CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ (FCO-U61)

(Study Notes)

CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ (FCO-U61)

Study Notes
Introduction

● Introduction
o IT Fundamentals+ gives you an introduction to a wide variety of basic knowledge
and skills from across the information technology industry
o It is a broad certification exam, that provides you with an overview of hardware,
software, networking, data, software development, databases, and cybersecurity
o This is considered a pre-career certification to help you determine if you have
the aptitude and interest to work in IT and cybersecurity in the future
o This certification will verify the successful candidate has the knowledge and skills
required to identify and explain the following
▪ Basics of Computing
▪ IT Infrastructure
▪ Software Development
▪ Database Use
▪ Installing and Removing Software
▪ Establishing Basic Network Connectivity
▪ Identifying and Preventing Basic Security Risks
o Information Technology (IT)
▪ The utilization and management of technology and systems to store,
retrieve, transmit, and protect information for various purposes
o CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ consists of 6 domains or areas of knowledge
▪ 17% of IT Concepts and Terminology
▪ 22% of Infrastructure
▪ 18% of Applications and Software
▪ 12% of Software Development
▪ 11% of Database Fundamentals
▪ 20% of Security
o IT Fundamentals+ has a maximum of 75 questions over the course of 60 minutes
o To pass the CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ (FC0-U61) exam, score at least 650
points out of 900 points that are available on the exam

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 CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ (FCO-U61)
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o In order for you to take the exam, you will have to pay an exam fee by buying an
exam voucher
▪ You can purchase the exam voucher in store.comptia.org and buying it
directly from the CompTIA store
▪ Save 10% off your exam voucher by buying it at
diontraining.com/vouchers
o 4 tips for success in this course
▪ Turn on closed captioning
▪ Control the playback speed
▪ Join our FB group
● facebook.com/groups/diontraining
▪ Download and print the study guide

● Exam Tips
o There will be no trick questions
▪ Always be on the lookout for distractors or red herrings
▪ At least one of the four listed possible answer choices that are written to
try and distract you from the correct answer
o Pay close attention to words in bold, italics, or all uppercase
o Answer the questions based on CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ knowledge
▪ In the world of project management, there is often not a 100% correct
answer to every question you face in your daily work
▪ When in doubt, choose the answer that is correct for the highest number
of situations
o Understand the key concepts of the test questions
o Do not memorize the terms word for word, try to understand them instead
o During the exam, the answers will be from multiple-choice style questions

● 100% Pass Guarantee

o All the risk is on us, as it should be
▪ You have nothing to lose here, but you do have to do your part and put in
some effort
o When you take those quizzes, you have to score at least an 80% for it to be
considered a pass in our system
o At the end of the course, you will find our practice exams
▪ Understand why the answers are right or wrong
▪ Explanations are provided for every single question

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 CompTIA IT Fundamentals+ (FCO-U61)
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o Please don’t try to simply memorize the questions, but instead take the time to
understand the why behind them
o Make sure that you watched the videos, took the quizzes, did the labs, and
finished the practice exams
▪ If you’ve done all and don’t see the progress part at the top going from 0
to 100, that means something’s wrong
▪ If you think you’ve done everything and it still doesn’t show 100%, please
email us at [email protected]
o Once you have the course completion letter, you are eligible for our 60-Day
100% Pass Guarantee

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Notations and Data Types

● Input, Output, Processing, and Storage

o Input, Output, Processing, and Storage Cycle (I/O Cycle) is a fundamental
concept in computing that governs the core functions of a computer system
o Input
▪ Stage where data is entered into the computer system
▪ The input stage is crucial as it provides the raw data that the computer
will process
o Processing
▪ The CPU performs calculations, comparisons, and other operations to
transform the raw data into meaningful information
o Output
▪ Displays or transmits the results of the processing to the user or another
system either visually (using a monitor or printer) or audibly (by using
speakers)
o Storage
▪ Data is saved to storage devices like a hard drive, SSD, or cloud storage
for later use
▪ Storage allows the results of processing to be retained and retrieved as
needed
o The input/output cycle is an essential concept in computing that encompasses
input, processing, output, and storage stages

● Numbers and Notational Systems

o 3 Primary Notational Systems
▪ Decimal Notation
● Utilizes the base-10 system, which uses a system of ten unique
symbols to represent the values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)
▪ Binary Notation
● A system of numbers that has only two different integer values 0
and 1
● The information within a computer is represented and stored as a
sequence of binary digits (1s and 0s)
● Each digit in a binary number, also known as a "bit", represents a
power of two, allowing for compact and precise representation of
numerical values

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▪Hexadecimal Notation
● Employs base-16, which uses 16 distinct symbols (0–9 for the first
ten and A–F for the remaining six)
● Hexadecimal is commonly used in computer programming,
memory addressing, and debugging processes
o Why is it important to understand notational systems?
▪ Data Storage and Manipulation
● By utilizing binary, computers can represent and manipulate
complex information, including numbers, characters, images, and
videos
▪ Programming and Software Development
● Programmers frequently encounter hexadecimal values when
working with memory addresses, color codes, and machine code
instructions
▪ Interfacing with Humans
● It enables programmers and users to communicate with
computers in a familiar numerical system
● Decimal notation allows us to input and interpret data using
conventional numerical methods, making computers more
accessible and user-friendly

● Decimal Notation
o Decimal Notation (Base-10)
▪ Essential numerical system that forms the foundation of everyday
mathematical operations
▪ The decimal notation is so named after the Latin word decimus, meaning
tenth because it utilizes ten distinct symbols, from 0 to 9, to represent all
possible numbers
o One of the key strengths of the decimal system lies in its simplicity and
intuitiveness
o Decimal notation is used in various programming languages and in databases for
storing and manipulating numerical data
o Decimal notation is the cornerstone of the numerical world

● Binary Notation
o Binary Notation (Base-2)
▪ Fundamental numerical system that underpins the digital world
o Binary notation is characterized by the use of two distinct symbols, 0 and 1

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o The advantage of a binary system is its immediate compatibility with digital

electrical systems
o Digital computers use binary notation at the hardware level because it
corresponds to the on state (or 1) and an off state (or 0) for its electronic
switches
o Binary notation is used in various fields of computer science, such as in the
design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and computer networks
o Understanding binary notation is crucial for grasping more complex notational
systems used in computing, such as and hexadecimal (or base-16) systems

● Hexadecimal Notation
o Hexadecimal Notation (Base-16)
▪ Characterized by the use of sixteen distinct symbols to represent all
possible numbers (digits from 0 to 9 and letters from A to F)
o Each digit's position in a hexadecimal number represents a certain power of 16
such as 16^0 (or 1), 16^1 (or 16), and so on
o Hexadecimal system lies in compactness and compatibility with binary notation
▪ The binary number 1010 corresponds to 10 in decimal which is the
equivalent to the hexadecimal digit A
o Understanding hexadecimal notation is crucial for working with various aspects
of digital technology
▪ Network Protocols
▪ Encryption Algorithms
▪ Unique Identifiers (MAC/UUID)
o Hexadecimal and binary treats leading 0s as "filler"
o Often you will see binary written with 4 digits each time for clarity, and we just
use extra 0s on the left to "pad the number" to become 4 digits
▪ Binary written with 4 digits (0 = 0000; 1 = 0001)
HEX DEC BIN
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000

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9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
o Hexadecimal (Base-16)
▪ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, a, b, c, d, e, f

● Units of Measure
o bit (Binary Digit)
▪ Smallest unit of data in computing, which can hold a value of 0 or 1
o byte
▪ Equivalent to 8 bits and another basic unit of data
o Nibble
▪ Term for a single hexadecimal character
o As we move up the scale, we encounter kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB),
gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB), and petabytes (PB)
▪ Each unit is approximately 1000 times larger than the previous one
● 1 MB = 1,000 KB
● 1GB = 1,000 MB
● 1 TB = 1,000 GB
● 1 PB = 1,000 TB
o It's important to note that in the realm of digital storage, these units represent
powers of 2 rather than powers of 10
▪ This is where kibibytes (KiB), mebibytes (MiB), and gibibytes (GiB) come
in
● For example, 1 KiB = 1,024 bytes
o When data is transferred between components in the computer or between
computers over a network, we have something called data transfer rates
▪ kilobits per second (Kbps) = 1,000 bits per second
▪ megabits per second (Mbps) = 1,000 kilobits per second
▪ gigabits per second (Gbps)
▪ terabits per second (Tbps)
o Remember that we use bytes when talking about data storage,
but we use bits when talking about data transfer
▪ Data transfer is measured in bits using the little b

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▪ Data storage uses bytes using the big B

o When discussing processing speed, we're going to use units like megahertz
(MHz) and gigahertz (GHz)
▪ megahertz (MHz)
● One million cycles per second
▪ gigahertz (GHz)
● One billion cycles per second

● Data Types
o Data Type
▪ Defines the kind of data that can be stored and manipulated within a
program
o 5 Most Commonly Used Data Types
▪ Integers
● Represent whole numbers, both positive and negative, without
any decimal component
▪ Floating-point Numbers
● Used to represent real numbers (decimal or fractions)
● Floating-point numbers are used when more precision is needed
▪ Boolean Values
● Represent the logical values of TRUE and FALSE
● Boolean values are used in programming to control the flow of a
program and consume one bit of storage
▪ Characters
● Used to represent individual letters, digits, punctuation marks, or
any other symbol that can be represented in text
● In most programming languages, characters are defined using
single quotes, like 'a' or '1'
● Characters consume one byte of storage and cannot be used for
math operations
▪ Strings
● Sequences of characters used to represent and manipulate text
● In most programming languages, strings are defined using double
quotes, like "Hello, World!"
● Strings cannot be used for mathematical calculations

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● Representing Data
o American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
▪ Developed in the 1960s as one of the first character encoding standards,
and it uses 7 bits to represent each character

▪ ASCII could not accommodate characters from non-English languages,

special symbols, or even some commonly used English punctuation marks
o Unicode
▪ A much more extensive encoding system that can represent over a
million unique characters
▪ Unicode encompasses a collection of visual reference code charts
● Collection of visual reference code charts
● Method for data encoding
● Set of standard character encodings
▪ Unicode includes virtually every character from every writing system in
the world, as well as many symbols, emojis, and special characters
▪ Unicode uses different encoding forms
● UTF-8
● UTF-16
● UTF-32
o Key difference between ASCII and Unicode lies in their capacity and scope
▪ ASCII
● 128 characters and primarily caters to English

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▪ Unicode
● Represent a vast array of characters from virtually all languages
and symbol sets
o ASCII laid the groundwork for character encoding, Unicode expanded upon it to
accommodate the diverse range of characters and symbols

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Data and Information

● Data and Information Assets

o Data
▪ Wide range of items from customer details, and financial records, to
internal communication
o Information
▪ Processed data that provides value and context
o Data and information are valuable assets that can provide a competitive edge
▪ It can also reduce costs by improving operational efficiency
o Organizations must implement robust data protection measures
▪ Data encryption
▪ Secure data storage
▪ Regular data backups
▪ Access control measures
o Data protection regulations like the General Data Protection Regulation (known
as GDPR) within the European Union and the California Consumer Privacy Act
(or CCPA) in the United States, which both mandate stringent data protection
measures
o Data and information are valuable assets that hold immense commercial value
o It is important to protect these assets from potential threats and ensure their
integrity and confidentiality

● Intellectual Property
o Intellectual Property (IP)
▪ Creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works,
designs, symbols, names, and images used in commerce
o Intellectual property is protected by law through copyrights, trademarks, and
patents, which enable people to earn recognition or financial benefit from their
inventions or creations
▪ Copyrights
● Legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over
their literary and artistic works
● It is usually demonstrated using the © sign and the year of the
copyright being issued
● Copyrights typically lasts for the life of the author plus 15 to 70
years after their death

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● 2 important notes about copyrights

• Its idea needs to be realized and existing
• Purchasing a copyrighted work does not mean that
ownership is transferred to you
● Copyright does not apply to names, phrases or titles
▪ Trademarks
● Sign used to distinguish the goods or services of one enterprise
from those of other enterprises
● A trademark is demonstrated using the ™ symbol for a Trademark
or a ® for a registered trademark
● Trademarks work by giving the trademark owner the exclusive
right to use their mark in relation to the products or services for
which it is registered
● Trademarks can be renewed indefinitely, unlike copyrights and
patents
▪ Patents
● An exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a
process that provides a new way of doing something or offers a
new technical solution to a problem
● Patents work by giving the inventor the exclusive right to prevent
others from making, using, or selling the invention without their
permission for a limited period, usually 20 years
● A unique aspect of patents is the requirement for public
disclosure of the invention

● Digital Products
o Digital Products
▪ Intangible assets that exist in some kind of digital format
o Some hosted products can have fairly expensive infrastructure costs
o Digital Rights Management (DRM)
▪ Systematic approach to copyright protection for digital products
▪ DRM encrypts the content of a digital product and allowing access only to
those who have the necessary decryption keys
▪ DRM ensures that those who create and distribute digital products can
control and monetize their use, encouraging continued innovation and
creativity in the digital space

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● Digital Security Investments

o Security Controls
▪ Safeguards or countermeasures employed to avoid, detect, counteract,
or minimize security risks to physical property, information, computer
systems, or other assets
▪ 3 Categories of Security Controls
● Administrative Controls
• Policies, procedures, and practices that establish the
framework for an organization's security posture
• Examples of administrative controls
▪ Security awareness training
▪ Security policies and procedures
▪ Access control policies
▪ Incident response plans
▪ Risk assessments
● Physical Controls
• Involve the use of physical measures to protect assets and
prevent unauthorized access
• Examples of physical controls
▪ Locks
▪ Security Cameras
▪ Fences
▪ Access Control Systems
▪ Biometric Authentication
▪ Secure Storage Facilities
● Technical Controls
• Implemented through technology solutions to protect
information systems and data
• Examples of technical controls
▪ Firewalls
▪ Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems
▪ Encryption Mechanisms
▪ Antivirus Software
▪ Vulnerability Assessments
▪ Access Control Mechanisms
▪ Network Segmentation

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o By implementing a combination of administrative, physical, and technical

controls, organizations can establish a layered defense mechanism that
addresses security risks holistically
o In addition to these three categories of controls, we also have specific controls
that we heavily utilize to help secure our data
▪ Backups
● Regular data backups are a crucial security control that ensures
data can be recovered in case of loss or corruption
▪ Access Controls
● Limit and prevent any access to data to make sure the data’s
value is well kept
● Some of the technologies used in controlling access include
• Permissions
▪ Permissions only work within the scope of the
operating system
• Usage Restrictions
▪ You can also implement user restrictions by
utilizing user rights management software to limit
what specific users can do to specific files
• Data Encryption
▪ Converts data into a code to prevent unauthorized
access
• Firewalls
▪ Network security device that monitors incoming
and outgoing network traffic and decides whether
to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined
set of security rules
● There are lots of ways to enforce access controls and help us
protect our resources against Data Exfiltration, which refers to
the unauthorized transfer of data from a computer or server
▪ High Availability
● Involves designing systems and processes to ensure a high level of
operational performance for a longer period
o Investing in security controls comes at a cost, but it's essential to view this as an
investment rather than an expense
▪ Return on Security Investment (ROSI)
● A metric used to calculate the effectiveness of investments in
cybersecurity

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● Data Analytics
o Data in its raw form, is a collection of numbers, characters, and facts that, in
isolation, may not make much sense
o When this data is processed and organized, it transforms into information
o Information is data that has been given context
o Data Analytics
▪ Involves applying statistical analysis and logical techniques to interpret,
transform, and summarize data
o Insights
▪ Provide a deeper understanding of why something is happening and can
predict what might happen in the future
o Data analytics is a crucial process that transforms raw data into valuable insights

● Data-driven Business Decisions

o Product Fulfillment
▪ Process to deliver a product to the customer after a sale
o By making data-driven decisions in product fulfillment, businesses can reduce
costs, improve efficiency, and enhance customer satisfaction
o Businesses need to effectively capture and collect data
o Data Capture and Collection
▪ Involves gathering data from various sources, such as transaction
records, customer interactions, and internet of things log files
o Businesses can use various tools and technologies
▪ Customer Relationship Management Systems
▪ Web Analytics
▪ IoT Devices
o Once data is collected, it needs to be analyzed to identify relationships and
patterns
▪ Statistical Analysis
▪ Data Mining
▪ Predictive Modeling
o The insights derived from data analysis need to be presented in a way that
informs decision-making
o Data-driven decision-making is a powerful approach that can enhance various
aspects of business operations

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Types of Computers

● Overview of a Computer
o A computer can be essentially divided into two major components
▪ Hardware
● Represents the tangible parts of a computer, which is all of the
things thing you can see and touch
▪ Software
● The coded instructions that guide the hardware's operations
● Software is more intangible, because it is made up of a series of 1s
and 0s instead of physical components
o Central Processing Unit (CPU)
▪ Microprocessor that interprets and carries out most of the instructions
from the computer's hardware and software
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
▪ Used to perform temporary storage functions in the computer and it is
used heavily by the central processing unit
o Storage Devices
▪ Used for long-term storage, because unlike RAM, the data stored in these
hard disk drives and solid state drives remains intact even when the
computer's power is turned off
o Motherboard
▪ Used to connect all the computer's components together to ensure that
they can communicate with each other
o Power Supply Unit (PSU)
▪ It takes electrical power from a home or office wall outlet and converts it
into a form that the computer's components can use
o Peripheral Devices
▪ Hardware elements that we, as humans, interact with directly with, such
as the monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and speakers
o Software can be broadly categorized into two types
▪ System Software
● Responsible for managing and controlling the computer hardware
▪ Application Software
● Designed to help users complete some kind of productive task
o By using both, application software, and the operating system software, the
computer can almost magically execute complex instructions incredibly quickly

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o Fetch-Decode-Execute
▪ The CPU fetches an instruction from the system's memory (or RAM),
decodes what operation it needs to perform, and then executes that
operation
o The true magic of computers lies in their ability to rapidly execute complex
instructions by undertaking a wide variety of tasks using the Fetch-Decode-
Execute cycle

● Desktops and Workstations

o A desktop's CPU, often referred to as a processor or as the "brain" of the
computer, interprets and executes instructions from both the computer's
hardware and software
o RAM provides a quick-access storage space for the CPU, facilitating efficient
execution of tasks
o The storage drives house all the long-term data, including the operating system,
software applications, and personal files
o One key advantage of desktops is their expandability and customization options
o Workstations
▪ High-performance computers designed for technical or scientific
applications
▪ Workstations are built to run multi-threaded applications and handle
substantial data processing tasks efficiently
o All-in-One Systems (AIOs)
▪ Offer a compact and integrated solution that combines the functionality
of a desktop computer and a monitor into a single device
▪ These systems have several advantages over traditional desktops and
workstations
● Their streamlined design saves space and reduces clutter
● Due to their compact form factor, these systems often have
limited internal space for additional hardware upgrades
● All-in-One systems share a lot of common components with
laptops
▪ The choice between All-in-Ones, desktops, and workstations ultimately
depends on individual requirements
o Operating System (OS)
▪ Vital piece of system software that manages and controls the computer's
hardware resources and offers services for other software to run on

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o Both desktops and workstations run application software designed to assist

users in performing specific tasks
o Motherboard
▪ Large circuit board that connects and enables communication between
all the other hardware components, including the CPU, RAM, and storage
drives
o While desktops often have integrated graphics built into the CPU, workstations
typically feature dedicated graphics cards
o In terms of connectivity, these systems all usually offer a variety of ports for
peripherals
o When choosing between a desktop and a workstation, it primarily boils down to
the user's specific needs
o Desktops are known for their expandability and customization, and they cater to
everyday computing tasks with essential components such as the CPU, RAM, and
storage drives
o Workstations are designed for high-performance applications and feature
powerful CPUs, higher RAM capacities, and specialized components like robust
GPUs
o All-in-One Systems are focused on a single unit that incorporate all hardware
into the same enclosure as the monitor, depending on the specific requirements
of their usage

● Laptops
o Laptops
▪ Compact, all-in-one computing devices designed for portability and
convenience
o Underneath the keyboard and touchpad lies all of the internal components that
make the laptop function
o Central Processing Unit (CPU) carries out most of the processing inside the
laptop, interpreting and executing instructions from the computer's hardware
and software
o Random Access Memory (RAM) provides the processor with a quick-access
workspace for carrying out tasks
o Storage in laptops comes in either of two primary formats
▪ Hard Disk Drives
▪ Solid-State Drives
o SSDs have become more common in laptops due to their speed and reliability

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o Laptops also contain batteries, which is a key feature that sets them apart from
desktops
o For most laptops on the market these days, it is common to see battery lives of
10-12 hours
o Laptops or notebook computers are incredibly versatile devices, designed to
offer convenience and mobility
o Understanding the requirements is critical when choosing a laptop

● Servers
o Server
▪ Powerful computer designed to manage, store, send and process data
24/7
o Servers are typically constructed to handle higher workloads, service multiple
users or devices simultaneously, and prioritize reliability and uptime
o Servers contain key components similar to those in a desktop computer
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
▪ Memory (RAM)
▪ Storage (HDDs or SSDs)
o A server's central processing unit is often stronger than that of a standard
desktop, capable of managing larger computational loads
o Servers typically have a larger RAM capacity than personal computers
o Storage is also a vital part of any server setup
o Redundant Array of Inexpensive Devices (RAID)
▪ They combine multiple individual hard drives or solid state devices into a
single logical device used by the server, allowing multiple copies of each
file to be stored in the array and provides better redundancy and fault
tolerance
o Servers run specialized operating systems designed to manage network
resources and services
▪ Some examples include
● Windows Server
● Linux Distributions (CentOS or Ubuntu Server)
● UNIX Operating System
o Servers are often categorized by their purpose or use case
▪ For instance, web servers host websites, mail servers manage email
traffic, database servers store and manage large datasets, and file
servers store files and manage access to them

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▪ Servers can be run on either physical machines (such as a physical piece

of hardware) or virtual machines (which relies on software that emulates
a physical computer's hardware in a data center or cloud-based
infrastructure)
o Headless Configuration
▪ There is no monitor, keyboard, or mouse directly connected to the server
o Servers form the backbone of the digital world by managing, storing, sending,
and processing data around the clock

● Smartphones and Tablets

o Smartphone
▪ Handheld device that combines the functionalities of a computer and a
cellular phone
▪ iOS
● Developed by Apple for the iPhone line of smartphones
▪ Android
● Developed by Google for the Google line of smartphones, as well
as most other major smartphone manufacturers
▪ These operating systems manage the device's hardware and software
resources, provide a user interface, and host a variety of applications
o Tablets
▪ Portable touchscreen devices that utilize the same kind of mobile
operating systems, like Android or iPadOS
▪ Tablets use similar hardware to smartphones, but often with a focus on
larger battery capacity, enhanced display technology, and sometimes
more powerful processors
o A smartphone, being compact and easy to carry, is ideal for on-the-go
communication, quick web browsing, and using apps
o Smartphones are handheld devices that blend the functions of a computer and a
phone, facilitated by a robust processor
o Tablets are similar to smartphones but are distinguished by their larger screens,
making them ideal for tasks like content viewing, digital artwork, and
productivity tasks

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● Internet of Things (IoT) Devices

o Internet of Things (IoT)
▪ Devices embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity,
enable seamless integration between the physical and digital world
o Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
▪ Sensors on manufacturing equipment can predict maintenance needs,
helping to reduce downtime
o GE's Predix
▪ It offers a suite of analytical tools that help companies make sense of
data from industrial equipment, optimizing performance and predicting
potential equipment failures
o IoT's overarching principle is the idea of connectedness and real-time data
exchange
o It's crucial that manufacturers and users prioritize secure practices to safeguard
against potential breaches
o Technologies like blockchain and advanced encryption methods are increasingly
being integrated into IoT systems to ensure data integrity and privacy

● Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)

o Original equipment manufacturers play a pivotal role in various industries,
including computers, automotive, electronics, and aerospace
o A single PC could be made up of components from several different OEMs
o These OEM relationships are quite common in the technology industry
o Using OEMs allows companies to specialize
▪ This can lead to cost savings, increased innovation, and ultimately better
products for consumers
o An OEM component is usually designed and manufactured according to the
purchasing company's specifications
o Another important factor to consider is quality control
▪ Because the components produced by OEMs are integral parts of the
final product, any defects or failures can have significant consequences
o Software OEMs typically sell their product licenses to hardware manufacturers
or other software makers
o OEM manufacturing often involves customization to meet purchasing company
specifications, necessitating stringent quality control to ensure component
reliability
o In software, OEMs sell product licenses to hardware manufacturers or software
makers

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Internal System Components

● Motherboard or System Board

o Motherboard
▪ Printed circuit board (or PCB) that acts as the central hub where all other
hardware components connect and communicate, making it an essential
part of any computing device
▪ The motherboard's primary function is to hold and connect all the
system's components
o The motherboard also houses the system's BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or
UEFI (User Extensible Firmware Interface)
o If a component is not compatible with the motherboard, it cannot be installed
o The choice of a motherboard should be guided by the user's specific needs
o The motherboard's compatibility with the chosen CPU, RAM, and other
components is crucial
o Remember, the motherboard is the heart of a computer, providing the
foundation for all other components

● Central Processing Unit (CPU)

o Central Processing Unit (CPU)
▪ Executes instructions and processes data, making it a critical component
of any computing device
o Intel and AMD both offer a range of CPUs designed for different types of
computing devices and user needs
▪ Intel Processors
● Core Series (i3, i5, i7, i9)
• Designed for general to high-performance use, they are
found in a wide range of devices, from everyday laptops to
high-end gaming PCs
● Pentium and Celeron
• Low-end, budget-friendly options, offering reliable
performance for everyday computing tasks
● Atom
• Designed for mobile devices and low-power applications

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● Xeon
• They offer robust performance and advanced features like
error-correcting code memory, larger amounts of cache,
and multiple CPU support
▪ AMD Processors
● Ryzen and Threadripper
• High-performance CPUs designed for gaming and content
creation
● Ryzen Mobile
• Designed for laptops, offering excellent performance and
power efficiency
● Epyc
• Designed for servers and data centers
o ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) begs the question as to what RISC means
▪ RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is a type of microprocessor
architecture that utilizes a small, highly-optimized set of instructions
rather than the highly-specialized set of instructions typically found in
other architectures
▪ ARM processors are widely used in mobile devices due to their power
efficiency
o Multiprocessing
▪ Allows a processor to execute multiple tasks simultaneously
o Multiple-Core
▪ Have two or more processing cores, effectively multiplying the processing
power
o Remember, processors are the brains behind our computers, executing
instructions and processing data

● Processor Features
o Processors
▪ Processors execute instructions and process data by performing basic
arithmetic, logical, control, and input/output operations
▪ These operations are carried out by
● Arithmetic Logic Unit (or ALU)
• Performs integer arithmetic and logical operations
● Floating Point Unit (or FPU)
• Responsible for floating-point operations that involve
numbers with fractions

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▪ Each instruction is fetched from memory, decoded into actions,

executed, and then the results are stored back into memory
● This process is known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle

o The instruction set refers to the basic set of commands a processor can execute
▪ 32-bit processor can handle 32 bits of data at once, while a 64-bit
processor can handle 64 bits
▪ 32-bit system can only address 4GB of memory, while 64-bit processors
can address 16 exabytes of memory
o Integrated Graphics Processor
▪ Provide adequate performance for basic tasks and light gaming, and
helps to reduce power consumption and cost
o Clock Speed
▪ Measured in gigahertz (GHz) to indicate how many instructions a
processor can execute per second
o Bus Speed
▪ Refers to how fast the processor can communicate with other
components in the system
o Hyper-Threading (HT)
▪ Innovative technology implemented in select Intel processors, enabling a
single processor core to manage multiple threads of execution
simultaneously
▪ This technology works by creating virtual cores within a physical core,
allowing it to handle multiple threads concurrently
▪ Hyper-Threading is particularly beneficial in scenarios where applications
involve a high degree of parallelism
● Multitasking
● Virtualization

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● Multimedia Editing
● Scientific Simulations
o Virtualization Technology (VT)
▪ Improves the performance of software virtualization solutions, allowing
multiple operating systems to run simultaneously on the same machine,
each with its own set of resources
▪ Virtualization minimizes latency and overhead
▪ Virtualization Technology is widely utilized in various domains
● Server Consolidation
● Cloud Computing
● Software Development
● Testing Environments
o Remember, processors are the brains behind our computers, executing
instructions and processing data

● Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

o Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
▪ Specialized processor designed to accelerate rendering images and
videos on a device's screen
o GPUs are designed to handle multiple calculations simultaneously
o When it comes to graphics processing units (GPUs), there are two primary types
available
▪ Integrated GPU
● Are built into the processor, sharing system memory and
resources with the CPU
● Integrated GPUs are typically more energy-efficient, cost-
effective, and space-saving
▪ Discrete GPU
● Are separate components that can be added to a computer
system
● Discrete GPUs require additional power, produce more heat, and
may require larger form factors
o Leading the GPU market are two main manufacturers
▪ NVIDIA
▪ AMD
o Intel has also entered the discrete GPU market with its Intel Xe
o GPU is a vital component that significantly impacts a device's visual performance
and overall computing capabilities

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● System Memory (RAM)

o Random Access Memory (RAM)
▪ Provides temporary storage for data that the processor needs to access
quickly
o Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
▪ It stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated
circuit
o Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)
▪ Type of DRAM that synchronizes with the clock speed of the computer,
which enhances the overall speed of the system
▪ SDRAM comes in the Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) format for
Desktop PCs and Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module (SODIMM)
format for laptops
o Double Data Rate SDRAM
▪ Updated version of SDRAM that can transfer data on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal, effectively doubling the memory chip's
data throughput
▪ DDR SDRAM has evolved through several generations, with each new
generation offering greater performance and lower power consumption
● DDR1 was the first, followed by DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and the
latest, DDR5
● It's important to note that each DDR generation is not backwards
compatible
o Remember, RAM is a critical component that significantly impacts a computer's
performance

● Storage Components
o Fixed Storage
▪ It provides a permanent place to store data and applications, unlike
volatile memory like RAM
▪ The most common types of fixed storage
● Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• Utilizes magnetic storage technology to read and write
data
• The presence of moving parts, such as spinning disks and
read/write heads, can introduce latency and slower data
access times compared to solid-state drives (SSDs)

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● Solid-State Drive (SSD)

• Have revolutionized the storage industry with their flash
memory-based technology
• The absence of mechanical components allows for near-
instantaneous data access times, accelerating boot times,
file transfers, and application load times
• SSDs are commonly utilized in operating systems, high-
performance workstations, gaming systems, and other
applications where speed and reliability are paramount
o If a computer runs out of fixed storage space, it can cause several issues
o A slow disk can bottleneck the system's performance
o To supplement RAM, computers use a portion of the HDD or SSD as virtual
memory
▪ This process is known as paging in the Windows operating system and a
"swap file" in the Linux and Unix operating systems

● Network Interface Card (NIC)

o Network Interface Card (NIC)
▪ Provides a dedicated, full-time connection to a network, translating the
data produced by the computer into a format that can be transmitted
over the network, and vice versa
o Most modern computers come with an onboard NIC, integrated directly into the
motherboard
o NICs can facilitate either wired and wireless connections depending on the
model
o Network Interface Card is a vital component that connects computers to
networks, enabling data sharing and internet access

● System Bus
o System Bus
▪ Critical component in computer architecture, serving as the primary
communication channel between the various components of a computer
system
o The system bus is composed of three types of buses
▪ Data Bus transfers actual data between components
▪ Address Bus carries information about where the data should be sent
▪ Control Bus carries control signals, managing and directing the use of the
data and address buses

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o The system bus plays a crucial role in enabling communication between the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), Memory, and Input/Output (I/O) devices
o Over the years, different types of system buses have been developed, each with
varying speeds and functionalities
▪ Some of these include
● Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
• Hardware bus used for attaching peripheral devices to a
computer
● Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
• Was specifically designed to handle the demands of high-
performance 3D graphics in the mid-1990s
• Even at its fastest speeds, AGP 8x only offered a
bandwidth of 2.1 GB/s
● Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)
• PCIe uses a serial interface with higher data transfer rates
that provides a dedicated connection between devices
• PCIe can use x1, x2, x8, or x16 lanes depending on the size
of the slot
• PCIe 3.0, released in 2010, further doubles this speed to 1
GB/s per lane
o The system bus is a fundamental component of any computer system, enabling
communication between the various parts

● System Cooling
o System cooling is a critical aspect that ensures the optimal performance and
longevity of hardware components
o System Cooling
▪ The process of dissipating heat produced by electronic components to
keep them within a safe operating temperature
o There are two main types of cooling methods
▪ Passive Cooling
● It relies on conduction, convection, or radiation to dissipate heat
● Heatsinks are a common example of passive cooling
• These heat sinks are bulky metal structures with fins that
increase surface area to facilitate heat dissipation
▪ Active Cooling
● Uses power and includes components that move, like fans or
pumps to cool down the system

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● Within active cooling, there are two primary types

• Air Cooling
▪ It involves using fans to create airflow, which
carries heat away from the components
▪ The fans are often paired with heatsinks, which
draw heat away from the components and into the
path of the airflow
• Liquid Cooling
▪ It uses a liquid coolant to absorb heat from
components, which is then transported to a
radiator where it is cooled by a fan before being
recirculated
▪ Liquid cooling is more complex and expensive than
air cooling, but it is also more effective, making it a
popular choice for high-performance and gaming
systems

● System Firmware (BIOS/UEFI)

o System Firmware
▪ Serving as the link between the system's hardware and its operating
system
o The two most common types of system firmware
▪ Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)
● Initializes the hardware during the booting process and provides
runtime services for operating systems and programs
● It operates in 16-bit mode and has a slow boot time
▪ Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
● Operates in either a 32-bit or 64-bit mode, allowing it to access all
of the system's memory and enabling faster boot times
● UEFI also has a graphical user interface that makes it more user
friendly than the BIOS used in older systems
o It is important to remember that both BIOS and UEFI serve the same
fundamental purpose
▪ Initialize the system’s hardware
▪ Load the operating system

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Devices and Peripherals

● Storage Devices
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
▪ Which is volatile, meaning it only retains data while the power is on
▪ RAM comes in different types
● Dynamic RAM (DRAM) which stores data bits in an electrical cell
● Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) which is synchronized to the
system bus, allowing for more efficient data transfer
● Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM, or DDR) which transfers
data twice per clock cycle, and therefore has faster speeds than
older styles of RAM
o Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
▪ Non-volatile, they keep data even when power is off
▪ The capacity and speed of the HDD can vary, with the biggest currently
reaching up to 10TB
o Solid-State Drive (SSD)
▪ A type of storage that uses flash memory
▪ It can be used on their own or as part of a hybrid drive, working together
in combination with an HDD
o Optical Disc Drive
▪ Used for multimedia storage and can be written on and read by lasers in
an optical drive, and include technologies like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
Discs
▪ Optical drives are rated based on their data transfer speed and can also
function as recorders and rewriters
o Flash Memory
▪ USB drives, or thumb drives, are very popular due to their portability and
ease of use
o Network Attached Storage (NAS)
▪ Dedicated server connected to a network, designed for storing data in a
central location
o Storage Area Network (SAN)
▪ High-speed network of storage devices that can also be accessed by
multiple servers

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o Tape Storage
▪ Used more specifically in environments that need to store large amounts
of data for long periods
o Flash Arrays
▪ Storage systems exclusively composed of flash memory drives instead of
traditional spinning hard drives
o Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
▪ Allows data to be distributed across multiple drives

● Graphic Devices
o Graphic Devices
▪ Essential components that transform abstract ones and zeros into the
colorful images and videos that we see on our computer screens
o Higher-quality graphics adapter known as a discrete GPU is used for 3D gaming
or intensive multimedia work
▪ There are several leading manufacturers of these high-performance
graphics adapters
● ATI and AMD
● NVIDIA
o Every image on your screen is actually made up of tiny dots known as pixels, or
picture elements
▪ The resolution of the image is the number of these pixels lined up
horizontally and vertically
▪ Each of these pixels can be a different color, and the total number of
colors an image supports is called its color depth
o Refresh Rate
▪ Measured in Hertz (Hz), determines how many times your display
updates with new information per second
▪ More pixels, more colors, or a faster refresh rate all require more
bandwidth
o Video Graphics Array (VGA)
▪ Defined a resolution of 640x480 pixels with 16 colors at a refresh rate of
60 Hz
o Many PC widescreen display formats use a 16:10 ratio to leave room for on-
screen controls above or below the main content
o VGA, SVGA, and XVGA all used a standard D-shaped 15-pin connector

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o After VGA, a new adapter called DVI, or the Digital Visual Interface, was
introduced
▪ DVI came in three varieties
● DVI-A (Analog variant)
● DVI-D (Digital variant)
● DVI-I (Supported both analog and digital output)
o Most systems now use the High Definition Multimedia Interface connection
known as HDMI
▪ HDMI has become quite ubiquitous in display technologies, including
computer monitors and televisions because it offers both high-definition
video and audio in a single cable
o DisplayPort (or DP) is another type of connector commonly used with
computers to have higher resolutions
o Mini-DisplayPort offers high-definition video output up to 4K resolution, audio
output, and multi-stream transport for daisy-chaining multiple displays
o Integrated versus Discrete Graphic Processing Units (GPUs)
▪ Integrated means the graphics adapter is built into the same chip as the
CPU
● This design is compact and energy-efficient, but it doesn't offer
the best performance
▪ Discrete graphics cards offer superior performance
● For more graphically intensive tasks like 3D rendering or gaming,
discrete graphics cards, which are separate pieces of hardware,
offer superior performance

● Peripheral Connection Types

o Firewire
▪ Legacy connection type that was based on the IEEE 1394 standard and
SCSI protocol
▪ It has the ability to connect up to 63 devices on a single powered bus
supported by either a 6-pin "alpha" connector or a 4-pin unpowered
connector
▪ It could handle transfer rates up to 400 Mbps with Firewire 400, and up
to 800 mbps with its successor, Firewire 800 that used a 9-pin "beta"
connector

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o Universal Serial Bus (USB)

▪ It has evolved from humble beginnings with USB 1.0 in the 1990s at a
super slow speed of 12 Megabits per second to the modern and super-
fast USB 4
▪ USB comes in three main types
● USB-A
● USB-B
● USB-C

o Bluetooth
▪ Short-range, radio frequency-based technology has several classes, with
Class 2 being the most common for personal devices and supporting a
distance of about 30 feet or 10 meters
▪ Devices with Bluetooth 2.0 can transfer data at a maximum speed of 3
Mbps, which is fairly slow
▪ The latest version, Bluetooth 3, boasts a speed of up to 24 Mbps in
Highspeed mode
o Radio Frequency ID (RFID)
▪ Using specially-encoded tags, RFID allows objects to be scanned and
identified
● Passive RFID
• Only responds when scanned at close range, has been a
game-changer in various fields such as logistics and supply
chain management
● Active RFID
• Powered and have an impressive range of up to 100
meters

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● Network Connections
o Registered Jack (RJ)
▪ Includes connections like RJ11 and RJ45, which are commonly used for
landline telephones (RJ11) and wired computer networks over Ethernet
(RJ45)
● RJ11 (Phone Lines and Voice Service)
• The smaller of the two connector types and it is
predominantly used for telephone systems
• The '11' in its name signifies the specification that defines
not just the physical aspects, such as size and shape, but
also the wiring standard
• An RJ11 connector typically has space for 6 conductors or
internal wires, but for most residential phones only use 2
or 4 of these slots
● RJ45 (Data and Digital Service)
• The larger sibling to an RJ11 connection and is widely used
in Ethernet and network cabling
• If you've ever plugged your computer into a network using
a cable, it's almost certainly an RJ45 connector you've
used
• RJ45 can accommodate more internal wires (8 conductors
to be exact), and this enabled it to support more complex
networking requirements and faster speeds needed for
internet connectivity
▪ Each conductor inside the cable is responsible for handling different
types of data communication
o Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
▪ Provides high-speed internet access within a particular range, typically
around 150 feet indoors but can vary based on the environment and the
specific equipment used
▪ It operates on two main frequency bands
● 2.4 GHz frequency has a greater range, but slower speeds
● 5 GHz frequency has faster speeds, but a shorter range
o Bluetooth
▪ Short-range connections between devices
▪ Creates a Personal Area Network (PAN), where devices can interact
within about 30 feet of each other

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▪ Designed for low power consumption, making it ideal for battery-

operated devices
o Near Field Communication (NFC)
▪ Requires devices to be very close to each other, typically a few inches
▪ Considered to be a subset of Radio Frequency Identification, or RFID, and
it operates at higher frequencies
o Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and NFC allow devices to connect and communicate in
different ways, they do so in very different ways and each with its unique
advantages and suitable use-cases
▪ Wi-Fi is great for providing a high-speed internet connection over a larger
area
▪ Bluetooth is excellent for connecting devices in close proximity without
using much power
▪ NFC, while also short-range, is designed more for quick, secure
interactions

● Input Devices and Peripherals

o Human Interface Devices (HID)
▪ Enables users to enter data and execute commands
o Keyboard
▪ A tried-and-true input device that's served us for decades
▪ Used the PS/2 interface which was a rounded connector with pins in it
▪ The functionality of keyboards has expanded over time, with extended PC
keyboards featuring special keys
● ALT
● CTRL
● PRINT SCREEN
● NUM LOCK
● SCROLL LOCK
● START
● SHORTCUT
● FUNCTION
o Mouse
▪ The quintessential input device for graphical user interface based
software
▪ A type of 'pointing device,' used to control an on-screen cursor
▪ Used to connect via PS/2, but these days it is almost always over a USB or
Bluetooth connection

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▪ There are three types of mice

● Mechanical Mouse
● Optical Mouse
● Laser Mouse
o Scanners
▪ Imaging devices designed to create digital files from physical objects,
such as documents or photographs
o Digital Camera
▪ Store images on flash memory-based cards and offer several methods to
transfer these images to a computer, such as through a USB connection,
a memory card slot, or Wi-Fi
o Graphics Tablet
▪ Used primarily by artists and designers to precisely control images
instead of using a mouse's cursor movement
o Game Controller
▪ A specialized input device that's played a significant role in the gaming
industry
o Microphones
▪ Convert sound into digital information that a computer can process
o Webcam
▪ Device that captures video in real-time, serving as a critical tool for video
conferencing, streaming, and more
o Trackballs
▪ Another type of pointing device that stays stationary, and users
manipulate the on-screen cursor by rolling a large ball on the device's
surface
o Touchscreens
▪ Input devices that allow users to interact with their devices directly,
without needing a separate peripheral
o Each input device has its strengths and applications

● Output Devices and Peripherals

o Output Device
▪ Generic term used to refer to any piece of computer hardware that
communicates the result of data processing carried out by a computer
o The most common output device is arguably the computer monitor
▪ These screens display visual information from text to graphics and videos

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o Projectors
▪ Used to broadcast visual data onto a larger screen or surface, functioning
much like a monitor but on a larger scale, making them a popular choice
in educational classrooms and corporate board rooms
o Speakers
▪ They convert binary information into audible sound waves
o Printer
▪ Render our digital documents into physical forms, printing text and
images onto a range of materials including paper, card, and sometimes
fabric
o Although all output devices can be considered peripherals, not all peripherals are
output devices
o Multifunction peripherals, like all-in-one printers that can print, scan, and copy,
offer several functions in one device, making them a space-saving and cost-
effective solution
o Most peripherals connect to the computer via USB ports, but wireless
connectivity options like Bluetooth are increasingly common
o There are specialized types of output devices and peripherals designed to cater
to specific needs
▪ Braille embossers and screen reading software output digital content in a
tactile or audible format
▪ In the creative industry, graphic tablets and 3D printers turn digital
designs into visual artwork and physical objects, respectively
▪ In the realm of entertainment, VR headsets and game consoles deliver
immersive visual and auditory experiences
▪ MIDI controllers offer unique interfaces for digital audio workstations
▪ In healthcare, computer-controlled devices like pacemakers and
prosthetic limbs offer life-enhancing outputs

● Installing Devices and Peripherals

o Driver
▪ Piece of software that allows the computer to communicate with the
new device and use it to its full potential
o USB has become the de facto standard for connecting devices and peripherals to
your computer, and for good reason
o Remember, if your device isn't hot-swappable, you'll need to shut down or
restart your computer before removing it or adding it

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o There might be times when your device doesn't install automatically

▪ In these situations, you'll need to take matters into your own hands and
manually install the driver
● Visit the device manufacturer’s website
● Download the correct driver
● Follow the on-screen prompts to install it
o After your device is installed, there might be a few more steps to configure it to
your liking
▪ In Windows 7, Windows 8, and early versions of Windows 10, you'll find
these settings in the Devices and Printers menu
● You can reach this by clicking on the Start Menu, and typing
"Devices and Printers" into the search box
● In more recent versions, this is found under the simple menu
called "Devices" instead
o Devices that require a continuous power supply should be connected to a surge
protector
o Wireless devices should be within range of the computer and the battery is fully
charged
o While installing devices, it's also important to consider ergonomics, especially for
peripherals like keyboards and mice
o In the installation of devices and peripherals, the OS can automatically recognize
and install drivers for new devices

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Networking Fundamentals

● Network Components
o Computer Network
▪ Complex systems that enable communication and data exchange
between multiple devices
▪ They consist of several key components
● Clients
• Devices that request and use resources provided by
servers
● Servers
• Powerful computers that provide resources or services to
clients
● Switches
• They connect multiple devices on a Local Area Network
(LAN), allowing them to communicate with each other
● Routers
• Devices that connect multiple networks together and
direct data traffic between them
● Modems
• Devices that modulate and demodulate signals, enabling
communication over cable or telephone lines
● Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• Hardware components that allow computers to connect to
a network
● Access Points
• Devices that create a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
or a wireless connection point for devices on an existing
wired network
● Firewalls
• Security systems that monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security
rules
• Firewalls can be hardware or software-based
• There are different types of firewalls
▪ Packet-Filtering Firewalls check packets against a
set of filters

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▪ Stateful Inspection Firewalls monitor active

connections
▪ Proxy Firewalls mask the network's internal IP
addresses

● LAN vs WAN
o Several Types of Networks
▪ Local Area Networks (LAN)
● Network that connects devices in a relatively small area, such as a
home, office, or a group of buildings
● LANs are typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single
person or organization
● They provide high-speed connectivity, enabling data transfer and
sharing of resources like printers, files, or applications among
connected devices
▪ Wide Area Networks (WAN)
● Span a large geographical area, often connecting LANs that are
miles apart
● WANs are typically used by businesses and government entities to
communicate and share resources among employees in
geographically dispersed locations
● WANs are usually slower than LANs due to the distance data must
travel and are often established using leased telecommunication
circuits
▪ Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
● Larger than LANs but smaller than WANs, they typically cover a
city or a town
▪ Campus Area Networks (CAN)
● Networks that cover a specific geographic area like a university
campus or a military base
▪ Personal Area Networks (PAN)
● PANs can be wired, like a connection between a computer and a
printer, or wireless, like Bluetooth networks
o Telecommunications companies provide the infrastructure that enables data
transmission across large distances
o Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide services that enable individuals and
organizations to access the internet

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● Wired and Wireless Networks

o Wired Networks
▪ Involve the use of physical cables to connect devices to the network
▪ Ethernet is a common type of wired network, offering high-speed and
reliable connections
▪ The physical connection of cables ensures a stable and consistent data
transfer rate, minimizing the risk of data loss or signal interference
▪ This reliability makes wired networks particularly suitable for
environments that require high data transfer rates and secure
connections
● Corporate Offices
● Data Centers
● Critical Infrastructure
▪ Wired networks can be less flexible in terms of mobility and installation
o Wireless Networks
▪ Provide connectivity without the need for physical cables
▪ Wi-Fi is the most common example of a wireless network, allowing
devices to connect to the network within a certain range of the router
▪ This freedom of movement is particularly beneficial in environments
where mobility is essential
● Homes
● Coffee Shops
● Airports
▪ They can be susceptible to interference from other electronic devices or
physical obstacles
▪ Wireless networks generally have slower speeds compared to wired
networks
o Wired networks are preferred in environments that require high performance,
reliable connections, and enhanced security
o Wireless networks, on the other hand, provide flexibility, convenience, and ease
of installation

● Network Communication
o Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
▪ Conceptual framework that defines how data should be packaged,
addressed, transmitted, routed, and received on the internet

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▪ This model, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a conceptual

framework that defines how data should be packaged, addressed,
transmitted, routed, and received on the internet
▪ The TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers
● Network Interface Layer
• It handles the physical transmission of data over network
interfaces, dealing with the details of how data is
physically sent and received over the network
• Data at the link layer is packaged in a unit called a ‘frame’
● Internet Layer
• It uses Internet Protocol (IP) for packet forwarding,
handling the task of addressing, routing, and packaging
data packets known as IP datagrams
● Transport Layer
• Responsible for end-to-end communication between the
source and destination systems, and ensures that packets
are delivered error-free, in sequence, and without losses
or duplications
• 2 Main Protocols in Transport Layer
▪ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
● Which provides reliable, connection-
oriented communication
▪ User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
● Which provides connectionless, best-effort
communication
● Application Layer
• It provides network services to applications and is the
layer that interacts directly with software applications,
such as web browsers or email clients
• Protocols in this layer include HTTP, SMTP, and POP3

● Network Addressing
o 2 types of addresses play a crucial role in ensuring effective communication
between devices
▪ Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
● Unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a network
that uses the Internet Protocol for communication

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● An IP address consists of two parts

• Network ID
▪ Identifies the specific network on which the device
is located
• Host ID
▪ Identifies the specific device on that network
● There are two versions of IP addresses in use today
• IPv4
▪ Written as four sets of numbers separated by
periods which is called decimal notation,
for example, 192.168.1.1
▪ Each set can range from 0 to 255
• IPv6
▪ Written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits,
separated by colons, for example,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
● IP Addresses are used when communicating outside of the local
area network
▪ Media Access Control (MAC) addresses
● Unique identifier assigned to a NIC by its manufacturer
● MAC addresses consist of six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by colons or hyphens, for example, 01:23:45:67:89:ab
o IP Address enable devices to locate each other across different networks
o MAC Address ensure that data reaches the correct device on a given local
network

● LAN Communications
o Local Area Networks (LANs)
▪ Are the backbone of most organizational and home networks, enabling
communication between devices in a confined geographical area

o When we talk about LAN communication, we are really focused on three main
areas
▪ Media Access Control (MAC) addresses
● Unique identifiers assigned to each Network Interface Card (NIC)
by its manufacturer
● MAC addresses are hard-coded into the NIC and remain constant

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▪ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

● Used to map an IP address to a corresponding MAC address
▪ Switching
● Network switches are devices that connect various devices on a
LAN and use MAC addresses to direct data packets to their
intended destinations

● WAN Communications
o Wide Area Networks (WANs)
▪ Are integral to global communications, connecting Local Area Networks
(LANs) across cities, countries, or even continents
▪ WAN communications is made up of 2 main concepts
● Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses
• Unique identifiers assigned to each device on a network,
enabling them to communicate with other devices
● Routing
• The process of selecting the most appropriate path for
data packets to travel from a source device to a
destination device across a network
o When a device wants to send data to another device on a different network, it
first examines the destination IP address of the packet
o The routing process involves evaluating various factors
▪ Network Congestion
▪ Available Bandwidth
▪ Number of Hops (or the number of intermediate network devices the
packet needs to traverse)
o Routers
▪ Analyze the IP addresses of incoming packets and consult their routing
tables to determine the next hop for the packet
o IP Addresses and Routing are fundamental to WAN communications

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● Domain Name System (DNS)

o Domain Name System (DNS)
▪ A critical component of the Internet infrastructure, enabling the
translation of human-friendly domain names into IP addresses, and vice
versa

o 2 Key Elements in DNS

▪ Hostnames
● Name of a device connected to a network
▪ Fully Qualified Domain Names (or FQDNs)
● Domain name that specifies its exact location in the tree hierarchy
of the DNS
● For example
• FQDN: 'www.diontraining.com'
▪ ‘www’ is the hostname
▪ ‘diontraining.com’ is the domain
o The process of converting domain names to IP addresses, known as DNS
resolution, involves several steps

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▪ Let's consider an example where a user wants to visit

www.diontraining.com
▪ The DNS query: The user's device sends a DNS query requesting the IP
address for www.diontraining.com
● The first iterative query goes to a root nameserver, which directs
the resolver to a Top-Level Domain (TLD) nameserver based on
the extension (.com in the case of diontraining.com)
● The TLD nameserver then directs the resolver to the authoritative
nameserver for diontraining.com
● The authoritative nameserver has the specific IP address for
www.diontraining.com and returns it to the resolver
● The resolver sends the IP address back to the user's device, which
can now access www.diontraining.com using the IP address it
received
● The process of converting IP addresses back to domain names,
known as Reverse DNS (rDNS), follows a similar process but uses
a special domain
o DNS allows to remember human-readable names when accessing a website or
email server

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● Accessing Websites
o HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
▪ Operates on port 80 and defines how messages are formatted and
transmitted between web servers and web browsers
▪ HTTP protocol uses a client-server model, where the client sends
requests for resources and the server responds with the requested
content
▪ The messages exchanged between the client and server follow a specific
structure

● Request Header
● Optional Request Body (POST Requests)
● Response Header
● Response Body
o HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
▪ Secure variant of HTTP that operates on port 443 and is specifically
designed to provide secure communication over the Internet
▪ HTTPS employs encryption protocols, such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
or Transport Layer Security (TLS), to establish a secure connection
between the client and the server
● This encryption ensures that sensitive information exchanged
during the browsing session
• Login Credentials
• Personal Data
• Financial Details
● The use of encryption in HTTPS is crucial for ensuring data
integrity and privacy

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▪ When a client initiates an HTTPS connection with a server, a process

called SSL/TLS handshake takes place
● During this handshake, the client and server exchange public keys
to establish a secure communication channel
▪ HTTPS offers several advantages over HTTP
● HTTPS prevents eavesdropping and tampering with the
transmitted information
● HTTPS helps establish trust between users and websites
o HTTP operates on port 80 and is the standard protocol for web browsing
o HTTPS operates on port 443 and provides a secure version of HTTP by employing
encryption mechanisms

● Accessing Email
o Within the vast array of over 64,000 ports available for device communication,
three critical protocols stand out
▪ Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)
● Operates on port 110 and is widely used for retrieving emails
from a mail server
● POP3 removes the email from the server once it has been
successfully downloaded
▪ Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
● Operates on port 143 and allows multiple email clients to manage
the same mailbox while keeping the email stored on the server
● Actions performed on one device are synchronized across all
connected devices
▪ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
● Operates on port 25 and serves as the standard protocol for
sending emails across the Internet

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Implementing Networks

● Fiber Optic Internet Service

o Fiber Optic Internet
▪ Uses tiny strands of glass to transmit information as pulses of light,
allowing data to move at, quite literally, the speed of light
▪ It has the capacity to carry a large amount of data over long distances
without degradation or ‘noise’
o Fiber to the Home (FTTH) offers the fastest and most reliable internet
connection available
▪ FTTH provides 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps in both download and upload speeds
o In Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) setup, the telecom provider lays fiber optic cable to a
central point or cabinet in a local area
o Very High Bit Rate DSL (VDSL)
▪ Capable of supporting download speeds of up to 52 Mbps and upload
speeds of up to 16 Mbps up to around 300 meters
o VDSL2
▪ Offers a bi-directional speed of up to 100 Mbps
o Fiber to the Home (FTTH) has the fastest and most reliable connection
o Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) combines fiber optic cables with existing copper
telephone cabling using Very High Bit Rate DSL (VDSL) technology

● Cable Internet Service

o Cable Internet is typically provided by companies that started out in the Cable
Access TV, or CATV, industry
▪ These networks are often referred to as Hybrid Fiber Coax, or HFC,
networks
▪ The term "Hybrid" is used because these networks use a combination of
fiber optic and coaxial cable technologies
o Coaxial Cables/Coax
▪ Copper cables that are designed in a specific way to transport data from
the larger network directly into homes or offices
o Cable Modem (Combined Modem/Router)
▪ Device that connects home to the cable network

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o The interaction between your modem and the cable network is based on a
technology standard known as DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface
Specification)
▪ DOCSIS 3.0 supports download speeds of up to 1.2 Gigabits per second
o Each type of Internet service - whether it's DSL, Fiber, or Cable - requires a
specific kind of modem or modem/router
o Advantages of using cable internet
▪ Widely available
● Cable companies use the same infrastructure for Internet service
that they use for cable TV, it's relatively simple for them to offer
Internet service to existing cable customers
▪ Speed
● Often faster than DSL, satellite, cellular, and other types of
Internet connections, especially when it comes to download
speeds
● This makes it ideal for activities that require a lot of bandwidth,
like streaming high-definition videos, playing online games, or
downloading large files
o Disadvantages of using cable internet
▪ Expensive
▪ Not available anywhere
● Although it's widely available, it's not available everywhere
● Rural areas, in particular, may not have access to cable Internet
▪ May experience a slowdown during peak usage periods
o Despite these potential drawbacks, cable Internet is still a powerful, fast, and
reliable option for Internet service

● DSL Internet Service

o Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
▪ Prevalent type of internet service is often found in homes and small
offices around the world
o In essence, you can use your telephone line to make calls and surf the web at the
same time, all without interference
o The heart of your DSL internet setup is a device known as a DSL modem or
router
▪ This device connects to your telephone line using a typical phone cable
with an RJ-11 connector

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o The most common type of DSL service you'll encounter is called Asymmetric DSL
or ADSL
▪ The term "asymmetric" comes from the fact that the download speed or
'downlink' is faster than the upload speed or 'uplink'
▪ The quality of your telephone wiring and your distance from the local
telephone exchange can greatly influence your actual internet speed
● The further from the exchange, the slower the internet speed
o DSL, though prevalent, comes in various forms and flavors
▪ Besides the aforementioned ADSL, there are variations like ADSL2 and
ADSL2+ which offer increased speed and performance
o One of the most important benefits of DSL is its widespread availability
▪ This has made it a go-to choice for rural or remote locations that are
typically underserved by other broadband options
o DSL has proven as a versatile and reliable choice for internet service
o So remember, DSL internet service, with its varying forms and wide availability,
continues to play a crucial role in keeping us connected in today's digital age, but
it is starting to show its age

● Wireless Internet Service

o Wireless internet service is especially helpful in areas where installing cables is
too challenging or expensive
▪ The two most common types of wireless internet services
● Microwave Satellite
• They cover enormous areas, far beyond what other
technologies can handle
• This capability is possible thanks to orbital satellites, which
relay signals from one point to another, even directly to
your home or business
● Cellular Radio-based Services
• Most of us associate this more with internet access for cell
phones and smartphones
• However, a cell phone can share its internet connection
with a computer, a process known as tethering, when
there's no other means of internet access available

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o Cellular digital communication originally had two main formats

▪ GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
● Which uses a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card
▪ CDMA
● Provider manages the handset rather than the SIM
o In terms of cellular internet service types, you've likely heard of 'generations’,
such as 3G, 4G, and the latest, 5G
▪ 1G (First Generation)
● Voice calls only
▪ 2G (Second Generation) 2.5G and 2.75G
● Text messaging
● Slow data transmission
▪ 3G (Third Generation)
● Faster data rates
● Video calling
● Mobile internet
▪ 4G (Fourth Generation) LTE and LTE-A
● Increase data rates
● Speed increases
● HD mobile TV
● Video conferencing
▪ 5G (Fifth Generation)
● Higher speeds
● Lower latencies
● Enabling applications

● Wireless (Wi-Fi) Networks

o The foundation of wireless networks lies in the use of radio waves
o Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
▪ Set up a standard known as IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
▪ This standard has undergone multiple iterations – a, b, g, n, ac, and ax,
with each one improving upon the previous version in terms of speed,
range, and reliability

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Standard Band Bandwidth

802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps
802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps
802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps
802.11n (Wi-Fi 4) 2.4 and 5 GHz 150 Mbps /
600 Mbps (MIMO)
802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5) 5 GHz 3 Gbps (MU-MIMO)
802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) 2.4, 5, and 6 GHz 9.6 Gbps (MU-MIMO)
802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6E) 6 GHz

o One of Wi-Fi 6's most notable features is its enhanced performance in crowded
environments
▪ With the implementation of new technologies such as Orthogonal
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) and Multi-User, Multiple
Input, Multiple Output (MU-MIMO)
o When it comes to Wireless Networks, the focus really is on Wi-Fi and its various
versions, speed capabilities, and potential interference concerns

● Wireless (Wi-Fi) Security

o Wireless Security Protocols are a set of standards and techniques designed to
protect your wireless network from unauthorized access or threats
o Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
▪ Aimed at providing security similar to wired networks
▪ To address the weaknesses of WEP, Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
emerged as an immediate solution
o Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)
▪ Employs a more encryption technique known as AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard)
o Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3)
▪ Introduces Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE), which protects
against 'dictionary attacks'
o Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS)
▪ Developed to simplify device connections to secure and protect wireless
networks
● While WPS enhances user convenience, the PIN method has been
criticized for potential security vulnerabilities, making it advisable
to disable WPS in high-security environments

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o Other steps to take to secure a wireless network

▪ Change the network’s default name and password
▪ Update the router’s firmware regularly
▪ Use a Virtual Private Network (VPN)
● Creates a secure, encrypted ‘tunnel’ for data to pass through

● Wireless Security Best Practices

o Change SSID
▪ Service Set ID (SSID) is the name displayed when connecting to a Wi-Fi
network
▪ Changing the SSID to something unique is actually an excellent first step
to improve your network security
▪ The SSID is easily visible to anyone within range, so avoid using anything
that might personally identify you or your location
o Modify default passwords
▪ By choosing a strong, unique password that incorporates a mix of
uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and special characters, you
significantly enhance your network's security
▪ Avoid using predictable passwords
o Utilize MAC filtering
▪ Media Access Control (MAC) Filtering
● Unique identifier assigned to a device’s network interface
▪ With MAC filtering, you can set your router to only allow specific devices
to connect to those that have the MAC addresses you've approved
o Disable SSID broadcast
▪ Configures an access point not to broadcast the name of the wireless LAN

● Configuring a Wireless Network

o Best practices when configuring a wireless network
▪ Use WPA2 with a good, long, strong pre-shared key
▪ Disable SSID broadcast
▪ Enable Wireless Isolation
▪ Enable MAC filtering
▪ Disable WPS setting

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Operating Systems

● Functions of an Operating System

o Operating Systems (OS)
▪ They perform a variety of crucial functions, including serving as an
interface between the user and the computer, between applications and
hardware, maintaining system health and functionality, and managing
data
o One of the primary functions of an operating system is to provide an interface
between the user and the computer
▪ This interface can be a Graphical User Interface (GUI)
o Alternatively, your operating system could also be command-line based, like in
some distributions of Linux, where users type commands to perform tasks
▪ This interface can be a Command Line Interface (CLI)
● The user interface is designed to be intuitive and user-friendly,
allowing users to easily navigate and control the system, launch
applications, and manage files
o Many operating systems can have more than one shell
o Operating systems also serve as an intermediary between applications and the
computer's hardware
o Kernel
▪ Communicates directly with the system's hardware components like the
CPU, memory, and disk storage on behalf of applications, abstracting the
complexities involved
▪ This abstraction, which is determined by the kernel's architecture (either
32- bit or 64-bit)
o A computer with a 64-bit processor can run both 64-bit and 32-bit operating
systems and applications
o A computer with a 32-bit processor can only run 32-bit operating systems and
applications
o Maintaining system health and functionality is another critical role of an
operating system
▪ The operating system is responsible for resource allocation, process
management, and error handling
o Data management is a key function of an operating system
▪ The operating system is responsible for storing, retrieving, and
manipulating data on the computer's hard drive

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▪ The operating system also provides utilities for users to easily search for,
copy, move, and delete files
o So remember, when it comes to the functions of an operating system, there are
a couple of main ones you need to be aware of
▪ The ability to provide an interface between the user and the computer
▪ The ability to provide an interface between the software applications and
the hardware
▪ Monitor the system’s health and functionality
▪ Perform data management

● Operating System Types

o Operating System (OS) is integral to the functioning of our digital devices, from
traditional desktop PCs and laptops to mobile devices and servers
▪ They can be broadly categorized into
● Workstation OS
• Designed to run on traditional desktop PCs or laptops
• These operating systems can be further divided into three
main sections
▪ Home Client
▪ Network Operating System
▪ Enterprise Client
● Mobile Device OS
• Specifically designed for handheld devices such as
smartphones and tablets
• The principal mobile operating systems are Apple's iOS
and Android
• A mobile device OS is typically tied to the device it was
designed for and cannot be replaced with a different OS
● Server OS
• Server operating systems, such as Windows Server, Linux,
or UNIX, are designed to run on servers in business
networks
• Server operating systems often features a simpler
command-line interface rather than a GUI
● Embedded OS
• Designed for specific devices or appliances, such as
routers, ATMs, or smart TVs

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• These systems often use differently engineered platforms

called Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
• They prioritize efficiency, reliability, and real-time
responsiveness
• Examples of embedded operating systems include
FreeRTOS, VxWorks, and Android Things
o Now, operating systems, like most types of software, can also be classified as
▪ Commercial OS
● Owned and controlled by specific companies (Microsoft Windows
and Apple’s macOS)
▪ Open-source OS
● Free to use, modify, and distribute (Linux)

● Microsoft Windows
o Windows
▪ Graphical operating system developed and published by Microsoft
▪ Different versions of Windows
● Windows 1.01
● Windows 2.01
● Windows 3.01
● Windows 95
● Windows 98
● Windows 2000
● Windows ME
● Windows XP
● Windows Vista
● Windows 7
● Windows 8
● Windows 8.1
● Windows 10
● Windows 11
o Windows also has a server-based version called Windows Server
▪ Windows Server 2012
▪ Windows Server 2016
▪ Windows Server 2019
▪ Windows Server 2022
o Servers get 10 years of support whereas workstations usually get around 5 years
of support

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● Apple's macOS
o macOS
▪ Operating system used on Mac computers, built by Apple
● iMac
● Mac Desktop
● MacBook
▪ macOS was previously called OSX
▪ mac, just like Linux, is based on Unix
o Different code names of macOS
▪ Cheetah
▪ Puma
▪ Jaguar
▪ Panther
▪ Tiger
▪ Leopard
▪ Snow Leopard
▪ Lion
▪ Mountain Lion
▪ Yosemite
▪ El Capitan
▪ Sierra
▪ High Sierra
▪ Mojave
▪ Catalina
▪ Big Sur
▪ Monterey
▪ Ventura
o macOS or OS X are desktop operating system that only operates on Apple
devices
o macOS is considered a proprietary piece of software

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● Apple's iOS
o iOS and iPad OS were developed by Apple for their smartphones and tablets
o iOS is also derived from Unix
▪ It can only be run on iPhones
o Apple releases a new version each year
o iOS provides free unlimited updates
o iPadOS was developed as a fork of the main iOS branch
o iPadOS and iOS share a lot of the same code underneath them
▪ Both are developed by Apple
▪ Both are a proprietary code base
▪ iPadOS supports multitasking of applications

● Linux
o Linux is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux
kernel
o 3 Main Types of Systems Inside Linux
▪ Red Hat
▪ Debian
▪ SUSE
o Ubuntu is a Debian-based Linux distribution
o Fedora and CentOS are Red Hat-based distributions
o Open Source Software
▪ A type of software where a user can download, modify, use, and
distribute the source code
o Proprietary Software
▪ A type of software where the original developer owns and controls the
source code
o Linus Torvalds created the first version of Linux in 1994
o Beasite, the BSD Daemon, is the generic mascot of the BSD/UNIX operating
system
o Bell Laboratories created Unix back in the 1960s
o Unix is a proprietary operating system used for servers and mainframes
o SUSE and Red Hat use a subscription model
o The openSUSE, Fedora, and CentOS distributions are free to use, but do not
include vendor support
o Fedora, Debian, Mint, Arch, and CentOS are community supported distributions

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o When it comes to Linux distributions, there are 2 different formats for lifecycle
support
▪ Standard
● Standard release models have version numbers associated with
them
● Even number releases with Ubuntu are long term support
releases with 5 years of support
● Odd number releases are considered interim releases and only
come with 9 months of support
▪ Rolling
● Updates continually come out in a rolling based model, so there is
no long term support
o It is important to get comfortable using Linux at a basic level
o 80% of the servers on the Internet use Linux

● ChromeOS
o Developed to run specifically on laptops and desktop hardware created by
Google
o This hardware was designed to keep costs very low
o Chrome OS devices have built-in virus protection and firewalls
▪ It is extremely safe and secure
▪ These systems are able to do automatic updates
o Things to remember when it comes to ChromeOS
▪ Proprietary operating system created by Google
▪ Designed to run on specific hardware
▪ Stripped down operating system
▪ Primarily uses web applications and supports Android apps

● Android
o Android OS is a specific operating system that was designed to be able to
support the smartphone and tablet market
▪ It was designed to be open source and is based on Linux
o Android is used on every smartphone that is not an Apple product
o iOS only operates on Apple hardware
o Android has about 72% of the market share when it comes to mobile operating
systems
o The first version of Android came out in September of 2008

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o Android versions are named after a dessert food such as Snow Cone, Red Velvet
Cake, Quince Tart, and more
o Android 13 will be called Tiramisu
o Mobile operating systems only last around two to three years before needing
updates
o Most mobile devices only have 3-5 years of backward support
o Keep this in mind when looking at the end-of-life of products
o Things to remember when it comes to Android
▪ Android is based on Linux
▪ Each manufacturer can make their own version of Android

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Administering Operating Systems

● Management Interfaces
o Management Interface
▪ Critical tool for configuring and managing systems effectively
o Control Panel
▪ Composed of individual applets used to configure different parts of the
Windows environment
o Management Console
▪ Represents the more technical aspects of system configuration
o Computer Management
▪ Comprised of several administrative snap-ins for the mmc.exe or
Microsoft Management Console tool
o Windows Registry Editor (regedit)
▪ Database can be edited directly, allowing administrators a high level of
control over system configuration
o Another critical tool is the command-line interface
▪ In Windows, you can change settings by typing text-based commands
into the Command Prompt or using the more advanced PowerShell
scripting language
o To quickly launch many of these management interfaces
▪ Right-click Start button + 'X' key
o Linux configuration is fundamentally file-based
▪ Linux's command-line interface is particularly powerful and quite
versatile
● Administrators can do the following
• Directly edit configuration files
• Run system commands
• Write scripts to automate complex tasks
o Management interfaces are an absolute must in system administration, offering
means to control and manage operating systems

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● Process and Service Management

o When an application begins—either scheduled by the operating system or
opened by a user—it executes as a process in the system's memory, known as
RAM
o Process
▪ Primary unit that governs a program and manages the memory resources
allocated by the operating system
o Task Manager
▪ Allows users to monitor system resources and terminate non-responsive
processes
▪ There are several ways to run Task Manager
● CTRL + SHIFT + ESC
● Taskbar > Task Manager
o By displaying CPU, memory, and disk usage, the Task Manager allows you to see
which processes are consuming the most resources
▪ Excessive resource usage might indicate an issue with a program or even
malicious software that has infected your system
▪ Task Manager provides information about your computer’s overall
performance, including CPU, memory, disk, and network utilization
o When a process is unresponsive, you can use the Task Manager in Windows to
end the process
▪ This is referred to as "killing" the process
▪ This killing action should be a last resort, and it is used whenever the
application cannot be closed using the quit, close, or exit functionality
within a given program
o Task Scheduler
▪ Think of it as a digital planner that handles tasks for you even when
you're not at your computer
▪ You can use it to set up routine tasks, such as software updates or system
scans, to occur automatically at set times or under certain conditions
o When it comes to applications and tasks, it is crucial to distinguish between
foreground tasks and the background processes which are known as services
▪ Foreground Task
● Visible and directly interacted with by users
▪ Background Process (Services/Daemons)
● Runs behind the scenes to provide essential functions without
user intervention

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o Services work behind the scenes to support the operation of your computer and
run processes that handle essential tasks for you
▪ These services operate independently of the user's session and can start
up even before a user logs into the computer
▪ Services power many parts of the Windows operating system, enabling
functions like
● Sign-in
● Network Browsing
● File Indexing
o A process is an application or program that runs in a computer's memory and is
processed by the CPU
o Services are processes that work behind the scenes and are not directly used by
the end user

● Memory and Disk Management

o System Memory/RAM
▪ Main type of volatile memory used in a system
▪ The more RAM a system has, the more instructions it can hold and
process simultaneously
o Memory Leaks
▪ Usually caused by poorly written programs or malware that has been
installed on the system
▪ To combat this, one can use Task Manager or a similar tool to identify the
offending process and terminate it or prevent it from running in the
future
o If there's insufficient RAM, a few solutions would be
▪ Install physical memory
▪ Limit the programs that runs at the same time
▪ Use virtual memory
o Virtual Memory/Pagefile
▪ A technique the OS can use to extend the amount of available RAM
▪ Virtual memory or pagefile, acts as a form "virtual" memory in Windows
o Linux and macOS have a similar capability, but it is called a “swap file” instead of
a “pagefile” (Windows), but they do the exact same thing
o While hard drives can offer larger storage capacities at a lower price, solid state
devices provide much faster data access that significantly improves the system
performance

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o Disk Management
▪ Allows to format disks and manage partitions so that sections of a disk
may be treated by the operating system as separate drives
▪ Disk Management utility provides a summary of attached drives and their
partitions
▪ Each partition has a file system installed
● There are different file systems and each one offers various
advantages and disadvantages, so they are often used for specific
purposes
• For example
▪ NTFS offers security permissions
and system recovery options
▪ FAT32 broader compatibility, but it lacks the
advanced features of NTFS
o Regular maintenance can help optimize disk usage
▪ Clean temporary files
▪ Uninstall unused software
▪ Defragment disk
o Memory and disk management are essential to reaching faster computer
performance

● Command Prompt and PowerShell

o Command Prompt
▪ More correctly termed the Command Line Interface (CLI), an integral part
of computer operations, offering an alternate approach to managing
operating systems and applications
▪ Its primary purpose to accept, execute, and provide feedback on
commands
o The command line interface's key strength lies in its efficiency and precision
▪ Commands, once learned, can be issued quickly
▪ Tasks can be executed with precise parameters
▪ Large-scale changes can be implemented
▪ Easily automate and script things using text-based commands

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o In the Windows environment, users primarily encounter two command line

interface options
▪ Command Prompt
● Run by entering the cmd.exe command in the Windows run box,
is the traditional Windows command line interface and has been
around since the very first versions of Windows
● The command line interface commands can be used through
scripts known as batch files
▪ PowerShell
● First introduced in Windows 7 and an integrated part of all
subsequent Windows versions, it provides a more comprehensive
command set and advanced scripting capabilities
● It has been designed from the ground up for ease of learning and
use by system administrators with most cmdlets using a simple
verb-noun format
● PowerShell supports the creation of complex scripts and the
automation of repetitive tasks
● It is an incredibly powerful tool that can help you automate tasks
and manage your system more efficiently
o Command Line Interface (CLI) in Windows can be used from either the Command
Prompt and PowerShell
o Command Prompt (CLI) has largely been superseded by PowerShell in terms of
versatility and functionality
o PowerShell provides a more extensive command set, advanced scripting
capabilities, and access to a vast library of functions thanks to the .NET
framework

● Access Control and Permissions

o Principle of Least Privilege
▪ A user should only have the minimum access rights needed to perform
their job functions and tasks, and nothing additional or extra
o Microsoft Account
▪ Free online account that you can use to sign in to a variety of Microsoft
services
o User Account Control (UAC)
▪ A mechanism designed to ensure that actions requiring administrative
rights are explicitly authorized by the user
o Access control and permissions can also apply to groups of users

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o Setting permissions at the folder level applies those permissions to all files within
that folder
▪ In Windows, these file and folder permissions are accessed by
● Right-click on a file or folder
● Select ‘Properties’
● Navigate to the ‘Security’ tab
o Always ensure to only give out the necessary permissions

● Device Management
o Device Management
▪ Centers around managing software drivers to interface with the
hardware devices
o Drivers ensure that the hardware and software are in sync and working together
o You might also come across devices that need special configuration or
maintenance, like Network-Attached Storage (NAS) devices
▪ This configuration might involve
● Setting up user accounts
● Managing file sharing settings
● Updating firmware

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File Systems and Features

● Disk Partitions
o Disk Partitions
▪ Divisions of a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or Solid-State Drive (SSD), each
acting as a separate logical unit of separation within a single physical
drive
o Partitions can be created during Windows Setup when installing a fresh copy, or
through Disk Management when the OS is already up and running
o In the context of Windows, disk partitions are often referred to as 'drives'
▪ Each partition is assigned a unique drive letter (like C:, D:, etc.) for easy
identification and access
▪ The primary partition is typically labeled as the C: drive, and this is where
the Windows operating system is usually installed
▪ If the system files in the C: drive become corrupted, the data in other
partitions remain unaffected

● File System Types

o File System
▪ A method and data structure that an operating system uses to control
how data is stored and retrieved
o Different Types of File Systems
▪ New Technology File System (NTFS)
● Default file system for modern Windows systems that uses a 64-
bit addressing scheme and supports file-level security,
transactions, encryption, compression, and large file sizes
▪ File Allocation Table (FAT32)
● Was introduced by Microsoft in 1996, and is compatible with a
wide range of devices, including older Windows systems, MacOS,
Linux, game consoles, and more
● Its broad compatibility makes it a popular choice for removable
storage devices that are 32GB of less in size
▪ Universal Disk Format (UDF)
● File system commonly used for optical media like CDs, DVDs, and
Blu-ray discs
● UDF supports large file sizes and is backward compatible

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▪ Hierarchical File System (HFS+)

● File system developed by Apple for use on Macintosh computers
and it was the primary file system for macOS until the
introduction of APFS
▪ Extended File System (EXT)
● The latest version of EXT is the EXT3 and EXT4 file systems used by
Linux systems
● EXT3 brought journaling to the EXT file system series to improve
reliability and allow for safer data recovery
● EXT4 includes support for larger file and partition sizes, faster
data transfer rates, and delayed allocation for better disk
performance

● File System Features

o File System
▪ Methods and data structures that an operating system uses to manage
data storage and retrieval
▪ These file systems come with a variety of features that can be used
● Compression
• Feature that reduces the size of files stored on a disk,
allowing for more efficient use of storage space
● Encryption
• Security feature that protects data by converting it into a
format that can only be read with the correct decryption
key
● Permissions
• Controls access to files and directories in a file system by
using an Access Control List (ACL)
● Journaling
• Feature that enhances the reliability of the file system by
keeping log (or journal) of changes not yet committed to
the main file system
• File systems like NTFS, HFS+, EXT3, and EXT4 all support
journaling

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● File System Limitations

o File systems come with certain limitations that users must be aware of
▪ Naming rules
● In the Windows NTFS filesystem, file names cannot end with a
period or use the \ / : ? " < > and | characters
● For an HFS+ filesystem, you cannot use the : or the / (forward
slash) character
● In FAT32, you will find the biggest number of reserved characters,
including \ / : ? " < > | + , . ; = [ and ]
▪ Size limits on volumes and files
● FAT32
• 4 GB Maximum File Size and 8 TB Maximum Volume Size
● NTFS
• 16 EB Maximum File Size and Volume Size
● MAC System (HFS+)
• 8 EB Maximum File Size and Volume Size
● EXT4
• 16 TB Maximum File Size and 1 EB Maximum Volume Size
▪ Case sensitivity
● NTFS, HFS+, EXT3, and EXT4 all names are treated as case
sensitive
• This means file.txt and FILE.txt are treated as the same
files in FAT32, but they are two completely different files
in these other case sensitive file systems
▪ File name length
● Most modern file systems support longer file names of up to 255
characters, but FAT32 only supports a file length of 8 characters
plus a 3 character extension
● Newer file systems also support longer directory paths, whereas
FAT32 only supports up to 255 characters in the directory path
o When working with different file systems, be mindful of the naming rules, as
each file system has specific limitations on characters that can be used
o Take into account the case sensitivity of the file system, as some treat uppercase
and lowercase letters as distinct

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● Folders and Directories

o Folders
▪ Serve as containers for files and other directories to enable users to
organize data in a hierarchical structure
o In Windows, directories are part of a drive, which is represented by a letter (C: or
D:)
o Linux treats all drives and partitions as directories under the root directory,
represented by a forward slash (/)
o Linux uses a Unified File System where everything is treated like a file in the
operating system
o Linux primarily uses the command line for file and directory management, but
GUI-based file managers are also available where the folders or directories are
displayed as a folder icon that can be manipulated using your mouse

● File Types and Extensions

o Files are similar to folders when it comes to naming schemes, except the last
part following the period which represents an extension
▪ This extension is used to indicate the format of a file and the type of
program needed to open it
o Text and Document Files
▪ .txt
● A plain text file that can be opened by any text editor, such as
Notepad in Windows or TextEdit in macOS
▪ .rtf
● Rich Text Format file is a text file that supports text formatting
and can be opened by most word processors
▪ .odf
● Open Document Format is an open standard used by LibreOffice
and other open-source office suites
▪ .doc/.docx
● Microsoft Word document formats
● DOC is the older format support by Microsoft Word 2003 and
older versions, while DOCX is used in Microsoft Word 2007 and
newer versions
▪ .xls/.xlsx
● These are both Microsoft Excel spreadsheet formats
● XLS is the older format support by Microsoft Excel 2003 and
earlier, while XLSX is used in Microsoft Excel 2007 and newer

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▪ .ppt/.pptx
● These are used by Microsoft PowerPoint
● PPT is the older format from 2003 and older versions, while PPTX
is used in Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 and newer versions
▪ .pdf
● the Portable Document Format which is a universal file format
that preserves the fonts, images, graphics, and layout of any
source document
o Image and Picture Files
▪ .jpg/.jpeg
● the Joint Pictures Expert Group is widely used for photographic
images
● It is known for its lossy compression and the ability to select a
compression level
▪ .gif
● Graphics Interchange Format
● GIF is commonly used for animated images and is known for its
lossless compression. Some people pronounce this GIF (like GIFT)
while others say it as JIF
▪ .tiff
● Tagged Image File Format
● TIFF is a high-quality graphic format often used for professional
printing and it can also utilize lossless or JPEG compression
▪ .png
● Portable Network Graphics
● PNG (pronounced PING) supports lossless data compression and
transparency
▪ .bmp
● Bitmap file
● This is an uncompressed Windows only format that is not widely
used these days
o Video Files
▪ .mpg
● An early MPEG standard with lossy compression
▪ .mp4
● A widely used MPEG-4 standard format that acts as a container
for audio and video streams, often using the H.264 codec

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▪ .flv
● A container format for Flash Video, which is declining in use due
to lack of support on Apple devices and the rise of HTML5
▪ .wmv
● A video container format developed by Microsoft, compatible
with many media players and usable for DVD and Blu-ray discs
▪ .avi
● A legacy, Windows-only video format with limited ongoing use
o Audio Files
▪ .mp3
● Developed from MPEG, is a popular format for distributing music
and is supported by most media players, but it uses lossy
compression, discarding some audio information
▪ .aac
● Developed from MPEG, is a successor to MP3 and is widely
supported
▪ .m4a
● An audio-only format derived from MPEG-4, usually uses AAC
compression but can use other methods, including lossless ones
▪ .flac
● A free lossless audio codec that compresses file size without
discarding audio data, but it's not as widely supported by media
players
▪ .wav
● An early Windows audio file format, is not widely supported by
media players but is often used by audio editing applications
o Executable Files
▪ .exe
● The standard program file in Windows
● If you are running an application like Google Chrome or Microsoft
Word, it's file has a .exe file extension
▪ .msi
● A Windows Installer file used for installing and uninstalling
software applications in Windows

▪ .app
● The file extension for applications in macOS
● Essentially, it is the macOS equivalent of a Windows exe file

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o Script Files
▪ .bat
● A batch file and this is a text-based file that contains different
scripting code to run other command line applications in the
Windows command line interface
▪ .cmd
● A CMD file consists of a script containing one or multiple
commands in the form of plain text that are run in order to
execute various tasks
▪ .vbs
● A Visual Basic script file that contains commands for the visual
basic programming language to execute
▪ .js
● A JavaScript file and contains JavaScript code that is used to
render websites and perform backend logic for websites
▪ .ps1
● A PowerShell script file that allows multiple cmdlets to be
executed from a single script
o Compressed and Disk Image Files
▪ .zip
● Developed for the PKZIP utility, it's now natively supported by
Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, meaning these OS can create and
extract files without third-party applications
▪ .tar
● Originally a UNIX format for writing to magnetic tape, it's still used
with gzip compression (tgz or .tar.gz) as a compressed file format
for UNIX, Linux, and macOS
▪ .rar
● A proprietary format used by the WinRAR compression program
▪ .7z
● An archive type created and opened using the open-source 7-Zip
compression utility
▪ .gz
● An archive type created and opened by the gzip utility, freely
available for UNIX and Linux computers
▪ .iso
● A file format used by optical media, with the main formats being
ISO 9660 (used by CDs) and UDF (used by DVDs and Blu-Ray Discs)

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▪ .vhd and .vmdk

● Disk image file formats used with Microsoft Hyper-V and VMware
virtual machines respectively
● They contain the contents of a hard disk, including separate
partitions and file systems, and can often be mounted within an
OS for content inspection
▪ .dmg
● Disk image file format used by Apple macOS

● Attributes and Permissions

o File Attributes
▪ Metadata associated with computer files that define file properties
▪ Some common file attributes
● Read-Only
• Allows a file to be only read, not modified or deleted
● Hidden
• Makes a file invisible in normal viewing modes, providing a
level of privacy
● System
• The file should not be accessible to normal user
● Archive
• Used by backup utilities to mark files for backup or
removal
o File permissions determine who can access a file and what they can do with it
▪ Different levels of file permissions include
● Full Control
• Used to grant the user complete authority over the file,
including changing its permissions and owner
● Modify
• Allows the user to perform most actions on a file,
excluding changing its permissions or owner
● Read/List/Execute
• Permits the user to view the contents of a file or folder or
run a program
o Write enables the user to read and modify a file, or create a file within a folder,
but not delete it
o By properly setting file attributes and permissions, users can ensure the
integrity, confidentiality, and availability of their data

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Software Applications
● Productivity Software
o Productivity Software
▪ Tools that are engineered with the primary objective of enhancing
efficiency and efficacy for both individuals and organizations
o Different Types of Productivity Software
▪ Word Processors
● These tools provide a wide range of features to help users create,
edit, and format text-based documents
● You can apply different fonts and styles, check spelling and
grammar, insert images or tables, and much more
▪ Spreadsheet Programs
● These tools provide a wide range of features to help users create,
edit, and format text-based documents
● You can apply different fonts and styles, check spelling and
grammar, insert images or tables, and much more
▪ Presentation Platforms
● These tools provide a platform to create, edit, and display
information in a slide show format
● They offer features to include text, graphics, animations, and
multimedia to craft dynamic and visually appealing presentations
▪ Web Browsers
● Web browsers are mainly used for accessing the Internet, but
they also fall under the umbrella of productivity software because
they provide a platform for users to retrieve, present, and
traverse information resources on the World Wide Web
▪ Visual Diagramming Tools
● Visual diagramming tools, such as Microsoft Visio or Google
Drawings, are a type of productivity software that enables users
to create a variety of diagrams and flowcharts
● These tools are especially useful in business and technical
environments where visual representations can aid in
understanding and decision-making

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● Collaboration Software
o Collaboration Software
▪ Enhance communication, increase team productivity, and enable
seamless cooperation among individuals and teams in different
geographical locations
o Email
▪ Provides a platform for exchanging messages, files, and other content
over the Internet (Microsoft Outlook, Google's Gmail, or Apple Mail)
▪ Email is asynchronous, which enables communication across time zones
and schedules
▪ Email provides features for managing contacts and calendars
o Conferencing Software, Video Teleconferencing (VTC), and Telepresence
▪ These software tools have become indispensable for companies to keep
their teams connected
▪ These platforms also offer additional collaborative features like screen
sharing, virtual whiteboards, and breakout rooms, further enhancing
teamwork and collaboration among participants
o Instant Messaging and Voice Over IP (VoIP)
▪ Provides instant connectivity, allowing for quick information exchange
and immediate responses, ideal for fast-paced, collaborative
environments
o Online Workspace
▪ Serves as centralized platforms where teams can collaborate, manage
projects, and share resources
o Remote Desktop and Screen Sharing
▪ Allows users to access and control a computer or network from a remote
location
o Document Sharing and Collaborative Editing Tools
▪ Enables multiple users to access, edit, and comment on documents
simultaneously

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● Business Software
o Business Applications
▪ Pivotal tools for streamline operations, enhance efficiency, and propel
overall business performance
▪ Our main focus will be on key types of business applications
● Database Software
• Think of a database as a large, organized bookshelf of
information, and the database software as the librarian
who knows exactly where each book is and can retrieve it
in no time
• Software tools like Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle
Database serve this role, helping businesses store,
organize, retrieve, and manage data
● Project Management Software
• They help project managers and teams work together,
meet their goals on time, manage resources, and control
costs
• These tools allow teams to assign tasks, track time, and
monitor progress, ensuring that everyone is marching to
the same beat
● Accounting Software
• Used to keep track of income and expenses, manage
invoices, compute taxes, run payroll, and generate
financial reports
• Tools like QuickBooks, Xero, or Zoho Books serve as a
business's personal accountant and help to manage
financial tasks
● Business-specific Applications
• Created to meet the special requirements of distinct
businesses or professions
• Computer-aided design or CAD software, like AutoCAD,
helps professionals like engineers or architects to create
precise 3D models and technical drawings

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● Software Licensing
o End-User License Agreement (EULA)
▪ Legal contract between the software developer or vendor and the end
user
o Different Types of Software Licenses
▪ Single-User License
● Permits one user to install the software on a single machine
▪ Group/Site License
● Allows a specified number of users, or users within a particular
geographic location, to use the software
▪ Concurrent License
● Type of license that limits the number of users who can use the
software at the same time
o Difference Between Open-Source and Proprietary Software
▪ Open-source Software
● Software with publicly available source code for users to view,
modify, and distribute (Linux OS and Apache web server)
▪ Proprietary Software
● Keeps its source code under tight wraps and treats it as protected
information from the manufacturer
o Subscription Software
▪ Involves a recurring payment to continue using the software
o One-Time Purchase Software
▪ A single upfront purchase is required, following which the program can
be used continuously
o Product Keys and Serial Numbers
▪ When you purchase software, especially proprietary software, you'll
often be given a unique code, known as a product key or serial number
▪ The code serves as proof of license to install and use the software on the
user's system

● Installing Software Applications

o Single-platform Application
▪ Designed to run on only one type of OS, like Windows, MacOS, or Linux
o Cross-platform Application
▪ Designed to work on multiple OS
▪ Cross-platform applications may not be able to take full advantage of the
unique features of a specific OS

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o Compatibility is another critical factor to consider during the software

installation process
o OS evolve over time, and some applications may no longer exist in newer
versions
o Use 'Compatibility Mode' in Windows to simulate an older operating system
environment
o Before installing an application, it's crucial to adhere to software installation best
practices
▪ Ensure the software is compatible with the current OS
▪ Look for any special installation instructions or known issues
▪ Verify to have a valid agreement or license for the product's installation
and usage
o During the installation process, you'll often encounter advanced options
▪ Advanced Option
● Settings that allow to customize the installation needs
o Other options might include choosing whether to add a desktop icon, deciding
whether to include certain additional features or plugins
▪ This customization allows for a more tailored experience but requires a
bit of knowledge about your system and the software you're installing
▪ When in doubt, stick with the default options provided by the installer

● Software Installation Methods

o Software Installation
▪ Process that gives life to the hardware and enables users to perform a
multitude of tasks on a computer
o Desktop Application
▪ Software programs that install directly onto a computer's hard drive
▪ There are two types of desktop applications
● Locally Installed
• Applications are stored on the computer's local hard drive
and run on the same machine
● Network Hosted
• Applications are installed on a network server and
accessed through Local Area Network (LAN)
• Advantage
▪ Software updates or changes can only be made on
the server

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• Disadvantage
▪ You cannot use the software if you are not
connected to the network
o Software as a Service (SaaS)
▪ Hosted on a provider's servers and accessed over the internet
▪ SaaS can access software and data from any device with an internet
connection
o Software installation is a vital process that brings functionality to your hardware
and enables a multitude of tasks on your computer
▪ Different Installation Methods
● Desktop App (Locally Installed or Network Hosted)
● Through digital distribution platforms (Microsoft Store/Apple
Store)
● Cloud-hosted Software (SaaS)

● Removing or Uninstalling Applications

o You start by navigating to the Control Panel from the Start Menu
▪ Within the Control Panel, you will find a section called 'Programs'
▪ Under that, there's an option called 'Uninstall a program'
o If you have the most recent version of Windows, you can simply click the
Windows button at the bottom and search for “Add or remove programs”
o Windows Features
▪ Microsoft offers optional features that can be enabled or disabled based
on the needed requirements
▪ To access Windows Features
● In Windows Search Bar, search ‘Windows Features’
● Click ‘Turn Windows Features on or off’
o Remember that it's always a good practice to uninstall any software that you no
longer need and to turn off any Windows Features that you don't use

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● Application Architecture Models

o Different Application Architecture Models
▪ One-tier
● Represents the most basic form of software application design
▪ Two-tier
● Application layer and the database layer are distinct entities
● We essentially split the software application into two key tiers –
the client tier and the server tier
• Client Tier
▪ User initiates requests
• Server Tier
▪ Fulfilling the data requests
▪ Three-tier
● Segregates the user interface, the application logic, and the
database into three separate tiers
● Three-tier architecture lies in its flexibility and scalability
▪ n-tier/Multi-tier
● Open for more layers, or 'tiers', each dedicated to separate
functional components of an application
● N-tier architecture is inherently scalable and can handle complex
business processes

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Web Browsing

● Malware
o Malware
▪ Variety of harmful or intrusive software designed to damage, disrupt, or
gain unauthorized access to computer systems, often without the user's
knowledge
o Different Types of Malware
▪ Viruses
● A computer virus is a type of malware that replicates itself by
modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code
▪ Worms
● Typically spread across networks by exploiting vulnerabilities,
consuming bandwidth, and potentially causing damage by
overloading networks or taking down servers
▪ Trojan Horses
● Harmful pieces of software that look legitimate or hide within
legitimate software
▪ Ransomware
● Type of malware that encrypts the user's files and demands a
ransom to restore access
▪ Adware
● Short for advertising-supported software, automatically delivers
advertisements
▪ Spyware
● Type of malware that secretly observes the user's activity and
collects personal information
o Some Symptoms of Malware Infections
▪ Unexpected pop-up ads
● Spyware often generates pop-up ads that might seem unrelated
to the site you're visiting
▪ New toolbars, extensions, or plugins in your browser
● Spyware can install these components to monitor your online
activity
▪ Redirected browser homepage
● Your browser's homepage might change without your consent,
directing you to unwanted sites

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▪ Slow computer performance

● Spyware can consume system resources, thereby slowing down
your computer
▪ Unexpected changes to settings or data
● Spyware can alter your system settings or data to compromise
your system further

● Safer Web Browsing

o Some tips and tricks you should use to stay safer when browsing the internet
▪ Avoid Using Free Wi-Fi Networks
● These networks are often unsecured, making it easy for
cybercriminals to intercept your data, including your usernames
and passwords used to login to different sites like your email,
social media, or even your bank
▪ Be Vigilant Against Malware
● These malicious programs can damage your device, steal your
personal information, and disrupt your digital life
▪ Don't Visit Untrusted Websites
● These sites may host malware, engage in phishing scams, or
collect your personal information without your consent

● Choosing a Web Browser

o In the digital age, a web browser is one of the most essential tools on your
computer
o Microsoft Edge
▪ Default web browser on Windows 10, replacing the older Internet
Explorer web browser that had been in use since the 1990s
▪ Even though Microsoft Edge was built for Windows, there is also a
MacOS and iOS version available
o Safari
▪ Apple's default web browser that comes pre-installed on all Macs,
iPhones, and iPads
▪ The latest versions are only available on Mac desktops, laptops, iPhones,
and iPads, and not on Android or Windows devices
o Google Chrome
▪ The most popular web browser worldwide, known for its speed,
simplicity, and security

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▪ It is a web browser that maintains true cross-compatibility, though, with

versions available for Windows, MacOS, Linux, iOS, and Android devices
o Mozilla Firefox
▪ Free and open-source web browser that prioritizes privacy and
customization
o While Edge, Safari, Chrome, and Firefox are the most common web browsers,
there are many others available, including Opera and Brave
o Microsoft Edge offers a clean interface and is compatible with Windows, Mac,
iOS, and more
o Safari prioritizes speed and energy efficiency, but it's only available on Apple
devices
o Google Chrome is popular for its speed and simplicity
o Mozilla Firefox emphasizes privacy and customization

● Types of Active Content

o Active Content
▪ Web content that can interact with the user without waiting for a server
to respond
o Some of these active content types include
▪ Scripting
● Small programs that are embedded in a web page and run on the
user's device
▪ Add-ons
● Software components that add specific features to a web browser
● Add-ons require the user to install additional software
▪ Flash and SilverLight
● Technologies developed by Adobe and Microsoft, respectively, for
creating rich internet applications
▪ Java
● Full-featured and powerful programming language that can be
used to create complex active content
● Java programs or Applets are fully cross-platform

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● Extensions and Add-ons

o Add-ons and Extensions
▪ Small software programs that enable users to tailor browser functionality
and behavior to individual needs or preferences
o Plugins
▪ Another type of add-on that provides additional functionalities not
already built into the web browsers
o Themes
▪ Type of add-on but instead of focusing on adding functionality it focuses
on changing the visual design of the browser
o To install or add an add-on into your browser
▪ Visit the browser’s add-on or extension store
▪ Search for the desired add-on
▪ Click on the ‘Add’ or ‘Install’ button
o To remove an add-on
▪ Navigate to the browser’s add-on or extension manager
▪ Locate the add-on
▪ Click ‘Remove’ or ‘Uninstall’ button
o When you disable an add-on, it remains installed on the browser but is not
active

● Private Browsing
o Private Browsing
▪ Offers a way to browse the internet without leaving a lot of traces related
to the activity on the device
o Cookies
▪ Small files that websites store on the device to remember information
about the user
● First-party cookies are generated by the website where the user
is directly visiting
● Third-party cookies are created by a domain different from the
one the user is visiting
▪ Many people like to deny the use of cookies or will "clear their cookies"
frequently
▪ Some malware, viruses, and trojans focus on stealing cookies from the
system as a way to again access to sensitive information
▪ Any sensitive information should only be stored in secure cookies

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o Trackers
▪ Often embedded in cookies and are used by websites and advertisers to
collect data about a user's browsing habits and preferences
o Caching
▪ Method used by web browsers to store copies of web pages, images, and
other resources on the device
▪ Clearing the cache can help protect a user's privacy
o Private browsing only removes the locally stored information
o In a private browsing session, your history is not saved, so you won't need to
worry about clearing it

● Blockers for Web Browsing

o Client-side Scripting
▪ Scripts or small programs that run on a device rather than on the server
▪ These scripts are used for lots of different functions
● Validation of form inputs
● Creating animations
● Loading new content without refreshing the page
o Scripts can be used to generate annoying popups, display intrusive ads, track
your online activity, and even to deliver malware to your system
▪ This is why the use of web browsing blockers help to keep us more secure
▪ Script blockers, such as NoScript or ScriptSafe, allow you to control which
scripts run on your device
▪ Script blockers can break websites that rely heavily on scripts for
functionality
o Ad blockers, such as AdBlock or uBlock Origin, block online advertisements
▪ Ad blockers enhance privacy by collecting data about online activity that
can be the target of personalized ads
o Pop-up Blocker
▪ Prevent websites from opening new windows or tabs without permission
o Script blockers allows to control which scripts run on the device, enhance
privacy, and protect against malicious scripts
o Ad blockers remove ads and trackers, making websites faster and less distracting
o Pop-up blockers prevent unwanted pop-ups and improve security

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● Digital Certificates
o Digital Certificate (SSL Certificate/Identity Certificate)
▪ Electronic documents used to prove the ownership of a public key
o Digital certificates work based on a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
o A valid digital certificate is one that the client trusts, is signed by a trusted CA,
and is not expired
o An invalid digital certificate may not be trusted, may be incorrectly signed, or
may be expired
o Digital certificates play a crucial role in securing online communications
▪ These digital certificates provide a way to verify the identities of parties
involved in a communication and enable the use of encryption to protect
the data being exchanged

● Proxy Settings
o Proxy Server
▪ Any kind of device that acts as a gateway between the client PC and the
Internet
▪ Why using a proxy server is necessary
● See what things people are accessing
● Content filtering
● Cache the pages as people are going there
o Most proxy servers are going to be used in corporate environments

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Troubleshooting Methodology
● Identify the Problem
o Identifying the Problem
▪ Involves gathering information, understanding user reports, and
investigating symptoms to gain a clear understanding of the issue
● Information Gathering
• It is essential to gather as much information as possible
• This involves collecting relevant data and details about the
problem
▪ Error messages
● Make a note of any error messages that
appear on the screen or are recorded in the
system event logs
▪ System behavior
● Observe and document the abnormal
behavior of the system or application
experiencing the issue
▪ Recent changes
● Determine if any recent changes were
made to the system
▪ User reports
● Gather information from users who have
experienced the problem
▪ Logs and diagnostic tools
● Consult system logs, performance
monitoring tools, or any diagnostic tools to
extract additional information
● Symptom Analysis
• To get a deeper understanding of its causes and effects by
duplicating the problem, you can perform controlled tests
and further analyze the issue to
▪ Isolate the problem
● Identify the specific system, application, or
component that is exhibiting the issue
▪ Follow the user’s steps
● Reproduce the steps that users followed to
encounter the problem

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▪ Document observations
● Pay attention to the exact symptoms, error
messages, or system behaviors that occur
during the replication process
● Questioning Users
• By engaging in effective questioning techniques, you can
uncover important details and provide more insights into
the problem you're troubleshooting
▪ Use active listening
● Give full attention to users and make them
feel heard
▪ Ask open-ended questions
● Ask questions that invite users to provide
detailed explanations rather than “yes” or
“no” answers
▪ Make specific inquiries of the users
● Seek clarification on any unclear statements
made by users
▪ Create a timeline of events
● Ask users to describe the sequence of
events leading up to the problem
● Identify the symptoms associated with this problem
• Symptoms are these observable indications of the issue
▪ Document observed symptoms
● Compile a list of all the symptoms and
abnormal behaviors associated with the
problem
▪ Categorize the symptoms
● Group similar symptom to identify patterns
or commonalities
▪ Prioritize the symptoms
● Determine the critical symptoms that have
the most significant impact on system
functionality or user experience

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● Research
o Research plays a vital role in the troubleshooting methodology as it helps expand
your knowledge, identify potential solutions, and gain insights from others who
have encountered similar issues
▪ Utilize knowledge base and internet resources
● Internal knowledge bases may contain troubleshooting guides,
FAQs, and solutions to system-specific problems
▪ Conduct research in a systematic manner
● Define keywords to identify relevant keywords related to the
problem or symptoms
▪ Review similar cases and solutions
● Explore case studies or technical articles that detail real-world
troubleshooting scenarios
▪ Organize and document findings for future reference
● You should maintain a log or document where you can record
relevant information
• Links
• Potential solutions
• Insights
● When using external information or solutions, ensure to properly
attribute them

● Establish a Theory
o Establish a Theory
▪ Helps narrow down the potential sources of the problem and further
guide the investigation
o Some effective strategies for identifying the probable cause of an issue
▪ Question the obvious
● Do not make assumptions based on the initial observations
● Explore multiple avenues and not get fixated on a single
hypothesis
▪ Consider multiple approaches
● You should use all three types of thinking
• Analytical
• Creative
• Collaborative
● Seek input and perspectives from colleagues or SMEs

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▪ Divide-and-Conquer Technique
● Identify sub-components, then evaluate each individually
● Examine each sub-component separately to determine how it
affects the overall problem
● Identify commonalities or patterns among the sub-components
▪ Refine and prioritize theories
● Assess the evidence gathered during the research and testing
phases
o Remember the principle of Occam's Razor, which suggests that the simplest
explanation is often the most likely
▪ Prioritize theories that require fewer assumptions and minimizes the
complexities
▪ If the principle of Occam's Razor does not work, iterate and adapt

● Test the Theory

o Testing the Theory
▪ Helps validate or refute the initial hypothesis and provides valuable
insights for resolving the issue
o Effective strategies for conducting tests in the troubleshooting methodology
▪ Confirm or refute the theory
● Develop experiments or test scenarios that isolate and
manipulate specific variables related to the theory
● Leverage diagnostic tools and software to gather objective data
and metrics that can provide insights into the problem
▪ Reassess and iterate based on test results
● If the initial theory is confirmed, further testing may be
conducted to gather additional data and ensure consistency
● If the theory is refuted, it is necessary to reevaluate and develop
a new hypothesis
● Revisit the research and analysis phase to generate new theories
● Remain flexible and adapt the theories based on the insights
gained from testing
▪ Escalating or establishing new theories
● If the initial theory is refuted and alternative explanations are
exhausted, escalate the issue to higher-level support or SMEs
● Establish a new theory and repeat the testing process
● Seek assistance from more experienced technicians, specialized
teams, or vendors

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o Ensure you always maintain thorough documentation of the testing process,

including the results, observations, and any new theories or escalations

● Establish a Plan of Action

o Key considerations for implementing the solution in the troubleshooting
methodology
▪ We need to understand the importance of a Plan of Action
● Structured approach
• Outlines the steps and strategies required to address the
issue systematically
● Clear direction
• Align the efforts and minimize confusion
● Allocate resources
• Allows for allocation of time, personnel, and tools
● Conduct risk management
• Mitigate and manage adverse effects
● Accountability
• Assign responsibilities to individuals or teams involved in
the resolution process
▪ We need to look at the Key Components of a Plan of Action
● Problem Statement
• Clearly articulate the problem that needs to be resolved
● Objectives
• Define the specific objectives or goals that the plan of
action aims to achieve
● Steps and Tasks
• Outline the step-by-step process or tasks required to
implement the solution
● Resources and Timeline
• Identify the necessary resources, including personnel,
tools, and equipment, and allocate accordingly
● Contingency Plans
• Anticipate potential challenges that may arise during the
implementation of the plan
● Communication and Stakeholder Engagement
• Determine the appropriate communication channels and
stakeholders who need to be informed

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● Evaluation Criteria
• Define the criteria for evaluating the success of the plan of
action
● Documentation
• Emphasizes the importance of documenting all actions
taken, decisions made, and outcomes achieved
▪ We need to Implement the Plan of Action
● The plan must remain adaptable and flexible in the face of
unexpected challenges or changes
● Continuously track the progress against the established timeline
and objectives
● Document the final outcome, including the actions taken and the
results achieved

● Implement the Solution

o Implement the Solution
▪ Involves executing the planned actions and making the necessary
changes to address the problem
● Resolving the problem
● Minimizing downtime
● Preventing a reoccurrence of the problem
● Maintaining customer satisfaction
o The primary objective of implementing the solution is to resolve the problem
and restore the affected system or service to its normal functionality
o During the implementation phase, you should also keep some key considerations
in mind
▪ Follow the plan of action
▪ Communication
▪ Test the implementation in a controlled environment
▪ Back up and data integrity
▪ Configuration management
▪ User support and training
▪ Monitoring and validation
▪ Rollback and contingency plans

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● Escalate When Required

o Escalation
▪ Process of transferring a problem or support ticket to a higher level of
authority or expertise when it exceeds the capabilities or scope of the
current support level
o Some complex problems may require additional resources
▪ Advanced Diagnostic Tools
▪ Specialized Equipment
▪ Higher Level Systems Access
o Escalating a problem in a timely manner helps prevent unnecessary delays
▪ Reduces the risk of prolonged downtime and minimizes the impact
▪ Enables the involvement of the necessary individuals to grant
authorization
▪ Promotes collaboration between support levels and fosters teamwork
o When should you escalate a problem?
▪ Too complex
▪ Lack of progress in solving it
▪ Time-sensitive or critical issue
▪ Lack of authority or access
▪ Repeat incidents for the same problem across multiple systems
▪ Safety or security concern
o How do you create an effective escalation process?
▪ Compile all relevant details about the problem
● Symptoms
● Troubleshooting steps taken
● Any supporting documentation or evidence
o Before escalating, consult with knowledgeable peers or colleagues to ensure that
all possible avenues of resolution have been explored
o Every organization should have defined escalation procedures or guidelines
o After the problem has been resolved, take the opportunity to learn from the
escalation
▪ Analyze the situation to identify any gaps in knowledge or processes that
could be addressed to enhance future troubleshooting efforts

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● Verify Full System Functionality

o After implementing a solution to a problem, it is crucial to verify that the system
is functioning correctly and that the root cause has been addressed
▪ Ensures that the implemented solution effectively resolves the identified
problem
▪ Ensures that the system is working properly from the end user's
perspective
▪ Ensures that the system can be put back into operation without any
lingering issues or risks
o In order to verify full system functionality, you should follow a simple 7 step
method
▪ Step 1: Test the original problem
▪ Step 2: Test related components
▪ Step 3: Check for side effects
▪ Step 4: Review system logs and diagnostic tools
▪ Step 5: Conduct user testing
▪ Step 6: Perform benchmarking or performance testing
▪ Step 7: Document the verification process
o Verifying system functionality may require an iterative approach
▪ This means repeating the verification process multiple times to ensure
that the system remains stable and fully functional over an extended
period
o Verifying full system functionality is a critical step in the troubleshooting
methodology
▪ Validate the implemented solution
▪ Ensure user satisfaction
▪ Prevent recurrence of issues
▪ Minimize downtime

● Implement Preventative Measures

o Implementing preventative measures helps in minimizing the occurrence of
future issues and maintaining system stability
o Implementing preventative measures is crucial for several reasons
▪ Focus on identifying and addressing potential issues
▪ Generally more cost-effective and time-efficient
▪ Reduce the need for future troubleshooting and minimize the associated
the costs and downtime

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o Preventative measures can contribute to system stability by reducing the

likelihood of unexpected failures, errors, or vulnerabilities
o Some of the Different Types of Preventative Measures
▪ Software Updates and Patching
▪ Security Measures
● Firewalls
● Antivirus Software
● Intrusion Detection Systems
● Strong Authentication Protocols
▪ Backup and Disaster Recovery Functions
▪ System Monitoring
▪ User Training and Awareness
● Best Practices
● Security Protocols
● Proper System Usage
▪ Regular Maintenance
o 5 Basic Steps to Effectively Implement Preventative Measures
▪ Step 1: Identify potential risks and vulnerabilities
▪ Step 2: Develop a preventative action plan
▪ Step 3: Prioritize and implement preventative measures
▪ Step 4: Monitor and evaluate
▪ Step 5: Document and communicate

● Document Findings and Outcomes

o Documenting findings and outcomes ensures that valuable knowledge and
insights are preserved for future reference
o Documenting the steps taken to resolve an issue helps identify patterns,
recurring problems, and areas for improvement
o Documentation is also often necessary to comply with industry regulations,
internal policies, and audit requirements
o When documenting findings and outcomes, it is essential to include some key
elements
▪ Problem Description
● Clearly describe the problem encountered, including any relevant
symptoms, error messages, or user-reported issues
▪ Steps Taken
● Document the specific steps and actions taken during the
troubleshooting process

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▪ Root Cause Analysis

● Identify and document the root cause of the problem based on
the analysis conducted during the troubleshooting process
▪ Solutions and Resolutions
● Outline the solutions implemented to resolve the problem
▪ Outcomes and Results
● Document the outcomes of the troubleshooting process
▪ Lessons Learned
● Reflect on the troubleshooting experience and document any
insights or lessons learned
o To ensure effective documentation, you should adopt some best practices when
it comes to documentation
▪ Always use a standardized format
▪ Be detailed and specific
▪ Organize and structure information
▪ Include timestamps and references
▪ Update documentation in real-time
▪ Regularly review and update

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Software Development

● Flow Charts and Sequences

o Flowchart
▪ Type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow, or process
o Sequences
▪ Refer to the specific order in which instructions are executed by a
computer
o How do flowcharts and sequences contribute to good coding practices?
▪ They aid in problem-solving
▪ They promote better organization
▪ They make your code more readable and maintainable
▪ They facilitate effective communication
o Flowcharts and sequences are essential tools in the coder’s toolkit
▪ Enable effective planning
▪ Help in visualizing the structure of the code
▪ Enhance problem-solving skills
▪ Contribute to writing clean, maintainable code

● Pseudocode
o Pseudocode
▪ Method of planning which allows programmers to plan out their code in
a format that is easier to understand
▪ Writing pseudocode begins with outlining the goals of the program
o Why is pseudocode important in good coding practices?
▪ It enhances clarity
▪ It simplifies debugging
▪ It promotes communication
▪ It facilitates translation into multiple programming languages
o Keep your pseudocode simple and readable
o Pseudocode use contributes to writing code that is logical, efficient, and easier
to debug

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● Programming Languages
o Assembly
▪ More precise, low-level approach

o Compiled or Interpreted
▪ High-level, easier to write and read
o Query
▪ Data handling
o Assembly Languages
▪ Low-level programming languages that parallel machine language
▪ This machine language is the fundamental language directly interpreted
by computer hardware
▪ The capabilities of Assembly languages, especially in optimizing for
speed, size, or specific hardware instructions, make them indispensable
in certain programming projects
o Compiled Languages
▪ Designed to be more human-readable and are then translated into
machine code through the use of a compiler
▪ Notable examples of compiled languages include C, C++, and Rust
▪ Compiled languages offer efficiency since they are executed directly by
the computer's hardware
o Interpreted Languages
▪ Not converted into machine code, they are executed line by line by an
interpreter
▪ Prominent examples of interpreted languages include Python, Ruby, and
JavaScript
▪ Interpreted languages are typically slower than their compiled
counterparts, but they offer enhanced flexibility and are easier to master
o Query Languages
▪ Query languages empower us to create, retrieve, update, and delete
data from database systems
▪ Designed to interact with data stored in relational databases, offering
efficient and effective data management capabilities
▪ The most prevalent example is SQL (which is the Structured Query
Language)

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● Variables and Constants

o Variables and constants are elements that constitute the backbone of how data
is stored, manipulated, and utilized within the realm of computer programming
o Each variable has a specific data type, which dictates the kind of data it can hold
o Variables are used to store information to be referenced and manipulated in a
computer program
o Constants are the value remains the same throughout the entire program
▪ It also has data types and are subject to the rules of these types
o Remember that variables and constants are fundamental to the very nature of
programming because they allow for the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of
data within our code and enable the creation of dynamic, interactive, and
complex programs

● Arrays and Vectors

o Arrays and Vectors serve as the groundwork for storing and manipulating
collections of data in most programming languages
o Array
▪ Fixed-size sequence of elements, each of the same data type
o Vectors
▪ An extension of the concept of arrays, they can grow or shrink in size
during the execution of a program
▪ Another advantage of vectors over arrays is the set of built-in functions
o An array is a static, fixed-size data structure, well-suited for situations where
the size of the data collection is known beforehand and doesn't need to change
o In contrast, vectors offer a dynamic and flexible alternative, with the added
advantage of various in-built functions, which makes them an excellent choice
when dealing with data collections that need to adjust their sizes

● Branching and Looping

o Branching and Looping
▪ Considered as the brain and heart of the code, allows to make decisions
based on specific conditions and execute tasks repeatedly in an efficient
manner
o Branching serves as the decision-making process for the code
▪ IF statement
● Checks a condition, and if it's true, a specific code block executes
▪ IF-ELSE statement
● Execute both the true part and the false part of a given condition

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o Looping
▪ The heart of the code and keeps the action going continually
▪ It allows you to perform an action or a series of actions multiple times,
saving you from having to write repetitive code

● Operators
o Operator
▪ Allows the program to make decisions, comparisons, and carry out
arithmetic operations
o Comparison Operator
▪ Compares two values and, based on that comparison, they return a
boolean value, either TRUE or FALSE
● Equal to (==)
• Tests if the values on either side are equal
● Not equal to (!=)
• Checks if the values on either side are not equal
● Less than (<) and Greater than (>)
• Test if one value is less than or greater than the other,
respectively
● Less than or equal to (<=) and Greater than or equal to (>=)
• Test if one value is less than or equal to, or greater than or
equal to, the other, respectively
o Logical Operator
▪ Allows to test multiple conditions at once
● AND (&&)
• Returns TRUE if both conditions being compared are TRUE
● OR (||)
• Returns TRUE if either of the conditions being compared
are TRUE
● XOR (^)
• Returns TRUE if exactly one of the conditions is TRUE, but
not both
● NOT (!)
• If a condition is TRUE, NOT makes it FALSE, and vice versa

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● Functions and Procedures

o Function
▪ Segment of code designated to perform a distinct task
▪ Functions allow the reuse of code multiple times
o What sets functions apart is their ability to return a value
▪ This returned value can come in various forms
● Number
● String
● Array
● Object
● Function
o Procedures
▪ Similar to functions but do not return a value
o Remember, both functions and procedures serve to dissect intricate
programming tasks into smaller, digestible pieces
▪ By sectioning off your code into functions and procedures, you can
concentrate on each segment independently, making it more
comprehensible and easier to test and debug
▪ Moreover, they foster code reuse, making your code more concise, less
repetitive, and subsequently easier to maintain

● Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

o Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
▪ Programming paradigm of modern languages like C++, Java, and Python
o Core Concepts of Object-Oriented Programming
▪ Object
● Entity that combines data and functions into one package
▪ Class
● User-defined data types that act as the blueprint for individual
objects, attributes and methods
▪ Property
● Element that determines its state or characteristics
▪ Attribute
● Specification that defines a property of an object
▪ Method
● Similar to functions in procedural programming, but they are
contained within a class

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o Object-Oriented Programming is a vital paradigm that encapsulates data and

behaviors into singular entities known as objects
▪ These objects are built from classes and exhibit properties, attributes,
and methods that allow us to write complex yet manageable code

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Databases

● Functions of a Database
o Database
▪ Structured set of data, designed to store, manage, and retrieve
information
o Data Creation
▪ Involves generating and adding new entries to the database
o Data Import/Data Input
▪ Process of adding data to the database from external sources
o Data Storage
▪ Databases store vast amounts of information in a structured manner and
makes that data easy to manage and retrieve
o Database Query
▪ Process of requesting specific information from a database
▪ Queries can range from simple requests for a specific record to complex
queries that involve multiple tables and conditions
o Reporting
▪ Involves presenting data from the database in a structured and
understandable format
o CRUD stands for Create, Read, Update, and Delete, which are the four basic
functions of persistent storage in a database
▪ Create
● Creates and adds new records to the database
▪ Read
● Retrieves or reads data from the database
▪ Update
● Modifies existing data in the database
▪ Delete
● Removes data from the database
o CRUD operations are fundamental to any system that interacts with a database
o It is important to remember that databases play a vital role in data management,
providing a structured and efficient way to create, import, store, query, and
report data

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● Benefits of a Database
o The ability to store, manage, and analyze data effectively can provide significant
advantages in a business context, and this is where databases come into play
o Databases offer numerous benefits over traditional flat file systems like
spreadsheets
▪ Concurrent Usage
● In a multi-user environment, several users can access and work on
the same data simultaneously without conflict
▪ Scalability
● Highly scalable and can handle increasing amounts of data and
user load efficiently

▪Speed
● Uses indexing, partitioning, and other techniques to ensure fast
data retrieval, even when dealing with large volumes of data
▪ Support for a Variety of Data Types
● Supports a wide variety of data types, including text, numbers,
dates, binary data, and more
▪ Records and Storage
● Databases have functions dedicated to the creation, reading,
updating, and deletion of records using CRUD functions
● Any changes to the data require manual intervention
o Database
▪ Designed to handle large volumes of data efficiently, used to organize
data into tables, with relationships between them, and allows for more
complex and flexible data structures

● Database Structures
o The structure of a database determines how data is stored, organized, and
manipulated
o Structured Databases
▪ Characterized by a highly organized structure that stores data in tables,
with each table consisting of rows and columns
▪ These relational databases use Structured Query Language (SQL) for data
manipulation and queries
▪ Some examples of relational databases include MySQL, PostgreSQL, and
Oracle Database

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o Semi-Structured Databases
▪ Even without rigid structure, they possess some level of organization by
storing data in a way that allows for more flexibility
▪ Semi-structured databases are beneficial when dealing with data that
doesn't fit cleanly into the tables of a relational or structured database
o Unstructured Databases
▪ Designed to handle data without a predefined schema
▪ Word documents and PowerPoint presentations are great examples of
unstructured data
o Relational databases use a structured format with tables, rows, and columns
o Non-relational databases (NoSQL) do not rely on a standard table structure, and
they can handle structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data
o Remember, the choice between structured, semi-structured, and unstructured
databases, or relational and non-relational databases, depends largely on the
specific data needs of your organization

● Relational Databases
o Relational Databases
▪ They provide a structured and efficient way to store, retrieve, and
manipulate data
o Core Components of Relational Databases
▪ Schema
● A schema in a relational database is like a blueprint that defines
how data is organized and how the relations among them are
associated
▪ Tables
● A collection of data entries consisting of rows and columns
▪ Primary and Foreign Keys
● Essential elements in a relational database, and they are used to
establish and identify relationships between tables
● Primary Key
• Unique identifier for a record in a table that must contain
a unique value for each row of data and cannot contain
null values
● Foreign Key
• A field in a table that matches the primary key of another
table, and its used to link two tables together

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▪ Constraints
● Rules enforced on data columns in a table

● Non-relational Databases
o Non-relational databases have emerged as a powerful tool for handling large
volumes of diverse data
o When it comes to non-relational databases, there are two types
▪ Key/Value Databases
● Type of non-relational database that stores and retrieves data as
a collection of key-value pairs
● In a key-value database, each data item is stored as a pair
consisting of a unique key and an associated value
● Key-value databases are often designed to prioritize speed and
efficiency
● Redis is a popular open-source key-value database that is widely
used in various applications
• It provides a simple yet powerful set of data structures
and commands for working with key-value pairs
• One common use case of Redis is caching
• By introducing Redis as a caching layer, the application can
store user profiles as key-value pairs, with the user ID as
the key and the profile data as the value
● Key-value databases allow for flexible data structures
▪ Document Databases
● Type of non-relational database that stores and retrieves data in a
document-oriented manner
● In a document database, data is stored in self-describing, semi-
structured documents, typically in JSON or BSON format
● Documents can contain nested fields, arrays, and key-value pairs,
providing a more natural representation of complex data
structures
● Document databases allow for schema flexibility, enabling the
storage of data with varying structures within the same collection
● MongoDB is a popular open-source document database that is
widely used in various applications
• MongoDB stores data in BSON (Binary JSON) format,
which is a binary representation of JSON documents

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•One common use case of MongoDB is content

management systems (CMS), where documents represent
individual pieces of content such as blog posts or articles
● Advantages
• Document databases also provide excellent horizontal
scalability and performance
• Document databases use embedded documents or
references to represent relationships
o Document databases and key/value pair databases are considered non-relational
because they don't have predefined structures to connect different data objects
and files

● Relational Methods
o Relational databases have been a cornerstone of data management for decades,
providing a structured and efficient way to store, retrieve, and manipulate data
▪ Central to their operation are two categories of methods
● Data Definition Methods (Data Definition Language)
• Subset of SQL used to define and manage database
structures
• The primary Data Definition Language commands include
▪ Create used to create a new table or a new
database
▪ Alter used to modify an existing database object,
such as a table
▪ Drop used to delete an entire table or database
▪ Create Index used to create an index on a table
● Data Manipulation Methods (Data Manipulation Language)
• Subset of SQL that is primarily used for adding, retrieving,
modifying, or deleting data in a database
• The primary Data Manipulation Language commands
include
▪ Insert used to insert data into a table
▪ Select used to retrieve data from a database for a
query
▪ Update used to modify existing data within a table
▪ Delete used to remove existing records from a
table

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o SQL permissions are crucial for managing access to a database and ensuring data
security
▪ They determine who can access the database and what actions they can
perform, such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and EXECUTE
o Permissions can be granted or revoked by database administrators to control
user access
o Proper management of SQL permissions helps prevent unauthorized access and
maintain data integrity
o The main difference between Data Definition Language (or DDL) and Data
Manipulation Language (or DML) lies in their functions within a database
▪ Data Definition Language (DDL)
● Creating, altering, and deleting
▪ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
● Inserting, selecting, updating, and deleting

● Accessing Information From Databases

o Storing data is just one part of the database equation
▪ The ability to access and manipulate this data effectively is just as
important
o Direct or Manual Access
▪ Involves interacting with the database directly using a query language,
through the use of SQL typically for relational databases
o Programmatic Access
▪ Involves using a programming language or a database API to interact with
the database
o User Interface or Utility Access
▪ These tools often provide features for viewing and editing data,
managing the database structure, running queries, and more
o Query or Report Builders
▪ Tools that allow users to create queries and reports without writing SQL
code
o Backups, Exports, and Database Dumps
▪ Methods of accessing data that involves creating a copy of the database
or its contents
o Remember, there are various methods to access information from a database,
each with its own advantages and use cases

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Cybersecurity Fundamentals

● The CIANA Pentagon

o The C.I.A.N.A. pentagon Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability, Non-repudiation,
and Authentication are five interconnected principles that lie at the heart of any
comprehensive cybersecurity strategy
▪ Confidentiality
● Ensures that information remains private and is accessible only to
those with proper authorization
● This method primarily uses encryption techniques, such as
symmetric and asymmetric encryption, which safeguard
confidential information, effectively scrambling it into unreadable
gibberish to anyone without the decryption key
▪ Integrity
● When data is stored or transmitted, it remains unaltered unless
changed by an authorized entity
● In our information technology systems, techniques, such as
checksums or cryptographic hash functions, are used to verify the
integrity of our data
▪ Availability
● Ensures that information and crucial systems are accessible to
authorized users when needed
● Methods such as load balancing and redundancy are
implemented to guarantee the continuous availability of services
▪ Non-repudiation
● Ensures that an entity cannot deny an action it performed
● Digital signatures are used to ensure non-repudiation
▪ Authentication
● Focuses on confirming the identities of users, systems, and
devices to access resources
o CIANA is the basis of many cybersecurity frameworks (NIST Cybersecurity
Framework and ISO/IEC 27001 standard)
▪ These five principles are used to guide organizations in implementing and
maintaining effective security controls, including firewalls, intrusion
detection systems, and access control lists

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● Confidentiality Concerns
o Confidentiality lies at the heart of data security, establishing the principle that
information should only be accessible to those who are authorized to view it
o Snooping
▪ Unauthorized access to another person’s data
o Eavesdropping
▪ Unlawful interception of information while being transmitted over a
computer network
o Wiretapping
▪ Involves the targeted interception of telephone lines or Internet-based
communications
o Social Engineering
▪ Leverages psychological manipulation to coax individuals into revealing
sensitive information
o Dumpster Diving
▪ Looks through someone's trash looking for discarded information that
could be useful or sensitive

● Integrity Concerns
o Data integrity forms a crucial pillar of information security, ensuring that data
remains unaltered, reliable, and consistent throughout its lifecycle
o When data is input or modified, it should only be allowed to change in approved
and authorized ways
o On-path Attack
▪ A malicious actor intercepts the communication between two
unsuspecting parties
▪ By eavesdropping, hijacking sessions, or modifying exchanged
information, the attacker can compromise data integrity
▪ Organizations must implement multi-layered security measures
o Replay Attack
▪ An adversary captures data during transmission
▪ Preemptive and reactive security measures are used in effective
countermeasures
o Impersonation
▪ Occurs when a malicious actor poses as a legitimate user to gain
unauthorized access or execute prohibited actions
▪ Organizations implement user awareness training programs

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o Unauthorized Data Modification

▪ An unauthorized user or modifies data in an unintended manner
(modification, addition, or deletion of data)
▪ Techniques such as checksums, digital hash digests, and digital
signatures, coupled with robust access control mechanisms, play an
instrumental role in maintaining data integrity and defending against
unauthorized alterations
o Remember, maintaining data integrity is of paramount importance to protecting
our systems and networks

● Availability Concerns
o Availability
▪ Refers to the assurance that systems and data are accessible and
operational when needed
o Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attack
▪ Attempts to make a computer or network resource unavailable to its
intended users by overwhelming the target with a flood of Internet traffic
▪ Mitigating denial of service threats involves strategies like traffic filtering,
rate limiting, and IP allow listing
● Traffic Filtering
• Controls the packets allowed to enter or exit a network
based on attributes
● Rate Limiting
• Set up rate-limiting caps on the number of server requests
within a given time from a user or IP address
● IP Allow Listing
• Only traffic from trusted IP addresses is allowed to reach
particular services or servers
o Power Outage
▪ Occurs unexpectedly due to factors like natural disasters or equipment
failure and can result in systems being temporarily unavailable
o Hardware Failure
▪ Occurs unexpectedly due to age, defects, or user errors, leading to loss of
data or disruption of services
▪ To mitigate the risk of a hardware failure, it is essential to have
● Hardware Maintenance
● Monitoring Schedules
● Redundancy

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● Spare Components
o Destruction
▪ Occurs due to natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, or man-made
incidents such as arson or sabotage
▪ To mitigate the risk of destruction, it is essential to have
● Off-site Backups
● Disaster Recovery Plans
● Insurance
o Service Outage
▪ Occurs because of software bugs to network failures, resulting in
temporary unavailability of services
▪ To ensure that services are quickly restored after an outage,
organizations need to have robust
● Incident Response Procedures
● System Health Checks
● Effective Communication Channels

● Social Engineering
o Social Engineering
▪ Manipulating people into giving up confidential information
o Phishing
▪ An attempt by cybercriminals posing as legitimate institutions, usually via
email, to obtain sensitive information from targeted individuals
▪ Phishing is deceptive and dangerous
▪ Look for red flags like poor spelling or grammar, generic greetings, and
emails that create a sense of urgency
o Spear Phishing
▪ Attacker tailors the attack and the messaging in emails to a specific
individual or organization
o Business Email Compromise (BEC)
▪ Attacker pose as a high-ranking executive or business partner
o Baiting
▪ Occurs when an attacker leaves a seemingly harmless device (a USB flash
drive) in an obvious location
o Pretexting
▪ An attacker creates a believable pretext, or false scenario, to steal
information

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o Social engineering is all about using manipulation techniques to exploit a

human's trust in order to extract confidential information
▪ Staying informed, vigilant, and skeptical is your best defense against
these manipulative and low-tech attacks and tactics

● AAA of Cybersecurity
o AAA of Cybersecurity
▪ Authentication
● Digital checkpoint which verifies the identities of users, devices,
or systems before getting access to a system's or network's
resources
● Authentication methods tend to be categorized in broad
categories
• Something you know (Ex. Password)
• Something you have (Ex. Token)
• Something you are (Ex. Fingerprint)
• Something you do (Ex. Way of walk)
• Somewhere you are (Ex. GPS Location)
▪ Authorization
● Authenticated users are authorized to use certain resources
● Discussion around access control lists, role-based access control,
and other authorization techniques help define these 'ticket
types' in our digital computing systems
● When performing authorization functions, use the principle of
least privilege to ensure that users are granted only the minimum
access levels needed to perform jobs
▪ Accounting/Auditing
● Used to track user activities and maintain records for future
reference or investigation
● Accounting is performed on systems and networks by using
system logs, network monitoring tools, and other auditing
methods
o Remember, the AAA of cybersecurity is established through Authentication,
Authorization, and Accounting
▪ Authentication involves verifying a user's identity
▪ Authorization used to manage access to resources and supports the
principle of least privilege

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▪ Accounting used for auditing and monitoring your system and network
activities

● Business Continuity
o Business continuity is critical for any organization dependent on unimpeded
access to their applications, data, and services for their continued business
operations
o Whether the company's resources are hosted on-premises or in the cloud, it is
important that they can maintain uninterrupted access to their data
o Fault Tolerance
▪ Implementing fault tolerance is key to safeguarding against loss of access
to a computer system due to a component failure
o Contingency Planning
▪ Business continuity plans commence with an analysis of business
processes and assets to identify critical workflows, resources, and system
vulnerabilities
▪ Redundancy at the component and system level is typically part of these
plans
▪ Contingency planning is not limited to hardware systems
o Data Redundancy
▪ One of the best ways to maintain data redundancy is to use a RAID
● Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
• Offers a variety of fault-tolerant solutions, defined in
numbered levels, including RAID 1 (disk mirroring) and
RAID 5 (striping with parity)
o Network Redundancy
▪ It's common for a server to have multiple network cards installed to
provide fault tolerance for your network adapters
▪ Adapter teaming provides fault tolerance and load balancing
o Power Redundancy
▪ Servers and network appliances require a stable power supply to
operate, but power spikes, surges, brownouts, or blackouts can cause
potential failures for the systems
▪ Power redundancy systems, such as dual power supplies, redundant
circuits, an Uninterruptible Power Supply (or UPS), and backup power
generators can be implemented to protect against power loss and power
fluctuation events to provide you with better power redundancy

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o Site Redundancy and Replication

▪ Implementing service and data replication between multiple data centers
is a prudent measure to provide redundancy
▪ To achieve this redundancy, though, your data must also be replicated
across both sites
▪ Replication is the process of synchronizing data between servers and
potentially between sites, either in real-time or bundled into batches for
periodic synchronization

● Disaster Recovery
o Disaster Recovery concentrates on creating effective response workflows and
resources to address specific disaster scenarios
▪ These disasters could range from minor component failures and power
loss to more severe occurrences like natural or man-made disasters
o Security Concerns
▪ Disasters can expose an organization's sensitive data to various threats,
with potential repercussions on the integrity, confidentiality, and
availability of that data
▪ For each high-risk scenario, the organization should develop a
comprehensive plan
● This plan must precisely identify tasks, resources, and
responsibilities for responding to the disaster
● It must address questions such as
• How will staff be alerted to the disaster?
• What procedures must they follow?
o Prioritization
▪ Disaster recovery plans step in to provide a roadmap, identifying
priorities for restoring particular systems first
o Data Restoration
▪ It is important to have a strategy in place to execute if a system goes
down and there's a possibility of data loss
▪ There are two main routes that you can tread here
● Restoring data from backup
● Switching to a failover system where data has already been
replicated

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o Restoring Access
▪ Once the integrity of the failover or restored system has been verified,
it's time to re-open the gates for users and start processing transactions
again
o Remember, when it comes to the topic of Disaster Recovery, it is paramount that
organizations aim to recover their operations swiftly from a major disruption

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AAA in Cybersecurity

● Authentication
o Authentication
▪ A process of verifying the identity of a user, machine, or system by
validating the credentials provided by the entity against the stored data
o To authenticate someone, you can use one of 5 different authentication factors
▪ Knowledge
● Most common factor of authentication and includes passwords,
PINs, and answers to secret questions
▪ Possession
● Involves a physical device that the user has, such as a hardware
token, smart card, or a mobile device that receives a one-time
password (or OTP)
▪ Inherence
● Includes any authentication factor is based on unique physical
characteristics of the user
• Fingerprint Scans
• Facial Recognition Scans
• Iris Scans
▪ Location
● Involves using the geographical location of the user as an
authentication method
▪ Behavior
● Based on actions that the user performs, which are unique to
them
o Various Types of Authentication Methods
▪ Single-Factor Authentication
● Involves the use of only one of the above-mentioned factors
▪ Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)
● Specifically involves the use of two factors
▪ Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
● Involves the use of two or more factors from the five different
authentication factor categories
● Multi-factor authentication is used to provide a higher level of
security than single-factor or a two-factor authentication

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▪ Single Sign-On (SSO)

● An authentication method that allows users to log in with a single
ID to any of several related, yet independent, software systems

● Password Best Practices

o Passwords are the first line of defense in securing our digital lives
o It is important that we take some time to explore the best practices for password
management
▪ Complexity
▪ Memorability
▪ Confidentiality
▪ Password History and Expiration
▪ Risks of Reusing Passwords
o A strong password should be at least 9 to 14 characters long for user accounts
o Admin account passwords should be 14+ characters
o The longer the password, the harder it is for hackers to crack it using brute force
attack techniques
o Passphrase
▪ A sequence of words or other text used to control access to a computer
system, program, or data
o The most important thing with a password is maintaining the confidentiality of
that password
▪ This means that you should never share your password with other people
▪ You should not write it down where others can find it
▪ You should not send it over unsecured communication channels
o If you must share a password, use a secure method, such as a password
manager's secure sharing feature or an encrypted end-to-end chat system
o Password History
▪ Prevent users from reusing their recent passwords
o Password Expiration
▪ Requires users to change their passwords at regular intervals
o Never write down all your passwords in a spreadsheet, word document, or
notepad file, as these can easily be stolen by attackers
▪ Always use a good password manager since they securely encrypt and
store all your passwords for you

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● Using a Password Manager

o Password Manager
▪ Helps to have different secure passwords and stores them so it can be
used easily
o Memorizing a master passcode while the rest are saved is a much better method
than using the same password everywhere

● Authorization
o Authorization
▪ Process that comes after authentication and involves granting or denying
permissions to authenticated users
o There are several models used to manage authorization in a system
▪ Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
● The owner of the information or resource decides who is allowed
to access it
▪ Role-based Access Control (RBAC)
● Access permissions are based on the roles of individual users
within an organization
▪ Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
● Policy-driven model where access rights are assigned based on
regulations determined by a central authority
▪ Rule-based Access Control
● Uses a set of approved and denied permissions that are applied to
all users
o Different User Account Types
▪ Administrative Account
● Highest level of access and can make system-wide changes
▪ Standard User Account
● Fewer permissions and are typically used for everyday tasks
▪ Guest User Account
● Least amount of access and is typically used for temporary or
infrequent users
o Every user should be using a standard user account for their daily tasks
o Group Accounts
▪ A way to manage multiple user accounts that need the same level of
access to specific resources

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● Accounting
o Accounting
▪ Also known as auditing, a critical process that involves the systematic
tracking and recording of user activities on a system or network
o Accounting/Auditing is a key component of a robust cybersecurity framework
that provides
▪ Detailed record of user activities
▪ Investigating security incidents
▪ Ensuring policy compliance
▪ Aiding in system troubleshooting
o Logs
▪ Log entries provide a timestamped record of events and user activities
● Logs can include information such as
• Login attempts (both successful and unsuccessful)
• File access and modifications
• System configuration changes
• Network connections
o Tracking
▪ Involves the continuous monitoring and recording of user activities
▪ Tracking can help detect potential security threats
▪ Tracking often involves using logs, but logs are not considered to be
tracking
o Web Browsing History
▪ A form of accounting that records the websites a user visits
▪ Web browser history can be particularly useful in identifying potential
security risks

● Non-repudiation
o Non-repudiation
▪ Used to provide assurance of the integrity and origin of data by
preventing an entity from denying the authenticity of their actions
o There are many different mechanisms that can be used to provide non-
repudiation
▪ Video-based Mechanisms
● This is often achieved using surveillance cameras as used in
security systems
● These surveillance cameras are designed to monitor and record
activities in a specific area

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▪ Biometric Data
● Biometric data, such as fingerprints or iris scans, are unique to
each individual
● When used for authentication, they provide strong non-
repudiation as it is extremely difficult for an individual to deny the
authenticity of their biometric data
▪ Digital Signatures
● Digital signatures are a common method of achieving non-
repudiation because they are also unique to each user and can be
verified by others
● When a document is digitally signed, it provides assurance that
the document came from the signer and has not been altered
since it was signed
▪ Receipts
● In digital transactions, receipts serve as a form of non-repudiation
● They provide proof of a completed transaction, including details
about the parties involved and the transaction itself

● Encryption
o Encryption
▪ Process of converting readable data, known as plain text, into an
unreadable format, known as cipher text, using an algorithm (known as a
cipher) and an encryption key
▪ There are many different types of encryption, but most can be classified
as either symmetric encryption or asymmetric encryption
● Symmetric Encryption
• Also known as private-key encryption, uses the same key
for both the encryption and decryption processes
• Some examples
▪ 3DES
▪ AES
▪ RC (Rivest Cipher)
▪ IDEA
▪ Blowfish/Twofish
▪ CAST
• Older encryption methods used keys that were between
32 and 64 bits long

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•The longer the key, the more computer processing power

it takes to encrypt and decrypt the data
● Asymmetric Encryption
• Also known as public-key Cryptography, uses two different
keys: a public key for encryption and a private key for
decryption
• The public key can be freely distributed, while the private
key remains secret
• Most asymmetric encryption technologies use the RSA or
ECC cipher in the modern world
• To support asymmetric encryption, Public Key
Infrastructure (or PKI) is used
▪ Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
● Framework for managing digital certificates
and public-key encryption and provides a
way to create, distribute, store, and revoke
digital certificates and manage public-key
encryption
• Another key encryption technology based on asymmetric
encryption and PKI is the use of Digital Signatures
▪ Digital Signatures
● Created by using the sender's private key to
encrypt a digital hash of the message being
sent and can be verified by anyone with the
sender's public key
o Cryptographic Hash
▪ Takes an input and returns a fixed-size string of bytes, typically a hash
value
▪ Two of the most commonly used cryptographic hash algorithms families
● SHA-1 and SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm)
● MD5 (Message Digest)

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● Data at Rest
o Data at Rest refers to data that is stored on physical or digital media and is not
actively being moved or processed
▪ This could include data stored on hard drives, SSDs, tapes, or even data
stored in the cloud
▪ The concept is, where ever that data is stored, or remains at rest, it needs
to also be protected, and that is where data at rest encryption comes into
play
o Data at Rest Mechanisms
▪ Encryption
● Even if an attacker gains access to the storage device, they won't
be able to understand the data without the decryption key, so it
will remain inaccessible and unreadable
▪ Access Controls
● Implementing strong access controls can prevent unauthorized
users from accessing the data
● This includes using strong passwords, the use of multi-factor
authentication, and limiting the number of users who have access
to the data
▪ Regular Audits
● Regularly auditing the data contained on a system and who has
access to it can help detect any potential security issues
● This includes checking for any unusual access patterns or changes
to the data, too
▪ Physical Security
● For data stored on physical media, physical security measures like
secure locks, surveillance cameras, and restricted access to server
rooms can help protect against theft or tampering

● Data in Transit
o Data in Transit
▪ Also known as data in motion, refers to data that is being transferred
over a network
▪ This could include sending an email, loading a website, or transferring a
file

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o Anytime data is in transit or in motion, it can be vulnerable to various security

threats
▪ On-Path Attack
▪ Interception
▪ Eavesdropping
▪ Manipulation
o To protect data in transit, one of the most effective methods is encryption
▪ Encryption transforms the data into a format that can only be read with
the correct decryption key
o You can use a virtual private network to encrypt your entire data session and
provide additional protections
▪ VPN is used to create a secure encrypted tunnel between the device and
the network

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Securing Your Devices

● Device Hardening
o Device Hardening
▪ Essential process that enhances security by reducing system
vulnerabilities and minimizes the potential attack surface used by
malicious actors and hackers
o Importance of Antivirus and Anti-malware Software
▪ Think of these applications as the device's immune system, ceaselessly
identifying, quarantining, and eradicating malicious programs or files that
could compromise the device's integrity and security
▪ Beyond just detection, they offer real-time protection by continuously
scanning the system and its activities
▪ With advanced heuristic and machine learning techniques, antivirus and
antimalware solutions can now identify threats that were previously
unknown
o Vulnerabilities
▪ Any flaws or weaknesses that exist in a system or its code
o Patching
▪ The process of applying updates to software or an operating system to
eliminate vulnerabilities and remove weaknesses from the system
o The implementation and enforcement of strong password policies can serve as a
safeguard against unauthorized access to devices and accounts
o Disable any unused features on the system
o By identifying and disabling unused features and services, it can significantly
reduce the attack surface
o Unused software installed on the system can also have vulnerabilities
o Identify and purge any unused or unneeded software so that it can free up
system resources and simultaneously eliminate potential points of attack
o Remember, device hardening is a multifaceted process that encompasses
various strategies to bolster a device's security

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● Patching and Updates

o Patching and Updates
▪ Designed to rectify any coding issues, flaws, or weaknesses in a given
piece of software
o Patch Management
▪ Involves the systematic management of patches or upgrades for software
applications and technologies
o "Known vulnerabilities" are very dangerous, because attackers know that these
vulnerabilities exist and they will develop an exploit to attack them
o Always update the software to the latest version when a patch comes out within
3 days to ensure the system is well-protected
o Service Packs
▪ Large update sets that include a collection of updates, fixes, and
enhancements to existing software versions
o Lifecycle Support
▪ Each manufacturer supports a given software product or operating
system for a specific amount of time
o The most common concern is that sometimes updates can cause issues,
including software incompatibility or even system crashes
o The patching and update processes hold a critical place in maintaining the
security of the systems, help to maintain their reliability, and can improve their
performance

● Secure Software Installation

o Software Sources
▪ Software sources pinpoint where we can acquire the software from and
they span both tangible locations, such as retail stores, as well as digital
venues, like websites or app stores
o Validating Legitimate Sources
▪ Essential step in the secure software installation process because it
involves confirming the authenticity and trustworthiness of the source
before proceeding with the download or installation
▪ Researching legitimate sources goes hand in hand with validation
● This involves gathering information about the source to make
sure it's legitimate
● You should look for indicators such as the track record of the
source, online reviews, ratings, and even comments from other
users

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o Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Websites

▪ Managed by the entity that initially crafted the software and carries a
much higher level of trust than third-party websites
▪ The OEM can ensure the software's quality, provide timely updates, and
guarantee that no malicious alterations have been made to their code
o Third-party Websites
▪ Platforms that distribute software that are not controlled by the original
manufacturers
▪ Always ensure that the site has a good reputation, provides a secure
connection, and offers the original, unmodified version of the software

● Preventing Malware
o Malware
▪ Refers to any software designed to cause damage to a computing device,
server, client, or computer network
▪ Malware includes a wide range of damaging software types, including
viruses, worms, ransomware, spyware, and trojans
o To prevent malware, we need to take several steps to enhance our digital
defenses
▪ Invest in robust, reliable, and updated antivirus or anti-malware tools
▪ Ensure that the operating systems and all of the software are regularly
updated
▪ Emails are also common delivery methods used by malware
▪ Always use a secure network connection
▪ Always use safe browsing habits
● Be careful when downloading software or other files, especially
from third-party websites, as these can contain malware
▪ Data Backups
▪ Consider user privileges and permissions on the system
o Remember that preventing malware involves a multifaceted approach

● Anti-virus and Anti-malware

o Anti-virus
▪ Software that can detect and prevent viruses from executing
▪ Most people use the terms anti-virus and anti-malware to mean the
same thing
o The primary method of detection is using a database of known viruses or
malware behaviors

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o Heuristic
▪ The software uses knowledge about the typical activities of viruses and
other malicious software to identify and block malicious-looking behavior
o Security software often comes in two variants
▪ Personal Security Suites
▪ Network Security Suites
o Most security software is now configured for on-access scanning
o When configuring the anti-malware software, configuring proper exceptions is
crucial
o Full system scans can impact your system's performance
o When a file is found to be infected with a virus, most of the time, the anti-virus
software will detect it and take the appropriate action
▪ Cleaning the file
▪ Deleting the file
▪ Quarantining the file
o Remember, anti-malware and anti-virus tools are essential for maintaining the
health and security of your systems

● Host-based Firewall
o Host-based Firewall
▪ Software firewall installed directly on a single computer, and is used to
regulate incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an applied rule
set and provide protection for the host machine from malicious network
activity
o A host-based firewall works by controlling network traffic using predefined
rulesets
o These host-based firewalls can prevent malware that may infiltrate a system and
begin communicating with an attacker or spreading itself to other systems on
the network
o Most host-based firewalls include features like Intrusion Detection Systems and
Intrusion Prevention Systems (also called IDS and IPS), which help to identify
and stop an attack in progress
o When configuring a host-based firewall, the strategy should be to implement the
principle of least privilege using the firewall
o Principle of Least Privilege
▪ A system should only allow the minimum necessary permissions for its
operations

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o An effective host-based firewall configuration involves a comprehensive

understanding of the system's normal network activity
o Remember, host-based firewalls are a crucial component of cybersecurity,
providing individualized protection for each system

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Behavioral Security
● Policies and Procedures
o Policies
▪ Broad guidelines intended to assist organizations in their decision-making
process
▪ They define the 'what' and the 'why' - what is expected and why it is
important
o Procedures
▪ Provide step-by-step instructions for carrying out a particular task or
process, ensuring consistency and efficiency in operations
o Standards
▪ It sets a level of quality or attainment level needed to be reached, and
used to evaluate compliance with the policy
o Guidance
▪ Provides advice or recommendations on how to interpret or implement
policies, procedures, or standards
o Personnel Management Policies
▪ Guide how an organization manages its most valuable asset - its people
▪ They cover all aspects of the employee lifecycle, from recruitment to
operations to termination
o Operational Policies
▪ Governs the day-to-day operations of employees and they cover a wide
range of areas
▪ These policies govern the day-to-day operations of employees and they
cover a wide range of areas
● Work Hours
● Code of Conduct
● Health and Safety
● Performance Management
▪ Operation policies ensure a safe, productive, and respectful work
environment
▪ Operational policies encompass aspects like managing privileges,
handling data/information, responding to incidents, and regulating the
use of company resources such as internet access

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● Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)

o Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)
▪ Also known as a Fair Use Policy, a crucial document that outlines the
rules and guidelines for using an organization's IT equipment and
network
o The acceptable use policy essentially provides us with the rules for using
computers at our workplace
▪ The policy should clearly define the acceptable use of work equipment,
including computers, mobile devices, software, internet access, email
systems, and other digital tools provided by the company
o UAP should emphasize that these resources are provided for business purposes
o Many employees prefer to use their personal devices for work, a practice known
as Bring Your Own Device (or BYOD)
▪ An effective policy should include guidelines for BYOD
▪ These guidelines should clarify
● What types of devices are allowed
● What level of access these devices will have to the company's
network
● What security measures must be in place on these employee
provided devices
o Any data related to the company is still subject to the same security and privacy
rules as data on company-owned devices
o AUP is a vital tool for balancing the need for employees to use digital resources
to do their jobs

● Privacy Policy
o Privacy Policy
▪ Legal document that outlines how a company collects, uses, discloses,
and manages a customer or client's data
o In the workplace, a privacy policy can extend to the use of corporate networks,
mobile apps, desktop software, and business software
▪ As an employee, when you use these resources, your activity may be
subject to monitoring and recording

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● We can divide workplace monitoring into three parts

• Security Assurance
▪ Keeping an eye on data exchanges and the conduct
of employees is crucial to guarantee that they do
not disclose sensitive information or jeopardize the
organization's security
• Data Monitoring
▪ Evaluating data communications can be used to
assess an employee's efficiency
▪ For instance, a contact management system might
track the number and length of phone interactions
• Physical Monitoring
▪ Physical monitoring involves recording employees’
movement, location, and behavior within the
workplace, often using CCTV or by using drug and
alcohol testing procedures
o Responsible employer ensures that the protocols for workplace surveillance are
transparent and straightforward
▪ This can be achieved through an employment contract or staff handbook
that clearly outlines the rules regarding employee behavior, security
measures, break times, and equipment usage

● Expectations for Privacy

o With the widespread use of social media, email, file sharing, and instant
messaging, it's crucial to understand what your expectations of privacy should be
o Social media platforms are a great way to connect with friends, share
experiences, and stay informed
▪ You should understand that anything you post on social media can
potentially be seen by anyone, even with privacy settings in place
o Email is also used for everything from submitting assignments to communicating
with peers
▪ While emails are generally private, it's important to remember that they
can be accessed by others under certain circumstances
o File sharing platforms are also widely used by students for collaborative projects
and sharing study materials
▪ Sharing a file may include metadata which contains information about
where and when the file was created

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▪ To protect your privacy, always use trusted file sharing platforms and be
selective about what you share and with whom
o Instant messaging is another popular way to keep in touch
▪ While these conversations are often private, remember that they can be
screenshotted or forwarded
▪ Use messaging apps with end-to-end encryption

● Handling Confidential Information

o Handling confidential information has become a critical responsibility for
individuals and organizations alike
o To protect your data, only you should know your passwords and those
passwords should not be shared with others
▪ This means you should also not write down your passwords, nor should
you tell anyone else or passwords or reuse that same password with any
other services or websites
o Personally Identifiable Information (PII)
▪ Refers to any information that can be used to identify an individual
● Names
● Social Security Numbers
● Addresses
● Phone Numbers
● Email Addresses
o Customer Confidential Information
▪ Includes business information, such as product designs, marketing
strategies, contracts, procedures, diagrams, and financial data
▪ This information should be kept confidential, not disclosed to
unauthorized individuals, and should always be stored securely with
proper network access controls and encryption to protect the data in
transit or the data at rest
o Remember, handling confidential information responsibly is a critical aspect of
maintaining trust, ensuring legal compliance, and protecting individuals and
businesses from potential harm

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Conclusion

● Conclusion
o 6 Domains of IT Fundamentals+
▪ Domain 1: IT Concepts and Terminology
● It makes up 17% of the exam
▪ Domain 2: Infrastructure
● It makes up 22% of the exam
▪ Domain 3: Applications and Software
• It makes up 18% of the exam
▪ Domain 4: Software Development
● It makes up 12% of the exam
▪ Domain 5: Database Fundamentals
● It makes up 11% of the exam
▪ Domain 6: Security
● It makes up 20% of the exam
o How do you sign up and schedule your exam?
▪ Pearson VUE
● You can take it at any Pearson VUE testing center worldwide, at
either a local testing center or online
● You can buy that exam voucher by going to Pearson Vue directly
when you're scheduling your exam at pearsonvue.com, or going
to the voucher store at lpi.org to buy it from their online store
● Pearson VUE and LPI have now created a capability for you to take
your certification exam online from the comfort of your home or
office, using the Pearson VUE OnVue testing system
▪ Dion Training
● If you'd like to pre-purchase your exam voucher before you
schedule the exam, you can actually save 10% off the price by
going to our website at diontraining.com/vouchers
● Currently, we carry vouchers for over 50 countries around the
world, and we are adding countries all the time
● As a LPI Platinum Partner, we receive a special discounted rate on
these exam vouchers and we pass those savings onto our
students when they order their exam vouchers from us

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o Top five tips for increasing your score on the exam

▪ Use a cheat sheet
• You're not allowed to actually carry anything into the exam with
you, but if you're at a local testing center, they will give you a
whiteboard or a dry erase sheet that's about the size of a normal
piece of paper
• Once the clock starts on the exam, you can brain-dump anything
you want onto that paper
• Use the sheet and spend the first 1-2 minutes writing down those
important things you may forget later on
▪ Skip any questions that are giving you trouble
• If you find yourself struggling with a really hard question, just
mark it for review and skip it
• Students who do this end up increasing their score by at least 5%
to 10% over their peers who try to do the simulations at the
beginning of their exam
▪ Take a guess
• If you're in doubt, I want you to take a guess from the possible
answer choices
• There is no penalty for guessing incorrectly on the exam
• If you are in doubt of the right answer, try to eliminate as many
choices as possible and guess between the remaining answer
options
▪ Pick the best time for your exam
• Pick the time of day that works best for you
• Don’t try to squeeze the exam in after working a long day at the
office
▪ Be confident
• You’ve got this!
• You should already know you're going to pass!
• You should have already studied all the information in this course,
you've watched the videos, you've taken the quizzes, you've
studied your downloadable study notes
• If you're not confident right now, then wait a few days to
schedule your exam
• Take a bunch of practice exams and build up your confidence

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o When you take a practice exam, your goal is not to memorize the answer key
▪ You need to understand why the right answer was right and the wrong
answers are wrong
o Good luck, and we hope to see you again in a future course as you continue
upwards in your project management, IT, or cybersecurity career and continue
to climb the CompTIA certification ladder!

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