatively charged particles, which continuously

revolve around the nucleus of an atom. These electrons are revolving
around the nucleus of an atom because of the electrostatic force of
attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits or shells. The

electrons, which are revolving at the outermost shell of an atom, are
called valence electrons. The valence electrons and the atomic nucleus
are present at greater distance. Hence, the electrostatic force of
attraction present between the valence electrons and nucleus is very
small. Thus, the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
What is electron emission?

When a small amount of external energy is applied to the valence

electrons, they gain enough energy and break the bonding with the
parent atom. The electron, which breaks the bonding with the parent
atom, moves freely from one place to another place. These electrons,
which move freely within the metal, are called free electrons. However,
these free electrons cannot escape from the surface of a metal.

It is because the free electrons in the metals do not have enough

energy to escape from metal. The free electrons, which try to escape
from the metal, are pulled by positive electric force of atomic nucleus
towards the metal. Hence, free electrons cannot escape from metal
without sufficient energy. Thus, the positive atomic nucleus of the
metal opposes the free electrons, which try to escape from the metal.

In order to make the free electrons to escape from the metal, an

additional external energy is required. This additional external energy is
applied in the form of heat, electric field, or light.

When the external energy in the form of heat, light, or electric field is
applied to the metal, the free electrons gain enough energy and break
the bonding with the metal. Free electrons, which break the bonding
with metal, will jumps into the vacuum. The free electrons in the
vacuum are not associated with the metal.

The process by which, these free electrons break the bonding with
metals and jumps into the vacuum is called electron emission. The
amount of external energy required to remove an electron from the
surface of a metal is called work function. Work function is measured in
joules.

The free electrons in the vacuum have higher energy than the electrons
that are revolving around the nucleus because the free electrons in the
vacuum had gained additional energy from the source of heat or light.

The process of electron emission is somewhat similar to

the ionization process. In ionization process, electrons are removed
only from the atom and not from the metal whereas in electron
emission process electrons are removed from the atom as well as from
the metal.

Different methods of electron emission

The different methods to emit free electrons from the metal surface
include:

 Thermionic emission

 Electric field electron emission

 Photoelectric emission

 Secondary emission
 THERMIONIC EMISSION & PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFIECT

THERMIONIC EMISSION
The phenomenon of thermionic emission was first observed by Thomas A in 1883. He observed that
electricity can supply from a filament to a metal plate within an incandescent lamp. In thermionic
emission, electrons emission can be done from heated materials which are broadly used in conventional
electron tubes as a source of electrons in the fields of electronics & communication. The best example
of this emission is, electrons can emit from a hot cathode and enter into a vacuum within a vacuum
tube. So, this article discusses an overview of thermionic emission, derivation, advantages & its
applications.

What is Thermionic Emission?

Thermionic emission definition is, when the heat energy is applied to metal then it emits electrons from
the surface of the metal and it is also known as the thermionic emission effect. The term ‘Thermionic’
can be formed from the two words namely Thermal (heat) & ions (charged particles). The thermionic
emission diagram is shown below.

What Factors Affect Thermionic Emission?

There are three factors that affect this emission like metal surface temperature, metal surface area &
the function of the metal.

The temperature of Metal Surface

When the metal surface temperature is high then the emission rate of electrons from the metal surface
is higher.

Metal Surface Area

When the metal surface area is larger, then the rate of electrons emitted from the metal surface is high.

Function of Metal
The work function of the metal is low then the rate of electrons emission from the metal surface is high.

Difference b/w Thermionic Emission and Photoelectric Effect

The difference between thermionic emission and the photoelectric effect is discussed below.

Thermionic Emission Photoelectric Effect

In photoelectric emission, light energy can be

In this emission, electrons are emitted from the emitted once electrons from the metal surface are
metal surface by supplying heat energy. emitted.

The electrons which are emitted in this is known as The electrons which are emitted in this effect are
thermions. known as photoelectrons.

In this phenomenon, ample thermal energy is

introduced to the free electrons through a heating In this phenomenon, electrons emission from the
process. So they emit from the metal surface. metal surface occurs when light energy drops on it.

The obtained energy by free electrons for their The energy toward emission electrons is being
motion & emission comes from thermal sources. supplied through light photons.

This emission can be caused by thermal energy or This emission can be caused by the electromagnetic
heat. energy of light.

The emission of electrons can be done at a specific

temperature. Electrons are emitted at threshold frequency.

When temperature increases, the rate of time for The time rate of electrons emission enhances with
electrons emission will be increased. the increase within intensity.

Therefore from the above equation, we can conclude that the maximum emission can be achieved
through two things like metals work function should be low otherwise the temperature of the surface of
metal should be high. If we achieve these two conditions, a significant no. of electrons will go away from
the valence band & jump into the vacuum.

Advantages

The advantages of Thermionic Emission include the following.

 It plays a key role in both basic physics & digital electronic technology.
  This emission discovery allows physicists to generate electrons beams within a vacuum.
Thermionic sources are not expensive, so one can easily operate in fewer vacuum conditions &
offer better brightness especially for illumination of large-area than sources of field emission.

Applications

The applications of Thermionic Emission include the following.

 It is used in different applications like high-frequency-based vacuum transistors used in

electronics, power electronics, electron guns used in scientific instrumentation, x-ray generation
& energy converters from solar energy & sources of high temperature.

 It is used in diode valves, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes (CRT), electron microscopes, electron
tubes, electrodynamics tethers, etc

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of a metal
when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It is important to note
that the emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is dependent
on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s surface. The process through which
photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the metal due to the action of light is commonly referred
to as photoemission.

The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to absorb energy
from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei.
An illustration detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the photoelectric effect is provided
below.
The photoelectric effect was first introduced by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs in the year 1887 and
the experimental verification was done by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. They observed that when a surface is
exposed to electromagnetic radiation at a higher threshold frequency, the radiation is absorbed and the
electrons are emitted. Today, we study the photoelectric effect as a phenomenon that involves a
material absorbing electromagnetic radiation and releasing electrically charged particles.

To be more precise, light incident on the surface of a metal in the photoelectric effect causes electrons
to be ejected. The electron ejected due to the photoelectric effect is called a photoelectron and is
denoted by e–. The current produced as a result of the ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.

Explaining the Photoelectric Effect: The Concept of Photons

The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However, this phenomenon
can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be visualized as a stream of particles
of electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light are called photons. The energy held by a photon is
related to the frequency of the light via Planck’s equation:

E = h𝜈 = hc/λ

Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry photons of varying energies. For
example, the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light (the wavelength of blue light is
much shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore, the energy held by a photon of blue light will
be greater than the energy held by a photon of red light.

Threshold Energy for the Photoelectric Effect

For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are incident on the surface of the metal must
carry sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the nuclei of the
metals. The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from the metal is called
the threshold energy (denoted by the symbol Φ). For a photon to possess energy equal to the threshold
energy, its frequency must be equal to the threshold frequency (which is the minimum frequency of
light required for the photoelectric effect to occur). The threshold frequency is usually denoted by the
symbol 𝜈th and the associated wavelength (called the threshold wavelength) is denoted by the symbol
λth. The relationship between the threshold energy and the threshold frequency can be expressed as
follows.

Φ = h𝜈th = hc/λth

Relationship between the Frequency of the Incident Photon and the Kinetic Energy of the Emitted
Photoelectron
Therefore, the relationship between the energy of the photon and the kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron can be written as follows.

Ephoton = Φ + Eelectron

⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2

Where,

 Ephoton denotes the energy of the incident photon, which is equal to h𝜈

 Φ denotes the threshold energy of the metal surface, which is equal to h𝜈th

 Eelectron denotes the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, which is equal to ½mev2 (me = mass of
electron = 9.1*10-31 kg)
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.23

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The following datas are given for copper
i) Density = 8.92 × 103 kgm–3
ii) Resistivity = 1.73 × 108 m
iii)Atomic weight = 63.5 kg
Calculate the mobility and the average time collision of electrons in copper
obeying classical laws (AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Given data:
The density of the copper is d = 8.92 × 103 kgm 3
The resistivity of the copper  = 1.73 × 108m
The Atomic weight of the copper A = 63.5 kgs
Avagadro number × Density
We know the carrier concentration (n) =
Atomic weight

6.023  1023  8.92  103

=
63.5
The conductivity of copper is n = 8.46 × 1025m3

1 1
The electrical conductivity  = 
 1.73  108
9 1 1
= 5.78  10  m

ne 2 
We know  =
m
m
Average time colllision  =
ne2

5.78  10 –9  9.11  10 –31

=
8.46  1025  (1.6  10 –19 ) 2
 = 2.380 × 10–27 sec

.
 .

1.24 .


Mobility  =
ne

5.78  109
=
8.46  1025  1.6  10 –19
 = 4.27 m2 v–1 s–1
 = 4.27 × 10–16 m2 V–1 s–1
2. A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54×10 –8 m at room
temperature. For an electric field along the wire of 1 volt cm–1 , compute
the average drift velocity of electron assuming that there is 5.8 × 1028
conduction electrons /m3 . Also calculate the mobility. (AU - MAY 2011)
Solution:
Given data:
The resistivity of silver  = 1.54 × 10–8 m
Electric field along the wire E = 1 volt cm–1 (or) 100 volts m–1
The carrier concentration of electron n = 5.8 × 1028 m–3
a) Mobility of the electron

 1  1
 = (or)   
ne ne  

1
 = 8
1.54  10  5.8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 1019
Mobility  = 6.9973 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1
b) Drift velocity
Vd = E
Vd = 6.9973 × 10–3 ×100
Drift velocity (Vd) = 0.69973 m s–1

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.25

3. The density of silver 10.5 × 103 kg–3 assuming that each silver atom provides
one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20°C is
6.8 × 107  –1 m–1 . Calculate the density and mobility of electron in silver
with atomic weight 107.9 × 10–3 kg m–2. (A.U - JUNE 2010)
Solution:
Given:
Density of silver d = 10.5 × 103 kgm–3
Conductivity of silver at 20OC  = 6.8 × 107  –1 m–1
Atomic weight A = 107.9
Avagadro Number  Density
We know the carrier concentration n =
Atomic weight
6.023  1023  10.5  103
=
107.9
= 5.86 × 1025 m3
We know, the conductivity is given by  = ne


 =
ne

6.8  107
=
5.86  1025  1.6  1019

 = 7.2525 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1

4. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper and current density in
wire of diameter 0.16 cm which carries a steady current of 10 A. Given
n = 8.46 × 1028 m–3 .
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of the wire d = 0.16 cm
Current flowing = 10 A

.
 .

1.26 .

Current
Current density J =
Area of cross section (A2 )

10 10  d
= =  r  2 
r 2   d / 2
2  

10
= 2
3.14  0.16  102 / 2 
 
J = 4.976 × 106 Am–2
J = neVd
J
Vd =
ne

4.97  106
=
8.46  1028  1.6  1019
Drift velocity Vd = 3.67 × 10–4 m s–1
5. The resistivity of a piece of silver at room temperature 1.6 × 10–8 m.
The effective number of conduction electrons is 0.9 per atom and the Fermi
energy is 5.5 eV. Estimate the mean free path of the conduction electrons.
Calculate the electronic relaxation time and the electronic drift velocity in
a field of 100 Vm–1 . The density of silver is 1.05 × 104 kgm–3 (m/m* = 1).
Solution:
Given:
Resistivity silver  = 1.6 × 10–8 m
Electric field E = 100 Vm–1
1 1
The conductivity of silver is  = 
 1.6  108

= 6.25  107  1m 1

Avagadro Number × Density

We know the carrier concentration n =
Atomic weight

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.27

6.023  1023  1.05 104

n =
107.9
= 5.86 ×1025 m–3

m
Relaxation time  =
ne2

6.25  107  9.11  1031

=
5.86  1025  (1.6  1019 ) 2

= 3.79 × 10–11 sec

Mean free path  = c

= 3 × 108 × 3.78 × 10–11

 = 1.134 × 10–3 m

J = E

= 6.25 × 107 × 100

= 6.25 × 109 Am–2

J 6.25  109
Vd = ne 
5.86  1025  1.6  1019

Vd = 0.666 × 102 ms–1

6. A conducting rod contains 8.5 × 1028 electrons/m3 . Calculate its resistivity
at room temperature and also the mobility of electrons if the collision time
for electron scattering is 2 × 10–14 sec. (AU - JUNE 2010, MAY 2011)
Solution:
Given data:

Number of electrons n = 8.5  10 28 electrons m 3

Collision time  = 2  1014 sec

.
 .

1.28 .

ne2 τ
Electrical conductivity  =
m
8.5  10 28  (1.6 × 1019 ) 2  2  1014
=
9.11 1031
7 1 1
 = 4.77  10  m

1 1
Electrical Resistivity  = =
 4.77  107
 = 2.09  108 m

Mobility of electron  =  ( = ne )
ne
4.77 107
=
8.5  1028  1.6 × 1019

 = 3.512  10 3 m 2 V 1s1

7. Evaluate the Fermi function for energy K B T above the Fermi energy.
(AU - MAY 2009)
Solution:
1
We know Fermi Function F(E) =
EE F K B T
1 e
For an energy KBT aboveFermi energy
E  E F = K BT

1 1
F(E) = 
1 e 1 1  2.7183

Fermi distribution function F(E) = 0.2689

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.29

8. F r ee el ect r on d en si t y of al u m i n u m i s 18.1 × 10 28m –3 Calculate its

Fermi energy at 0 K. [Planck’s constant and mass of free electron are
6.62 × 10–34Js, and 9.1 × 10–34Kg] (AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Planck’s constant h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
Mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10–34 Kg
Electron density N = 18.1 × 1028 m–3
2/3
 3N  h2
Fermi energy at 0 K  
E Fo = 
   8m
2/3 
 3  18.1 × 1028  34 2 
 EFo =    (6.62 × 10 ) 
 3.14   8  9.1 × 1031 
 
2/3
= 
1.7292 × 1029   6.019  1038
EFo = 1.8689 × 10–18 J

1.8689  1018
(or) EFo = eV
1.6  1019
Fermi energy at 0 K EFo = 11.68 eV
9. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
(AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Given data:
Temperature = 24600 K
The relation between Fermi energy, Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature is given by
3 1
EF = K BTF = mV 2F
2 2
3K BTF 31.38x1023 x24600
VF = =
m 9.11x1031
3 1
Fermi velocity VF = 863.30  10 ms

.
 .

1.30 .

10. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for
E – EF = 0.01 eV at 200K.
Solution:
Given data:

1
Fermi Function F (E) =
1  e
E  E F  / K BT

Boltzman constant KB = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1

E –EF = 0.01 eV = 0.01 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.6 × 10–21J
T = 200 K

1
F (E) =
1 e
1.6 × 10 21

/ 1.38 × 1023  200 
1
=
1  e0.5797

1 1
= 
1  1.7855 2.7855
Fermi function F (E) = 0.3589
11. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons (with a mobility of
3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1) in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V m–1.
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility  = 3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1
Electric field strength = 0.5 vm –1
Drift Velocity, Vd = E
= 3.5 × 10–3 × 0.5
= 1.75 × 10–3 ms–1

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.31

13. Copper has electrical conductivity at 300 K as 6.40 × 107 m–1. Calculate
the thermal conductivity of copper.(Lorentz number is 2.44 × 10–8 W  k–2).
(AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Electrical conductivity  = 6.40 × 107  –1 m–1
T = 300 K

K
= LT

K = LT
K = 6.40 × 107 × 2.44 10–8 × 300
K = 468.48 Wm–1 K–1
14. The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at 20°C are
380 Wm–1 K –1 and 5.67 × 107  –1 m–1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz
number.
Solution:
Given data:
Thermal conductivity K = 380 m–1 K–1
Electrical conductivity  = 5.67 × 107  –1m–1
T = (273 + 20)
= 293 K

K
= LT


K
L =
T

380
L = 5.67 × 107 × 293

Lortentz number L = 2.2874 × 10–8 W K–2

.
 .

1.32 .

15. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of electron

is 8.5 × 1028 m–3 . (AU - JUNE 2010)
Solution:
Electron density n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3

2/3
h 2  3N 
Fermi energy at 0 K (E Fo ) =
8m   

2/3
(6.62 × 1034 ) 2  3 × 8.5 × 1028 
=  
8 × 9.1 × 1031  3.14 

= 6.019 × 1038  (8.121 × 1028 ) 2 / 3

= 6.019 × 1038  1.875 × 1019

E Fo = 1.1287 × 1018J

1.1287 × 1018
E Fo = eV
1.6 × 1019

E Fo = 7.05 eV

16. The mobility of electrons in copper 3×103m2 V–1 s–1 assuming e=1.6×10–19C
and me=9.1×10–31 kg. Calculate the mean collision time. (AU - JUN.2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility of electrons in copper µ = 3×103m2V–1s–1
Charge of electrons e = 6×10 –19C
Mass of electrons me= 9.1×10–31 kg

ne 2 
Electrical conductivity =
m

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.33

m
 
ne 2

m 
     
e ne

9.1 1031  3  103


1.6  1019

Mean collision time of electron  17.06 × 10–15 sec

17. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 Wm–1 K–1. Find the electrical
conductivity and Lorentz number when the metal posses relaxation time
10–14 sec at 300 K. (Density of electron = 6×1028 per m3 ) (AU - DEC 2010)
Solution:
Given data:
The Thermal conductivity of a metal K = 123.92 Wm–1K–1
Relaxation time   10–14 sec

ne 2 
Electrical conductivity  
m

2
6  1028  1.6  1019   1014
 
9.1  10 31

   1.686  107  m 1

K
Lorentz number L =


123.92
= 1.68  107  300

L = 2.45 × 10–8

.
 .

1.34 .

18. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons in copper for electric field
strength of 2Vm–1 . (Mobility of electrons µ = 3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1 ).
(AU - DEC 2009, JUN 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Electric field strength E = 2V–1m
Mobility of electrons µ = 3.5 × 10–3 m2V–1s–1
Drift velocity Vd = µ E
= 3.5 × 10–3 × 2
Vd = 7 × 10–3 ms–1

19. Find the velocity of copper wire whose cross-sectional area is 1 mm when
the wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom
contributes one election to the electron gas. (AU - DEC 2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Current I = 10 A
Number of electrons n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3
Area of cross-section A = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3m
We know J = neVd

J
Vd =
ne

Current (I) 10
Current density J = = 3
Area A cross sec tion (A) 1  10

J = 10  103 Am 2

J 10  103
 Vd = = 28 19
ne 8.5  10  1.6  10

Drift velocity Vd = 7.353 × 10–7 ms–1

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.35

SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What is meant by a free electron?
The electron moves freely in all directions in the absence of electric field is called
free electron (or) valance electron. These electrons collide with each other, the
collisions are perfectly elastic collisions hence there is no loss of energy. Since
the free electron is in random motion.
2. Define Drift velocity of electrons. (AU - June 2010, 2011, Nov 2012)
Drift velocity (Vd) is the average velocity acquired by an electron in a particular
direction due to applied electric field.
Average distance travelled by the electron
Drift Velocity =
Time taken
 1
vd = ms
t
3. Define mobility of electrons. (AU- April 2003, June 2009, 2010)
The mobility is defined as the drift velocity (Vd) acquired by the free electron per
unit electric field (E)
Vd 2 1 1
 = m V s
E
4. Define mean free path. (AU - June 2006, Nov 2009, 2010)
The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions
is called mean free path.
5. Define relaxation time. (AU - June 2009)
Relaxation time is the time taken by the electron to reach equilibrium position
from its disturbed position in the presence of electric field.

c =
Vd sec
6. Define electrical conductivity. (AU - April 2002)
The electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per unit
area per unit time at a constant potential gradient.
ne2 
 = Ohm1m 1
m

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1.36 .

7. Define Thermal Conductivity.

Thermal conductivity of material is defined as the amount of heat flowing through
an unit area per unit time of temperature gradient.

Q
K Wm –1 K –1
 dT 
A 
 dx 

8. State Widemann-Franz law.

(AU - June 2006, 2007,2010 May 2009, Nov 2009, 2010,2011)
The ratio between the thermal conductivity (K) and electrical conductivity () of
a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.

K K
T or  LT
 
9. List out the three main theories developed to describe the structure of
materials. (or) List the types of electron theory of metals.
1. Classical free electron theory
2. Quantum free electron theory
3. Zone (or) Band theory
10. What are the Sources of resistance in metals? (AU - Nov 2003)
The resistance in metals is due to
1. Presence of impurities in the metals.
2. Temperature of the metal.
3. Number o free electrons.
11. What is the effect of temperature on metals
When temperature of the metal increases, the mobility of the electron decreases
and hence the electrical conductivity decreases. The addition of impurities in the
metal decreases the electrical conductivity.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.37

12. What are the uses (or) success of classical free electron theory?
(AU - June 2006, 2011)
1. It is used to verify the Ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.
3. It is used to derive Widemann-Franz law.
3. It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
13. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory? (or) State any
four demerits of Classical free electron theory?
(AU - June 2006, June 2010,2011)
1. It is a macroscopic theory.
2. According to classical free electron theory, all the free electrons will absorb
energy, but the quantum free electron theory states that only few electrons will
absorb energy.
3. This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect,
para-magnetism and ferromagnetism, etc.,
4. This theory cannot explain the electron conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
5. Dual nature of light radiation cannot be explained.
6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat are not matched.

K
7. By classical theory =T is constant for all temperature, but by quantum

K
theory =T is not a constant for all temperature.

8. The Lorentz number obtained by classical theory does not have good agreement
with experimental value and it is rectified by quantum theory.

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 .

1.38 .

14. What is Lorentz Number?

3K 2
Lorentz Number L = B
2e 2
3 × (1.38 × 1023 ) 2
L =
(2 × 1.6 × 1019 ) 2
L = 1.12 × 10–8 W K–2
It is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only one half of the
experimental value (2.44 × 10–8 WK–2). The discrepancy of L value is the
failure of the classical theory. This can be rectified by quantum theory.
15. What is the basic assumption of Zone theory or Band theory of solids?
According to quantum free electron theory, the electrons in a metal were assumed
to be moving in a region of constant potential but it fails to explain, why some
solids behave as conductors, some as insulators and some as semiconductors.
Therefore instead of considering an electron to move in a constant potential, the
Zone theory of solids tells that the electrons are assumed to move in a field of
periodic potential.
16. Distinguish between Electrical conductivity and Thermal conductivity.

S.No Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity

1. The electical conductivity is defined Thermal conductivity is defined as

as the quantity of electricity flowing the amount of heat flowing through
per unit area per unit time at a an unit area per unit time of
constant potential gratient. temperature gratient.
2. Electrical conductivity is purely Thermal conductivity is due to
depend on free electrons. both free electrons and photons.
3. Conduction of electricity takes Conduction of heat takes place
place from higher potential end from hot end to cold end.
to lower potential end.

Q
2
ne  K Wm –1 K –1
4.  = Ohm1m 1  dT 
A 
m  dx 

5. Unit : Ohm–1 m–1 Unit : W m–1 K–1

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.39

17. What are the similarities between electrical and thermal conductivity of
metals?
1. The electrical and thermal conductivities decrease with the increase in
temperature and impurities.
2. The electrical and thermal conductivity is very high at low temperatures.
3. For non-metals the electrical and thermal conductivity is very less.
18. Distinguish between relaxation time and collision time.
(AU - June 2009, 2010)

S.No Relaxation time Collision time

1. It is the time taken by the electron It is the time taken by the free
to reach equilibrium position from electron between two succesive
its distrubed position in the presence collisions.
of electrical field.
2.  = 10–14 sec c =  / vd

19. Write microscopic form of Ohm’s law and state whether it is true for all
temperature. (AU - June 2009)
1) Microscopically we can write V = IR as J = E
2) Since the resistivity varies with respect to the temperature, the microscopic
form of ohm’s law is not true for all the temperature.
20. What are the factors that affect the electrical resistivity of materials?
1. Temperature
2. Impurities
3. Inperfections
4. Magnetic field
5. Pressure and strain.

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 .

1.40 .

21. Define Fermi level, Fermi energy and this importance.

(AU - June 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, Dec 2012)
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of a particle
at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled energy
level and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding
to Fermi energy level at absolute zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at any
temperature.
22. Define Fermi Distribution function. (AU - June 2010)
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a
function of temperature and it is the probability of finding an electron in particular
energy state of energy E is given by,
1
F(E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
23. Define density of states and its importance. (AU - May 2008, June 2010)
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit volume in
an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number of charge carriers
per unit volume of any solid.

Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N (E) dE =
Volume of metal
Importance : It is used for the Fermi energy calculation at any temperature.
24. Define work function
It is define as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal
surface at 0K. in order to make it escape, an additional amount of energy equal
to is required. i.e., .This difference in energy is called Work function.

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.41

25. What do you mean by carrier concentration in metal? (AU - June 2009)
In metal carrier concentration is number of free electrons per unit volume in between
the energy interval 0 to it is given by

Carrier concentration N   D (E) F(E) dE

26. How classical free electron theory failed to account for specific heat of
solid? (AU - June 2009)
According to classical free electron theory, the experimental and theoretical value
of specific heat of solid are not matched. Hence classical free electron theory is
failed.

PART – B QUESTIONS
1. Deduce a mathematical expression for electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity of a conducting metal and hence, obtain Widemann-Franz law.
(AU - April 2002, May 2008, T2009, Ch2009)
2. Define Fermi energy, and Derive an expression for the Fermi energy of a system
of free electrons. (AU - Nov 2003)
3. i) Define density of states in metals in
ii) Write down the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
iii) Derive an expression for the Fermi energy of a system of free electrons.
4. With a neat diagram and derive an expression for density of states.
(AU - May 2004)
5. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function varies with
temperature. (AU - May 2004, T2009)
6. With the help of Fermi-Dirac statistics, derive the expression for density of states
and deduce Fermi energy. (AU - May 2004, Dec 2005)
7. i) What are the special features of classical free electron theory?
ii) Derive an expression for the electrical conductivity of a metal.
iii) How it is affected by temperature and alloying?
(AU - June 2006, CB2009)
8. Derive an expression for density of states in a metal and hence obtain the
Fermi energy in terms of density of free electrons, at 0K. (AU - Nov 2007)

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 .

1.42 .

ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. A Copper wire whose is 0.16 cm carries a steady current of 20 A. What is the
current density of wire? Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in copper.
(Ans : J = 9.952 A/m 2 , and Vd = 7.35 x 10-4 ms-1 )
2. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 Wm1 K1 and
5.87 × 10–7  –1 m–1respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.
(Ans : 2.267 × 10–8 W  K –1 )
3. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal rod with relaxation
time 1014 second at 300K. Also calculate the Lorentz number..
(Density of electron = 6 × 1028 m–3)
(Ans :  = 1.6879 × 10 –7  –1 m –1 , K = 123.927 Wm –1 K –1 ,
L = 2.4474 × 10–18 WK –2 )
4. Calculate the drift velocity and mean free path of copper when it carries a steady
current of 10 amperes and whose radius is 0.08 cm. Assume that the mean
thermal velocity 1.6 × 106 m/s and the resistivity of copper 2 × 10–8  m.
(Ans : (i) 36.6 x 10-5m/s (ii) 3.94 x 108m)
5. The resistivity of aluminum at room temperature is 2 × 10–8  m.Calculate
i) The drift velocity ii) mean free path on the basis of classical free electron theory.
(Ans : (i) 0.396 ms-1; (ii) 2.65nm)
6. Using the Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which there is 1% probability
in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV. (Ans : 1260 K)