BUILDING TECH

CONCRETE – composite material, consists of binding medium, combination of fine & coarse aggregate
Invented By ROMANS (“Pozzolana” – Quicklime, Water, Sand, Gravel)
Cement (Portland / Hydraulic)
Fine Aggregate (Sand)
Coarse Aggregate (Gravel)
Water (Potable)
Reinforcement (Steel)
Admixture (Optional; Special Treatment)

BINDER – Cementing Material, reactive siliceous material to hydrated cement,

such as asphalt, resins, etc.

AGGREGATE – Granular Material; such as Sand, Gravel, Crushed Stone, etc.

Lightweight aggregates occupies 60–70% of the volume of concrete

GRADING – Distribution of particle sizes present in an aggregate (ASTM C 136)

REINFORCED CONCRETE – with Pre-stressing tendons or Non-Prestressed Reinforcement

PLAIN CONCRETE – Structural Conc. w/ no (or less) reinforcements

Also concrete w/ no admixture/special treatment

HYDRAULIC CEMENT – cement that sets & hardens by chemical interaction w/ Water
Incapable underwater (example: Portland Cement & Ground Granulated Blast–Furnace Slag)

PORTLAND CEMENT – Hydraulic Cement made of Pulverized Portland-Cement Clinker,

combination w/ Calcium Sulfate
(5) Portland Cement Types
Type I – Gen. Purpose – for most purposes of Const’n
Type II – Moderate Sulfate Resistance – in contact w/ water w/ Sulfate present
Type III – High Early Strength – where reduced curing is required; fast schedule;
Cold weather, Concrete Repairs, Precast Const’n, etc
Type IV – Low Heat of Hydration –Prevents Cracking; Massive Structures
(Dams, Nuclear Plants, etc.)
Type V – Sulfate–Resistant – High Sulfate Concentration; Underwater Struc’l, etc.

JOSEPH ASPDIN, 1824 – Patented artificial cement, named “Portland Cement”

ERNEST L. RANSOME, 1890 – Patented his Deformed Bars made of Twisted Square Bars

SJI– Steel Joist Institute

AASHTO – American Association of State Highway & Transportation Officials
AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
ACI – American Concrete Institute
ASTM – American Society for Testing & Materials
ASTM C 33 – Specification for Fine & Coarse Aggregate for Concrete
ASTM C 136 – Sieve or Screen Analysis of Fine & Coarse Aggregates
ASTM A992 – Preferred Steel type for Standard Wide–Flange Structural Shapes
T C A – Tile Council of America – Handbook for Ceramic Installation
ANSI A108 / A118 / A136 Series – American Nat’l Standard Spec’n for Ceramic Tile Install’n
PCC – Portland-Cement Concrete
Cement + Water = CEMENT PASTE PH Vernacular: “Puro”
Cement + Water + Sand = CEMENT MORTAR
Cement + Water + Sand + Lime = MASONRY MORTAR
Cement + Water + Sand + Coarse Aggregate = CONCRETE

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BLENDED CEMENTS (ACI 595) Req. Less energy to manufacture; made w/ By-Product Mat’ls

a) Fly Ash – from Coal Plants; material from combustion of ground or powdered coal;
Strengthens concrete, long-term
b) (GGBFS) Ground Granulated Blast–Furnace Slag – from Steel Plants; Same elements of
Portland cement but w/ different proportions
c) Portland –Pozzolan Cement
d) Pozzolan –Modified Portland Cement
e) Slag Cement
f) Slag – Modified Portland

WHITE CEMENT – Low Iron Content (Gray color from iron); for AR’l purposes, stucco, terrazzo,
décor surfaces; recommended for colored concrete or mortar

BULK DENSITY – replaces term of “UNIT WEIGHT”

PYCNOMETER – vessel for determination of specific gravity of liquid or solids

Proportioning Concrete Workability, Durability, Strength Criteria

WATER–CEMENT RATIO – to test strength of concrete

SLUMP TEST – Measure of consistency of fresh-mixed concrete using SLUMP CONE to test its workability
12” Height, 8” Bottom Diameter (), 4” Upper 
CYLINDER TEST – or COMPRESSION TEST; Lab–Test for Concrete Strength
CORE TEST – Compression test on a concrete sample cut from hardened concrete
by using a CORE DRILL
ADMIXTURES – used in concrete mixture; ACCELERATOR (speed up); RETARDER (slow down)
Types of Admixtures
1) Air–Entraining Admixtures
2) Water–Reducing (Plasticizer) & Set–Controlling Admixture (Type A–G)
3) Corrosion–Inhibiting
4) Shrinkage–Reducing
5) Admixture to Control Alkali–Silica Reactivity
6) Admixtures for Underground Concretin

SUPERPLASTICIZER – high-range water-reducing admixture

PLACING CONCRETE
CONSOLIDATION – process of arranging freshly mixed concrete during placement by the reduction of voids usually
by Vibration, Centrifugation, Rodding, Tamping, or some combination of these actions

CURING CONCRETE – Purpose is to slow the loss of moisture from the slab and reduce early carbonation of the
surface. Longer period moisture retention permits more complete hydration of the cement, resulting in greater
strength
CURING METHODS
1) Water Curing 3) Moisture-Retaining Coverings
2) Wet Coverings 4) Curing Compounds

EFFLORESCENCE – Deposit of Salts on surface having emerged in solution from within either concrete or masonry
and subsequently been precipitated by reaction, such as carbonation or evaporation

HONEYCOMB DEFECT – Unintended Voids left in concrete due to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces
among coarse aggregate particles
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SITECAST: SLAB ON GRADE
Joints in Building
CONSTRUCTION JOINT –
CONTRACTION JOINT –

Surface Divider Joints

ABUTMENT JOINT –
CONTROL JOINT –
EXPANSION JOINT –

Building Separation Joint

VOLUME–CHANGE JOINT –
SETTLEMENT JOINT –
SEISMIC SEPARATION JOINT –
Structure / Enclosure Joints
Sealants
ISOLATION JOINTS
Non–Movement Joint
Nailed Connections
Mortar Joints
Welds & Bolts
Working Construction Joints
Shingle Roofing
Bevel Siding
Metal Clips
Cyclical Motions
Shrink When Cooler, Expand When Warmer
Shrink When Dry, Expand When Wet/Humid
Structural Motions Load Deflections
One–Time Motions
Concrete Shrinks
Gypsum & Brick Expands
Soil Depression for New Building
Motions from Chemical Processes
Steel Expands When It Rusts, Cracking Concrete
Plastics Shrink When Exposed To Sunlight

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 BUILDING TECH

Concrete Wall – Has its own footing

Suspended Slab – Floor Framing; One Way & Two-Way Solid Slab System
One–Way Slab –Main reinforcement bars runs on one direction (the shorter span);
has supporting transverse reinforcements called Temperature Bars to stabilize

a) Solid Slab System – Monolithic Concrete Structure; “Beam & Slab Method”
Spans across lines of support furnished by walls or beams
b) Joist System / RIBBED SLAB – has small connectors / joists; Support long spans
Has Broadened Joist Ends at lower edges; little concrete is "non-working"; the
bottom steel is concentrated in spaced ribs or joists. The thin slab that spans
across the top of the joists is reinforced only by shrinkage-temperature bars

c) Wide–Module Concrete Joist System – Skip–Joist System

Similar to Ribbed Slab; joists are farther apart; 4–6 feet
d) Banded Slab

Two–Way Floor System

a) Solid Slab System

b) Waffle Slab – Metal or plastic pans called domes are used as formwork
To eliminate non-working concrete from the slab, allowing longer spans

c) Flat Slab System– occasionally used for very heavily loaded industrial floors;
the slab is supported by a grid of beams running in both directions over the columns

i. Flat Plate – has no beam at all

ii. Drop Panel
iii. Mushroom Capital

PRECAST CONCRETE usually prestressed (long span)

SLABS – Solid Flat Slab; Hollow Core Slab; Single Tee; Double Tee (most preferred, stable)
BEAMS – Rectangular; L–Shaped; Inverted Tee; “AASHTO” Beam (for bridges, flyovers)

FASTENINGS ON CONCRETE (See Figures next page)

A) Anchor Bolt – pre-embedded K) Wood or Fiber Plug / Sleeve

B) Embed Plate – For Cladding, Curtain Walls Type of Expansion Bolt
C) Steel Angle w/ Welded Threaded Stud – L) Lead Sleeve – Type of Expansion Bolt
D) Adjustable Insert – M) Metal Sleeve – Type of Expansion Bolt
E) Threaded Insert N) Metal Sleeve w/ Tapered Shank
F) Threaded Insert (also) Type of Expansion Bolt
G) Dovetail Slot (Sheet Steel) O) Special Screw
H) Wood Nailer Strip (Dovetailed) P) Special Nail
I) Fastener Grouted on Oversized Hole (Sleeve) Q) Concrete Nail
J) Expansion Bolt or Screw / Bolt R) Power–Driven Fastener
w/ Plastic Sleeve (Tocks) S) Perforated Metal Plate
T)

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Reference: (Allen & Iano, 2014)

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SITEWORKS & FOUNDATION

Various Formats for Classifying Building Elements

16 DIVISION UNIFORM CONSTRUCTION INDEX

 International Format ; can serve as a checklist during the Design / Devl’t Stage
 Grouped in the order that a vertical structure is built
 The spec.s are divided into the following: (Refer to Master Format)

MASTERFORMAT 1988 Edition

Div. I – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Div. 8 – DOORS & WINDOWS / OPENINGS
Includes most requirements that apply to the job as a Includes hardware, doors, windows, and frames; metal
whole or to several of the technical sections, and and glass curtain walls; transparent and translucent
especially the requirements sometimes referred to as glazing
special conditions
Exceptions are glass blocks and glass mosaics.
General conditions and supplementary conditions are
not included in the divisions of the specifications. Div. 9 – FINISHES
Includes Interior Finishes not traditionally the work of
Div. 2 – SITE WORK / EXISTING CONDITIONS the carpentry trade
Includes most subjects dealing with site preparation
and development. Site utilities in Divisions 15 and 18 Div. 10 – SPECIALTIES
must be coordinated with these sub-divisions Includes factory-assembled, pre-finished items.

Div. 3 – CONCRETE Div. 11 – EQUIPMENT

Includes items traditionally associated with concrete Includes most items of specialized equipment.
work
Div. 12 – FURNISHINGS
exceptions are paving, piles, waterproofing, and,
Includes most items placed in the finished building.
terrazzo.
Div. 13 – SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
Div. 4 – MASONRY
Includes on-site construction consisting of items that
Includes materials traditionally installed by a
normally would fall under several other divisions but
mason
require control that can be attained only by all parts in
exceptions are paving and interior flooring a single section.

Div. 5 – METALS Div. 14 – CONVEYING SYSTEMS

Includes most structural metals are metals not falling Includes the systems that utilize power to transport
under the specific provisions of other divisions people or materials.

exceptions are reinforcing steel, curtain walls, roofing, Div. 15 – MECHANICAL

piles, doors, and windows. Includes most items that have been traditionally
associated with the mechanical trades; Plumbing,
Div. 6 – WOOD, PLASTICS, & COMPOSITES (HVAC) Heating, Ventilating, Air conditioning and Fire
Includes most work traditionally performed by
carpenters Div. 16 – ELECTRICAL
Includes most items that have been traditionally
exceptions are wood fences, concrete formwork,
associated with the electrical trades.
doors, windows, and finish hardware.

Div. 7 – THERMAL & MOISTURE PROTECTION

Includes most items normally associated with
insulation and preventing the passage of water or
water vapor

exceptions are paint, water stops and joints I installed

in concrete or masonry, and gaskets and sealants

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MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING

A) SUPERSTRUCTURE – Portion of the building above the ground
B) SUBSTRUCTURE – Habitable portion of the building below the ground
1) Slab On Fill – Slab w/c rests on ground and not suspended
2) Crawl Space – Building w/o basement; unfinished accessible space below the 1st floor
Usually less than a full storey height
3) Basement – Lower story of a building; partly or entirely below grade
C) FOUNDATION – Structural portion of the building; transfers building load into the soil
1) Shallow Foundation – transfer bldg loads to the earth close to the base of the substructure
a) SPREAD FOOTING – take concentrated loads from above & spread them out across an
area of soil large enough that the allowable soil pressure is not exceeded
 Pad
o Plain Concrete Pad – Shallow or Deep;
 100mm MIN Footing Projection from wall to allow tolerance for building wall
 45 degrees approx. Dispersion passing thru side footing
o Reinf. Conc. Pad – Shallow or Deep
o Balanced Pad / Combined Footing
Rectangular, Trapezoidal, Hole–Balanced, Cantilever Balanced
 Strip
o Masonry Strip
o Concrete Strip – Plain of Reinforced
o Trench Fill – Concrete or Stone
o Reinf. Beam Strip – Rectangular or Inverted–T; Stepped Footing on sloping sites

b) MAT or RAFT FOUNDATION – supports the entire building

For Tall Bldgs 6 Feet or 1.8 M or More in Thickness
 Crust Raft
 Blanket Raft – Crust raft constructed on a stone blanket layer
 Slip–Plane Raft – For Lateral loads
 Cellular Raft – With Voids
 Lidded Cellular Raft – Separate upper floor
 Beam Strip Raft
 Jacking Raft – has embedded jack; to readjust / re-level building
 Buoyancy / Floating Raft – like cellular raft
2) Deep Foundation – extend downward through layers of weak / unstable strata to reach
more competent soil or rock deeper w/in the earth
a) CAISSON / Drilled Pier – drilling (Belling/Flaring) hole out at the bottom
& filling it w/ concrete; AUGER DRILLS used
 Socketed Caisson – drilled into rock at bottom rather than belled

b) PILES – Pile Driver hammers a Precast Concrete Pile into the ground; used where non–
cohesive soils, subsurface water, or excessive depth of bearing strata make caissons
impractical; Piles are later joined at top by a reinforced PILE CAP w/c distributes load of
column/wall above
Pile Materials:
 Timber Pile
 Steel
 H–Pile
 Steel Pipe
 Minipile
 Helical / Screw Pile

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 BUILDING TECH

 Concrete Pile – Precast or Sitecast

 Compaction Type
Pressure–Injected footing; Rammed Aggregate Piers / Stoned Columns

 End Bearing Pile – piles are driven to refusal/ firmly embedded;

Additional hammer blows made
 Friction Pile – driven to a predetermined depth until a certain level of resistance
to hammer blows is encountered

Floating / Compensated Foundation – Variation of Mat Flooring; Bldg. weighs approx. The same
as soil excavated for the substructure
1–Storey of Excavated Soil weighs approx. 5–Stories of Superstructure
 Ex.) 30–Storey Building would require 4–6 stories deep
Above–Slab Drainage – used in Bldgs w/ Mat Foundation; and/or with Sump Pit & Pump
Below–Slab Drainage – Perforated Pipe in Crushed Stone; and/or with Sump Pit & Pump

DAMPROOFING – Moisture–resistant cement plaster / asphalt compound applied to basement walls

 Cement Plaster Damproofing – light gray color; troweled on
 Asphalt / Bituminous Damproofing – Black color; applied as a liquid by spray, roller, or trowel
GEOTEXTILE – Fabric made of chemically inert plastics resistant to soil deterioration

Radon Gas Control – Minimize Gas Infiltration; prevents gas seeping through cracks & unsealed
penetrations in the foundation; Radon is a cancer causing gas occurs naturally within soil

UP – DOWN CONSTRUCTION – construction proceeds both upward and downward simultaneously

4 PRECISION ISSUES FOR SITE LAYOUT

1) Level – Horizontal Lebel
2) Plumb – Verticality Hulog
3) Aligned – Parallel Aligned
4) Square – Perpendicular Eskwalado

FOUNDATION LOADS
1) Dead Load –
2) Live Load – Occupants, Cars, Moving Equipment
3) Rain & Snow Loads –
4) Wind Loads –
5) Horizontal Pressures – Of Earth & Water Against Basement Walls
6) Inclined Thrusts – From Arches, Rigid Frames, Domes, Vaults, or Tensile Struc.
7) Buoyant Uplift Forces – From Underground Water
8) Horizontal & Vertical Forces – Caused By Motion from Ground during Earthquakes

SOILS
 Rock – Continuous mass of solid mineral; can only be removed by drilling & blasting
 Soil – Earth material that is particulate
 Boulder – Individual soil particle; requires two hands to lift / carry
 Cobble – Individual soil particle; requires whole hand to lift / carry
 Gravel – Individual soil particle; requires only thumb & forefinger to pick-up
 Sand – Visible soil particle; too small to individually pick-up
 Silt – Non–visible soil particle; equidimensional
 Clay – Non–visible particle; plate–shaped
 Peat – Topsoil & other organic soils

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TEST PITS – investigation of soil conditions at the site; dug when foundation
Will not extend deeper than 16 feet or 3 meters
The maximum practical reach of small excavating machines

WATER TABLE – elevation at w/c the soil is normally fully saturated;

If found within a dug test pit, it’ will be apparent as pit will fill-up w/ water

TEST BORING – standard penetration tests can give an indication of the soil’s bearing capacity
by number of blows of a Standard Driving Hammer required to advance a sampling tube
into the soil by a fixed amount
a) Portable Cathead Drilling Rig
b) Trailer–Mounted Hydraulic Feed Core Drill
c) Truck–Mounted Hydraulic Drilling Rig w/ Core Augers
SLOPE SUPPORT
 SHEETING
 Soldier Beams & Lagging – Sheet H–Pile & Wooden Planks (Lagging) inserted between
the piles to retain the soil as excavation progresses
 Sheet Pile
 Timber Sheet Piling
 Steel Sheet Piling (Common; inserted w/ a Vibratory Driver)
o Vibratory Driver – rapid up & down motion to sheets to descend under soil
o Impact Hammers or Hydraulic Presses can also be used
 Precast Concrete Sheet Piling (w/ Grout Key)

 Shotcrete – Pneumatically Placed Concrete is sprayed into place from the nozzle of a hose
By a stream of compressed air

 Slurry Wall – more complex & expensive; excavated trench w/ viscous mix of
Water & Bentonite Clay called a “Slurry” to prevent earth walls collapsing
A welded cage of steel reinforcing bars is lowered into the slurry
The trench is concreted from the bottom up with the aid of a Tremie
The displaced slurry is pumped from the trench, filtered, and stored for reuse

 SOIL MIXING – Technique of adding a modifying substance of soil and blending it in place
By means of paddles rotating on the end of a shaft; Used if site has unbuildable soil
Options:
 Remediate soil contaminated w/ a chemical or biological substance
By blending it w/ a chemical that renders it harmless
 Mix Portland cement & water w/ a soil to create a cylinder
Of low strength concrete in the ground

 BRACING – Required To Resist Soil Pressure

 Crosslot Bracing – End-To-End (crosses the lot); good for narrow excavation
 Rakers – Diagonal Bracing
 Tiebacks – By Boring, by Grouting, by Tensioning

EXCAVATION WORKS
DEWATERING
a) Well Points – Pumps out water to keep an Excavation Dry
b) Watertight Barrier – With Impermeable layer under; Another Method of Keeping an Excavation Dry
c) Waterproofing & Drainage

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METALS – Strongest bldg mat’ls commonly used ALUMINUM – Nonferrous; Most Used In Const’n
 Hardened by cold-working; heat-treated for
EIFFEL TOWER – WROUGHT IRON increased strength; self-protecting from corrosion
CRYSTAL PALACE – CAST IRON  Used for roofing, flashing sheet, ductwork, curtain
wall, window & Door Frames, grills, ornamental
PROPERTIES OF METALS failing, siding, hardware, electrical wiring, &
1) Plastic / Melting – can be liquefied by heating & protective coating for other metals
will solidify as they cool  Aluminum Powder is used in Metallic Paints
2) Ductile – can be hammered thin / drawn into wires  Aluminum Oxide is used as an abrasive in
3) Conductive – most metals are prone to conduct sandpaper & grinding Wheels
heat & electricity
4) Corrosive – most metals corrode by oxidation COPPER – also widely used in const’n; bright orange-
red in color; changes color when it oxidizes
Classification of Metals  Can me made stronger through cold-working; not
Classified as Ferrous (consists primarily of Iron) & amenable to heat-treatment; ductile & easy to
Nonferrous (all other metals) fabricate
 Has the highest thermal & electrical conductivity;
 Ferrous Metals – less expensive then nonferrous; May be formed by casting, drawing, & extrusion
also the strongest; more tendency to rust
BRONZE – reddish-gold metal; 90% Copper, 10% Tin;
 Nonferrous Metals – more expensive; form thin Used in statuary, bells, ornamental metalwork, door &
tenacious oxide layers that protect from further cabinet hardware, & weather-stripping
corrosion; valuable for finish bldg components;
BRASS – (Copper & Zinc & other metals) lighter in
easy to work & attractive
color than Bronze; straw yellow color
 Corrosion-resistant; can be polished to a high luster
ALLOYS – Metal mixed w/ other elements or metals to
 Used in hinges & doorknobs, weather-stripping,
modify its properties for a particular purpose
ornamental metalwork, screws, bolts, nuts,
& plumbing faucets (plated w/ Chromium)
Example: BRONZE = COPPER + Small Amount of TIN
STEEL = IRON + Controlled Amount of Carbon
ZINC – blue-white metal; low in strength, relatively
brittle, moderate in strength
Common Metals Used in Building Construction
 Zinc Alloy Sheet is used for Roofing & Flashing; &
for small Hardware parts, Cabinet pulls & hinges,
CAST IRON – contains relatively large amounts of
bath accessories & electrical fixture components
carbon & impurities; most brittle ferrous metal
 Most important use of Zinc is for Galvanizing; zinc
coat prevents steel from rusting
WROUGHT IRON – produced by hammering semi-
molten iron to produce a metal w/ long fibers of iron GALVANIZED STEEL – steel coated w/ zinc to protect
interleaved w/ long fibers of slag; very low against corrosion
iron content; making it stringer in tension & less brittle
then cast iron
ELECTROPLATING – widely used to coat metals such
STAINLESS STEEL – made by alloying steel w/ other as chromium & cadmium onto steel to improve its
metals (Chromium & Nickel); forms a self-protecting appearance & to protect it from oxidation
oxide coating; highly resistant to corrosion; harder to
form & machine than mild steel & is more costly ANODIZED ALUMINUM – electrolytic process is used,
 Available in attractive finishes from matte texture to adding a thin oxide layer of controlled color &
mirror polish consistency to the surface of the metal
 Frequently used in the manufacture of fasteners,
roofing, & flashing sheet, hardware, railings, NONMETALLIC COATINGS – Metals that are finished
& other ornamental metal items
w/ paints, lacquers, organic coatings, porcelain enamel,
1) Type 304 Stainless Steel – or Type 18–8 & thermosetting powders; to protect & enhance
(Percentage of Chromium & Nickel) appearance
Commonly specified; adequate corrosion
resistance Heat Treatment of Metals
Properties of Metal can be changed by heat treatment
2) Type 316 Stainless Steel – higher nickel content
w/ Molybdenum; More corrosion resistant than 1) QUENCHED – steel that is heated red–hot then
Type 304; Specified for Marine Environments plunged in cold water; harder but brittle
3) Type 410 Stainless Steel – lower chromium; less 2) TEMPERED – heating to a moderate degree &
corrosion resistant than the 300 series of alloys; cooling it slowly; both hard & strong
hardened through heat treatment; For Self- 3) ANNEALING – steel brought to a very high
Drilling, Self-Tapping Stainless Steel Fasteners, temperature & then cooled very slowly;
whose threads must be tough enough to cut Becomes softer, easier to work, & less brittle
through structural steel of concrete
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COLD WORKING – Another way of changing metal FORGING – heating a piece of metal until it becomes
properties; steel is beaten & rolled thinner at room soft, then beating it into shape
temperature, where its crystalline structure is altered in
a way that makes it much stronger, though somewhat STAMPING – process of squeezing sheet metal
more brittle; and can be easily reversed by annealing between two matching dies To give it a desired shape
or texture
 COLD ROLLING – used to produce small-section
steel rods & steel components for open-web joists MACHINING – process of cutting unwanted material
from a piece of metal to produce the desired shape
 STEEL SHEET STOCK – also rolled into
corrugated config.; utilized as floor & roof decking MILLING – machining operation in w/c a rotating cutting
in steel framed struc wheel is used to cut metal from a workpiece

 COLD–WORKED STEEL – Steel can be cold- To Produce Cylindrical Shapes – metal piece is
worked or cold-formed (rolled or bent) in a cold rotated against a stationary cutting tool in a LATHE
state (at room temperature). This causes steel to
gain considerable strength through realignment of FLAME CUTTING TORCH – slender, high temperature
its crystalline structure gas flam w/ a jet of pure oxygen to burn away the
metal; economical
PLATE STOCK – Heavier sheet; may be cold-formed method of cutting steel of almost any thickness
into square, rectangular, round, & elliptical hollow
shapes, welded to form Hollow Structural Sections PLASMA CUTTING – tiny supersonic jet of
(HSS) / Structural Tubing w/c are used for columns & superheated gas that blows away the metal; Can give
members of welded steel trusses & space trusses; their more precise cuts at thicknesses up to 2 inches
hollow shapes makes them suitable for torsional /
LASER CUTTING – gives high-quality results in thin
twisting stresses or to buckling from compressive loads
metal plates
FABRICATING METALS
BRAKES – result of Brake Metal; sheet metal is
fabricated w/ its own set of tools; Shears are used to
DRAWING – produces wires by pulling a metal rod
cut metal sheets; & folds are made on large machines
through a series of progressively smaller orifices in
called Brakes
hardened steel plates until the desired diameter is
reached; Cold Drawing & Cold Rolling will harden &
JOINING METAL COMPONENTS
strengthen many metals
may be joined mechanically or by fusion

CASTING – process of pouring molten metal into a WELDING – for high-temperature fusion connections;
shaped mold; tends to produce weaker metal than most Gas Flame or Electric Arc melts the metal
forming processes; useful for making elaborate shapes On both sides of the joint; additional molten metal from
like lavatory faucets a Welding Rod or Consumable Electrode

 CAST STEEL – Vast majority of struc’l steel is BRAZING & SOLDERING – lower-temperature
produced as rolled shapes; but struc’l shapes ca processes; parent metal is not melted; instead, a
also be produced as Cast Steel; by pouring molten different metal w/ a lower melting point
steel into molds & allowing it to cool. Well suited for (Bronze or Brass for BRAZING; Tin Alloy for
custom shaped connections SOLDERING) is melted into the joint & bonds to the
pieces it connects
ROLLING – hot or cold; forms metal by squeezing it
 Soldered Connection is not as strong but easy to
EXTRUSION – process of squeezing heated but not make; works well for connecting copper plumbing
molten metal through a shaped die to produce a long pipes & sheet metal roofing; as an alternative to
metal piece w/ a shaped profile matching the cutout in welding or soldering
the die
 Adhesives are occasionally used to join metals in
certain nonstructural applications

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OPEN–WEB STEEL JOISTS – also known as FLAT TRUSS; Made of hot & cold rolled shapes; mass-produced truss
used to support floor / roof decks; By Steel Joist Institute (SJI) Spec.s, OWSJ are produced in:
SJI Spec.s for OWSJ SPAN DEPTH
K Series Joists 60 ft (18 m) 8 – 30 inches (200 – 760 mm)
LH Series Joists 90 ft (29 m) 18 – 48 inches (460 – 1220 mm)
DLH Deep Longspan Series
144 ft (44m) 52 – 72 inch deep (1320 – 1830 mm)
(For ROOFS Only)
CJ Composite Joists Rated for composite floor construction

JOIST GIRDERS – prefabricated steel trusses; designed to carry heavy loads like bays of steel joists
 Depth 20 – 72 inches (500 – 1800 mm). Can be used instead of wide flange beams & girders in roof & floor
structures where their greater depth is not objectionable
 Open–Web Joists & Joist Girders are invariably made of high strength steel

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

( Rivets, Bolts, & Welding )
RIVETS
 Hot Steel Rivet is inserted through holes in the two members to be joined; the head is placed in a cup-shaped
depression of a heavy, hand held hammer. A PNEUMATIC HAMMER drives a rivet set repeatedly against the
body of the rivet to form the second head; the rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing the members tightly together
BOLTS – Inserted into holes 1/16 inch (2mm) larger than the diameter of the bolt
resist shear forces, quick & easy for field connections
 Hardened Steel WASHERS may be inserted under one or both ends of the fastener. Washers are required w/
slotted / oversized holes to ensure the bolt head & nut have adequate contact w/ surfaces of joined members
 Pneumatic or Electric Impact Wrench – Bolts are tightened with such

1) ASTM A307 – Carbon Steel Bolt / Unfinished Or Common Bolt

2) ASTM A325 & A490 – High Strength Bolt

 BEARING–TYPE CONNECTION – stressed primarily in shear; bolts installed in snug-tight condition

Movement between Joined members are resisted by bolts

 SLIP / FRICTION –CRITICAL CONNECTION – Stressed in tension; preloaded / tightened during installation
that friction between members resist mo vement;For slip-crit.conn.,
Bolts must be tightened at least 70% Of Their Ultimate Tensile Strength

Method of Determining the Amount of Tension in a Bolt

1) Turn–Of–Nut Method – each bolt is tightened snug, Then turned a specified additional fraction of a turn

2) Load Indicator Washer – or Direct Tension Indicator – Placed under the head / nut of the bolt,
As it is tightened, protrusions on the washer are progressively flattened in proportion to the
tension in the bolt. Inserting a Feeler Gauge determines if the washer has flattened
sufficiently and the capsules squirt a highly visible dye onto the surface of the washer.

3) Calibrated Wrench Method– special torque control wrench is used to tighten the bolts
A washer under the turned end of the bolt minimizes friction

4) Tension Control Bolt – Have Protruding Splined Ends

that extend beyond the threaded portion of the body of
the bolt. The nut is tightened by a Special Power–
Driven Wrench that grips both the nut & the splined end
simultaneously, turning one against the other.
End twists off when the req’d torque has been reached

5) Lockpin & Collar Fastener / Swedge Bolt – Alternative to high-strength bolt; it is a bolt-like steel pin w/
annular rings that rely on a steel collar in lieu of a conventional nut to hold the pin.
The Swedge Bolt is installed using a special power tool to hold the pin under high tension while cold forming
(swaging, a crimping-like action) the collar around its end to complete the connection.
The tail of the lockpin breaks off

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WELDING – can join the member of a steel frame as if they were a Monolithic Whole; welding and bolting are
often combined; can be used in fabricator’s shop or employed in field connections
Types of Welding
A) Pressure Welding
B) Friction Welding
C) Fusion Welding – General Construction; common
1) Homogeneous – Same Metal; For Structural Steel
a) Gas Welding
b) Electroslag
c) High Energy Beam
d) Electric Arc – Metal Electrode; heated to melt & merge both steel member & tip of electrode
i. MIG
ii. TIG – Tungsten Inert Gas
 GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding – For Ornamental
 GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding – For Ornamental
iii. Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick” Welding
2) Heterogeneous – Different Metal
a) Brazing
b) Soldering

Demand Critical Welds – welds subjected to high stresses during seismic event / critical to maintain struc’s stability
NDT / Non–Destructive Testing – Inspection of Struc’l Welding
by use of Magnetic Particle Dye Penetrant, Ultrasonic, or Radiographic Testing

5 COMMONLY USED FOR “ M ” – Backup Bar

STEEL CONSTRUCTION

1) SAW
Self-Shielded;
Submerged Arc Welding

2) ESW
Electroslag Welding

3) SMAW
Shielded Metal
Arc Welding

4) GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding

5) FCAW
Flux Cored Arc Welding

TYPICAL WELDS

1) Slot / Plug / Puddle Weld

 Non–Structural

2) Fillet Weld
 Non–Structural

3) Groove Weld
 Structural; stronger

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 BUILDING TECH

STEEL ( Structural Steel & Light Gauge Steel )

DEFORMED REINFORCING BARS
Steel Types:
 “S” Billet–Steel (Carbon Steel); Common
 “W” Low–Alloy Steel
 “R” Rail Steel
 “A” Axle Steel

PRE–TENSION vs. POST–TENSION

FORMWORK MATERIALS
 Wood – typical formwork, plywood, ply form, Phenolic Board (more water resistant & durable)
 Metal – sheets, plates
 Earth – for footings; excavation serves as a formwork
 Fiber – for curved / rounded fittings; alternative to wood

FORMWORK CLASSIFICATION
1) Conventional – common; requires manpower
2) Industrialized – sample: for mass production, large scale

Formworks are made of Three (3) Layers

1) Sheathing – plain material to cover; siding; cover the concrete itself
2) 2 To 3 Sheathing Supports – studs (vertical); wales (horizontal)-
3) Form Supports – joists / stringer, shoring

VERTICAL WALL FORM SYSTEMS

1) Conventional – Non–Modular VERTICAL SUPPORTS
2) Hand–Set Forms – Small Panel Modular 1) Sheathing
2) Studs / Wales
Forms; Used w/o Crane Lifting Assistance
3) Ties / Brace
3) Ganged Forms – Modular Forms,
Crane–Lifted / Requires Equipment HORIZONTAL SUPPORTS
4) Large Panel Forms – All Steel, 1) Sheathing
Welded, Craned 2) Joists / Stringer
3) Shores
5) Large Custom Panel Forms – Built On–Site
HORIZONTAL FLOOR FORM SYSTEMS
SPECIALIZED WALL FORM SYSTEMS 1) Conventional – Non–Modular
1) Core Walls – For Elevator Shafts & Stairwells; 2) Hand–Set Forms – Small Panel Modular
for uniform dimensions Forms; Used w/o Crane Lifting Assistance
2) Single–Sided Walls – for Substructures; such 3) Table Forms – Modular Forms, Crane-Lifted
as Retaining Walls
3) Self–Climbing Walls – versus Slip forms; VERTICAL / HORIZONTAL FORM SYSTEMS
continuous/uniform dimension (Combination)
1) Tunnel Forms – Non–Modular
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS

SHEAR CONNECTION – Joins only the web of the beam, but not the flanges, to the column

MOMENT CONNECTION – Beam flanges connect across the joint by Full Penetration Groove Welds
Capable of transmitting bending forces. Stiffener Plates are installed when
column flanges are insufficiently strong to carry force from beam flanges
AISC Types of Connection
Type 1 – Moment Connection – Rigid & Fully–Restrained
Type 2 – Shear / Simple Connection – Non–Rigid & Unrestrained
Type 3 – Semi–Rigid Connection – Partially Restrained

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 BUILDING TECH

STRUC’L STEEL PRODUCTS – S & W: Nominal Depth x Weight ; L: Leg Length x THK


I – BEAM

1 2 3 4

Bolted Column–Column Connection (Refer to Figures Above)

1. Plates are bolted to the lower section of the column in the shop and to the upper section on-site
All Column Connections are made at Waist Height above the floor
2. Column sizes diminish as the building rises, requiring frequent use of Shim Plates at connections to make
up for differences in flange thicknesses
3. Column connections may be welded rather than bolted; connector plate is shop welded to the lower column
section, w/c the bolts hold in alignment; top hole at connector plate is for attaching Lifting Line
Has partial penetration welds in bevel grooves w/c allows one column to rest on the other prior to welding
4. Welded butt plate connection; column changes from one nominal size of wide flange to another

Simple Bolted Beam-To-Column-Flange Connection – Requires two angles and a number of bolts
 The angles are usually bolted to the web of the beam in the fabricator’s shop
 The size of the angles and the number and size of the bolts are determined by the magnitude of the load that
the connection must transmit from the beam to the column
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 BUILDING TECH


Welded Beam-To-Column-Web Moment
Framed / Bolted Beam–To–Column–Flange
AISC Fully-Restrained Connection
Shear Connection; AISC Simple Connection
 Vertical Shear Tab, welded to the web of the column
 Beam is connected to the column by angles, plates,
at its centerline w/ thicker horizontal stiffener
or tees fastened to the web of the beam
plates are welded inside the column flanges

Welded Moment Connection; AISC Fully Restrained

Seated Beam–To–Column–Web  For Joining a Beam to a Column Flange
Shear AISC Simple Connection  Small rectangular backup bars are welded beneath
 Beam flanges are connected to the column by a seat the end of each beam flange
angle below and a stabilizing angle above  flanges of the beam are cut to a Dog-Bone Shape

Single–Tab Shear; AISC Simple Frame Connection

 Economical alternative to Bolted Beam–To–Column–
Flange when load on connection is light.
 A single connector plate is welded to the column in
Welded / Bolted End Plate Beam–Column Connection
the shop, and the beam is bolted to it on the
Semi-Rigid AISC Partially-Restrained Connection
construction site
 The plate is shop welded to the end of the beam and
bolted to the column on-site

Shear Connections; AISC Simple Frame

 May also be made entirely by welding
The angles are shop welded to the beam; bolts hold
beam in place while it is welded to the column Coped Beam–Girder Shear; AISC Simple Connection
 Top & Bottom Edges are not welded; This permits  A GIRDER is a beam that supports other beams
the angles to flex slightly to allow the beam to rotate  may also be made with single tabs rather than angles
away from the column as it bends  The top beam flanges are Cut Away (Coped) so that
the tops of the beams and the girder level w/ one
another, ready to receive the floor or roof decking

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STABILIZING BUILDING FRAME

1) BRACED FRAME – Uses Diagonal Bracing to create

stable triangular configurations w/in the unstable
rectilinear geometry of the frame

a. ECCENTRICALLY BRACED FRAME

Special case; ends of diagonal braces are
offset to some distance from each other where
they connect to horizontal members

2) SHEAR WALLS – Stiff Walls Made of Steel, Concrete,

and Reinf. Conc. Masonry. Use of shear connections
between beams & columns in the remainder of the frame

3) MOMENT–RESISTING FRAMES – have neither diagonal

bracing nor shear walls; Rely on stronger & stiffer moment
connections between beams & columns to provide lateral
stability

BRACING ARRANGEMENTS

1) RIGID CORE – Most common arrangement; the core, the

central area containing elevators, stairs, mechanical
chases, and washrooms, is structured as a stiff tower,
using diagonal bracing or shear walls

 The remainder of the building frame may then be

constructed with shear connections, relying on the
core for its lateral stability

Rigid Core Rigid Perimeter

2) RIGID PERIMETER / TUBE STRUCTURES

 Diagonal bracing, shear walls, or (less frequently)
beam-to-column moment connections are
incorporated into the outer walls of the building frame
& the entire interior structure is assembled w/
simpler shear connections

 Tall building structures relying on rigid perimeters

 Can be more efficient than rigid core struc. Since the

stabilizing elements are spread further apart & act over
a great area in plan.

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 BUILDING TECH

BASE PLATE CONNECTION

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 BUILDING TECH
FLOOR & ROOF DECKING

METAL DECKING – Thin sheet of steel that has been corrugated to increase its stiffness

Profiles of Corrugated Steel Decking

1) FORM DECK 1½–2½ inch Depth ( 13 – 64 mm )

Is used as permanent formwork for concrete floor decks, with the reinforced concrete slab
supported by the steel decking until the slab can support itself and its live loads

2) COMPOSITE DECK 1½–3 inch Depth ( 38 & 76 mm )

Designed to work together w/ the concrete floor topping to make a stiff, lightweight,
economical deck. The metal decking serves as tensile reinforcing for the concrete, to w/c it bonds by
special rib patterns in the sheet metal or by small steel rods or wire fabric welded to the tops of the
corrugations

 SHEAR STUDS – Connect the Conc. Deck to the Steel Beam; Placed before concrete is
poured over the metal deck; Welded every few inches to the top of each beam; by use of a
special Electric Welding Gun

3) ROOF DECK 1½–7 inch Depth ( 38 & 178 mm )

Single corrugated sheets are commonly used for roof decking, where concentrated loads are
not expected to be great & deflection criteria are not as stringent as in floors

4) CELLULAR DECKING – manufactured by welding together two sheets, one corrugated & one flat. It can be
made sufficiently stiff to support normal floor loads w/o struc’l assistance from the concrete topping poured
over it; can offer spaces for electrical & communications wiring

STRUCTURAL STEEL FIREPROOFING & LONG–SPAN STRUCTURES (From Left To Right)

A) Encasement in Reinforced Concrete D) Spray–On Fireproofing (Commonly Used)

B) Enclosure in Metal Lath & Plaster E) Loose Insulating Fill Inside A Sheet Metal
C) Enclosure in Multiple Layers of Gypsum F) Water–Filled Box Column of Wide –Flange
Board Shape W/ Added Steel Plates

FIREPROOFING OF STEEL FRAMING ( BEAMS & GIRDERS ) (From Left To Right)

A) Encasement in Reinf. Conc. D) Spray–On Fireproofing

B) Enclosure in Metal Lath & Plaster E) Suspended Plaster Ceiling
C) Rigid Slab Fireproofing F) Flame –Shielded Exterior Spandrel Girder
w/ Spray–On Fireproofing Inside

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 BUILDING TECH

(SFRM) Spray–Applied Fire–Resistive Materials / Spray–Applied Fireproofing

 Consists of a fiber & a binder of cementitious mixture; sprayed over to the required thickness
 Acts by insulating the steel from high temperatures for long periods of time
 Least expensive form of steel fireproofing
 Product is available in weights of about 12–40 pounds per cubic foot (190 –640 kg/m3)
 Structural members that only resist lateral forces (but not gravity loads)
are not required to be fireproofed

LONGER–SPAN & HIGH CAPACITY COLUMNS

 TRUSSES & SPACE FRAMES
 ARCHES
 TENSILE STRUCTURES
 FABRIC STRUCTURES

 CASTELLATED BEAMS – produced by flame cutting the web of a wide-flange section along a zigzag or arced
path, then reassembling the beam by welding its two halves point to point, thus increasing its depth without
increasing its weight. This greatly augments the spanning potential of the beam

 PLATE GIRDERS – Custom-designed & fabricated. Steel plates & angles are assembled by bolting or welding in
such a way as to put the steel exactly where it is needed. The flanges made thicker in mid span where bending
forces are higher, more web stiffeners are provided near the ends where web stresses are high, & areas around
the supports are specially reinforced.

LIGHT GAUGE STEEL FRAMING CONSTRUCTION

 “Light Gauge” refers to the relative thinness (gauge) of the steel sheet from w/c the members are made
 Noncombustible equivalent of wood & light frame construction
 used in framing as closely spaced studs, joists, & rafters; may be sheathed, insulated, wired, & finished inside &
out; the same manner as wood light frame bldg
 Sheet Steel is fed from continuous coils through machines at room temperature that cold–work the metal & fold it
into efficient structural shapes, producing linear members that are stiff & strong
 Steel used in light gauge members is manufactured to ASTM Standard A1003 & is Metallic–Coated w/ zinc or
aluminum–zinc alloy to protect against corrosion
Struc’l Steel Framing –-- Hot Worked / Hot–Rolled
Light–Gauge Steel Framing –-- Cold Worked / Cold–Formed

Light Gauge Steel Sheet – is formed into C–shaped Sections to make Short-span framing members

C–SECTIONS – For Wall, Floor, & Roof Framing, the Steel Is Formed Into Stud or Joist Sections
TRACK SECTIONS – Used for top & bottom plates;
Slightly oversized for stud or joist members can nest into them
CHANNEL SECTIONS & FURRING CHANNELS – used for lighter bracing & framing tasks

Standard Accessories For Light Gauge Steel Framing

END CLIPS – Used to join members that meet at right angles

FOUNDATION CLIPS – attach the ground floor platform to

anchor bolts embedded in the foundation

JOIST HANGERS – connect joists to headers & trimmers

around openings

WEB STIFFENER – a two–piece assembly; inserted inside a

joist & screwed to its vertical web to help
transmit wall loads vertically through the joist

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MASONRY ( Bricks; Stones; Concrete Blocks; Tiles; Glass Blocks )
 Solid Masonry  Masonry Veneer  Reinforced Concrete Unit
 Wythe Masonry  Cavity Walls Masonry
 Grouted Masonry  Reinforced Grouted Masonry  Reinf. Brick Masonry (RBM)

MORTAR MaSoNwOrK
A substance used to join masonry units, consisting of cementitious mat’ls, fine aggregate, & water

MORTAR MIN. AVE. COMPRESSIVE

DESCRIPTION CONSTRUCTION SUITABILITY
TYPE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS
Masonry for high lateral /
M High–Strength Mortar 2500 psi (17.25 MPa)
compressive loads & below grade
Masonry requiring high flexural bond
S Medium High–Strength Mortar strength; but subjected to 1800 psi (12.40 MPa)
normal compressive loads
N Medium–Strength Mortar General use above grade 750 psi (5.17 MPa)
Nonloadbearing
O Medium Low–Strength Mortar 350 psi (2.40 MPa)
interior walls & partitions
K Very Low–Strength Mortar Historic Preservation (Below Standard)

Hydraulic Cement Mortars – cure by hydration, NOT by drying

Can be retempered if mixed less than 90 minutes prior to its stiffening

Lime Mortar – Nonhydraulic Cement, mortars made w/ lime cure through a reaction w/ carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, this process is called CARBONATION

BRICKS – today bricks are burned in either a Periodic Kiln or a Continuous Tunnel Kiln
 ASTM C62 Building Brick used where appearance does not matter; Wythes masonry
 ASTM C652 Hollow Brick 60% Void; insert grouting & Steel Reinf. Bars
 ASTM C216 Facing Brick for both struc’l & non-Struc’l
 ASTM C902 Paving Bricks paving walks, drives, patio
 ASTM C64 Firebricks for furnaces; made from special fireclays
 Custom–Made Bricks

a) Soft–Mud Process (oldest); 20–30% Water; pressed in simple rectangular molds

 Water–Struck Bricks – to keep clay from adhering to the molds
 Sand–Struck / Sand–Mold Bricks – wet mold dusted w/ sand before forming brick;
matte texture surface
b) Dry–Press Process – for bricks that dry excessively during drying; clay mixed w/ min.
water (10%); pressed into steel molds by a machine
working at very high pressure

c) Stiff Mud Process – least costly & widely used today; 12–15% water passed thru a
vacuum to remove air pockets then extruded through rectangular die; automatic cutter
wires slice it into bricks on cutting table

Laying Bricks
 Rowlock – used for garden walls & sloping sills
 Soldier – for visual emphasis such as tops of walls or openings
 Sailor
 Shiner – common placement
 Stretcher & Header –

Single Wythe of Stretcher Courses – Simplest Brick Wall

Headers – used to bond Wythes together into a struc’l unit
QUOINS – cut stone blocks used to form strong corners on walls

Joint Profiles – Joint Tooling profiles for brickwork; Concave Joint & V–Joint are the only
ones suitable for outdoor use in severe climates

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 BUILDING TECH
Brick Patterns (Refer to book: Building Construction Illustrated &/or DK Ching Visual Dictionary)
 Running Bond – consists entirely of stretchers
 Common / American Bond – has header every 6th Course;
head joints aligned bet. header & stretcher courses
 English Bond – alternate course (row) of headers & stretchers
 Flemish Bond – alternating stretchers & headers in a course; Flemish diagonal bond, cross bond
Lintels
 Double Angle Steel Lintel – Angle bars
 Reinforced Lintel
 Precast Reinforced Concrete Lintel
 Wood is no longer used in Lintels; tendency to burn, decay, & shrink
Corbels – many uses in masonry
Arches – types

STONE – Building Stone; natural, diverse material; classified into how it was formed:
1) IGNEOUS – rock deposited from molten state; strongest / hardest rock
2) SEDIMENTARY – rock deposited by the action of water & wind
3) METAMORPHIC – formerly either igneous or sedimentary rock;
Properties transformed by heat & pressure

ASTM C119 Classifies Stone for Bldg. Const’n into Six (6) Groups
1) GRANITE – name means “granular” appearance; only igneous rock available
 Strongest/densest of bldg stones; commonly used in exterior cladding
 Made of mica, feldspar, & quartz (strongest mineral of the 3)
 Black Granite – low in quartz; really not granite but a stone called Basalt
 Quartzite – stone almost 100% quartz, extremely strong

2) LIMESTONE – 1st Major Sedimentary Rock; homogenous (freestone) & nongranular

 Made of calcium, magnesium, w/ small amts. of clay, sand, & organic mat’l such as seashells/fossils;
 Softer then both marble & granite; easier to quarry/saw/shape
 Ranges in color white to gray; does not take a polish
 Acid in foods react to limestone; thus not recommended for kitchen, dining, counters
 Dolomitic Limestone – stronger than calcite limestone

3) QUARTZ–BASED Stone
a. Sandstone – 2nd Major Sedimentary Rock used in bldg const’n
i. Brownstone – used in wall construction
ii. Bluestone – highly durable stone; used for paving & wall copings

4) SLATE – one of the 2 Metamorphic rock groups; formed from clay

 dense, hard stone w/ closely spaced planes of cleavage; quarried in many colors
 Easily split into sheets; for paving stones, roof shingles, & thin wall facings
 China & India are the largest suppliers of slate

5) MARBLE – 2nd of the Metamorphic rock groups; it’s a recrystallized form of Limestone
 Easily carved & polished; colors from white, black, etc.; w/ beautiful patterns of veining
 Others can take high polish but ate not true marbles,
such as Limestone Marble, Onyx Marble, serpentine marble, etc.

6) Other Stones – less used; Alabaster; Greenstone; Schist; Serpentine; & Soapstone, etc.

a) TRAVERTINE – Sedimentary rock; closely related to limestone; from sediments of limestone dissolved
in hot springs/spring water; softer & porous stone; its slabs are pitted w/ voids; not durable for
exterior cladding; if used for flooring, pitted surface can collect dirt

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FINISHES ON STONE SLABS & PANELS
1) THERMAL / FLAME–CUT FINISH – rough fin. By torching stone surface; used only on granite
Makes it ideal for floors, especially subjected to wetting
2) BUSH–HAMMERED FINISH – also a rough fin.; by hammering surface of stone w/ picks
3) SPLIT–FACE (CLEFT) FINISH – stone can be split by yielding two-faced slabs; splitting is easier in Slate
4) SAWN FINISH – if stone is not finished beyond sawing, surface is called a sawn finish; has visible saw marks
5) HONED FINISH – when sawn finish is ground smooth w/ abrasive material, honed finish is obtained; requires
repeated grinding w/ use of water to control dust; smooth but w matte appearance

6) POLISHED FINISH – no difference between honed & polished finish; grinding stone surface w/ finer abrasives
and buffing it w/ felt until surface develops a sheen. Clear penetrating sealer adds to sheen &
increases durability. Only dense stones can develop a polish (granite, marble, etc.)

7) SANDBLASTED – yields rough surface; not commonly used in finishes

Stone Application
 Stone Masonry – Laid in Mortar, much like bricks &CHB to make walls, arches, & vaults
 Stone Cladding – mechanically attached to struc’l frame or bldg walls as facing

Stone Masonry Pattern

 Rubble Masonry – unsquared pieces of stone; ex.) Random Rubble, Coursed Rubble
 Ashlar – made up of squares pieces; ex.) Coursed Ashlar, Random Ashlar
 Coursed Stone Masonry – has continuous horizontal joint lines
 whereas Uncoursed / Random Stone Masonry does not

CONCRETE MASONRY – Conc. Mas. Units (CMU) are manufactured in 3 Basic Forms
1) Large Hollow Units (Concrete Blocks) –
2) Solid Bricks –
3) Larger Solid Bricks –
 CMUs are manufactured by vibrating a stiff conc. Mix into metal molds then quickly turning out the wet blocks or
bricks onto a rack so the mold can be reused at the rate of 1000 or more units per hour
 Cured at an accelerated rate by steam at atmospheric pressure or higher pressure for faster curing
 16 inches Nominal Length of CMU
 8 inches Nominal Width of CMU
 Variable Nominal Width of CMU
 4 Webs Typical CMU Webs (in the PH; 3 webs foreign country)
 2 Face Shells Typical CMU Face Shells/ broad surface

 ASTM C90 established weight of loadbearing CMUs

 Heavier Blocks are cheaper to manufacture, absorb less moisture, better resistance to sound transmission, &
more resistant to abuse; only expensive to ship & more labor intensive to masons

 COLUMN – independent, isolated, vertical load bearing masonry/non masonry member

 PIER – used for a masonry column that is short in height; gen. used as foundation for wood frame bldg w/
underlying crawl space
 PILASTERS – similar elements to columns and piers; it is a column formed by thickening a small area of a
masonry wall w/c may project on one or both sides of the wall; does not require ties unlike RC column unless
it’s provided w/ compression reinforcement

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 BUILDING TECH
GLASS MASONRY UNITS / GLASS BLOCKS (GMU)
 Must be treated as a Non-loadbearing/nonstructural wall on the interior/exterior; laid in Stack Bond
 Gen. hollow & Air Trapped w/in; 2.0 R-Value
 Combination of masonry modularity & transparency of glass
 Higher fire resistance rating than conventional glass walls
 6, 8, or 12 inches Typical Size; 3 – 4 in. THK

CERAMIC TILES & STONE PANELS

 TCA (Tile Council of America) Handbook for Ceramic Installation
 ANSI A108 / A118 / A136 Series, American Nat’l Standard Spec’n for the Installation of Ceramic Tile
 Made of natural clay, porcelain, etc. ceramic matl; exposed face is glazed or unglazed
 Glazed protects tile body against water absorption; weakness is that it can be scratched
 Cut Stone Tile has the same characteristics as stone panel flooring
in contrast to panels, back of tiles are gauged/cut flat for uniform thickness
 Tiles are adhered w/ Mortar & the voids between the tile edges are then filled w/ Grout

CRAZING – the devl’t of tiny cracks in tile surface during glazing process; causes premature deterioration
WARPAGE – warped tiles; if tiles are not uniformly flat
LIPPAGE – warped tiles that are slightly higher than those of adjoining tile, could cause people to trip/fall
CERAMIC TRIM SHAPES – >>>

PERMEABILITY & APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TILES

Tile Type Permeability Application
IMPERVIOUS 0.5% or less Regular water contact
VITREOUS 0.5 – 3.0% Occasional water contact
SEMIVITREOUS 3.0 – 7.0% Water is quickly removed
No water contact
NONVITREOUS Above 7.0%
except maintenance

CERAMIC TILE CLASSIFICATIONS

Semi
Non
Tile Type Gen. Description Impervious Vitreous vitreou
vitreous
s
 Not expected to withstand excessive impact
Glazed Wall Tile  Not subject to freezing & thawing conditions ✔
 Not suitable for floors (WALL TILE)
Unglazed  Dust pressed / plastic method
Ceramic Tile  Porcelain or natural clay composition ✔
Glass Mosaic Tile ------ ✔
 Dust pressed method
Porcelain Tile
 Ceramic mosaic or paver tile ✔
 Glazed / unglazed
Quarry Tile  Extrusion method ✔ ✔ ✔
 Natural clay or Shale composition
 Glazed / unglazed
Paver Tile  Dust pressed method ✔ ✔ ✔
 Porcelain or natural clay composition

SETTING METHODS – Tiles are set using Mortar (TILE ADHESIVE)

Step 1: Mortar Bed Is Set
 If Waterproofing Is Required, Mortar Bed Is Places In Two (2) Applications
w/ A Waterproof Membrane In The Middle

 If Floor Will Be Subjected To Considerable Load, Mortar Bed Should Be Reinforced

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 BUILDING TECH
w/ Wire Mesh Or Metal Lath

STEP 2: Tile Is Set On Mortar Bed While Mortar Is Still Green / Not Cured
 If The Tile Is Set After The Bed Has Cured, A Portland Cement Bond Coat Is Required
Between The Tile & the Mortar Bed

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 BUILDING TECH
THICKNESS IN MORTAR BED MOVEMENT JOINTS – one of the most overlooked
a) Thin–Set / Thin–Bed – 1/8” inch thick mortar bed & aspects of tile install’n for large floor areas
consists of polymer–based adhesives  Movement joints are filled w/ pedestrian traffic
 More popular than other methods; requires less grade urethane or silicone sealant over either a
material & labor foam backer rod or bond–breaking tape
 Used where tiles are small, less than 12” x 12”  When tile adjoins other restraining struc’l members
 No slope or floor drain is required such as columns, curbs, walls, and ceilings; also at
 If tile thickness is relatively uniform
changes in floor elevation
 If subfloor has no excessive surface irregularities
 At subfloor const’n, contraction, & expansion joints
b) Thick–Set / Thick–Bed Method – 2 to 3 inch thick  The widths of joints should never be less than the joint
mortar bed in the subfloor below
 When floor tiles are large (more than 12” x 12”),
floor slopes to floor drains Interior Installations
 Excessive variation in thickness of tiles (ex.  20 – 25 feet in each direction when
Natural stone panels) or surface irregularities not exposed to direct sunlight
 8 – 12 feet in each direction when
c) Medium–Set / Medium–Bed – 1/4" to 3/4" exposed to direct sunlight
thickness  Exterior Installations – 8 – 12 feet in each direction
 Not officially recognized by several industry
standards
STONE PANEL FLOORING – or DIMENSION STONE
 Gives extra setting space when subfloor is not
properly prepared  Are natural stones; selected & fabricated (cut &
 Or when large format tiles (18 to 24 inch in one trimmed) to specific shape/size w/ or w/o mechanical
dimension) are used dressing of one or more surfaces
 Granite, Marble, Limestone, Slate, & Other Quartz–
Setting Materials: Mortars, Adhesives, & Epoxies Based Stones
1) Organic Adhesives – ready-to-use liquid / powdered  Stone panels are uniformly dressed on five faces w/
water-emulsion latex products that cure by the backs being left ungauged (cut in a way that
evaporation; Light duty; interior use only; not suitable doesn’t allow for uniform thicknesses)
for high temperatures  Panels are slabs of stone; have large dimensions;
not uniformly thick, They must be installed over a
2) Cement Mortar – mix of Portland cement, sand,
water, & water-retentive additives; general-duty Thick–Set Mortar Bed
installations
Patterns & Finishes for Stone Panel Flooring
3) Water–Cleanable Epoxies – composed of epoxy 1) POLISHED – finished to reflective sheen;
resin & hardener; heavy-duty installations; Resistant to wear; polished fin.; can be
High temperature conditions & specific functions
scratched & dulled by abrasive mat’ls
4) Furan Resin Mortars – consists of furan resin,
powder of carbon or silica fillers; An acid catalyst; 2) HONED – Finished to uniformly matte sheen;
formulated for resistance to chemicals Can be used to mask wear

Setting Materials – Grouts are used to fill the joints 3) THERMAL – exposure to open flame w/c burns off
between tile edges after tiles have been set & mortar is surface, leaving it slightly roughened w/
cured improved slip resistance
1) Sand–Portland Cement Grout – used for joints OTHER TYPES OF MASONRY UNITS
greater than 1/8” wide; whereas unsanded cement
grouts contain water-retentive additives & are for  Hollow Tiles Of Cast Gypsum Or Fired Clay –
joints up to 18” wide used in the past for partition const’n

2) Polymer–Modified Cement Grouts – tend to  Structural Glazed Facing Tiles of Clay remain in
perform better than port.cem.grouts use; for partitions; durable, easy to clean surfaces
Possess increased color stability; good flexural &
bond strengths, Stain resistance, & lower moisture  Structural Terra Cotta – glazed /unglazed molded
absorption, so they resist frost damage decorative units of clay – used until Mid–20th Cen.

3) Water–Cleanable Epoxy & Furan Resin Grouts –  Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
same as mortars; used w/ the appropriate mortar Used in Europe for years; limited application

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 BUILDING TECH
WOOD – LOGS TO FINISHED LUMBER
Naturally grown mat’l; no uniformity as steel or concrete  In Lumber Mills (Modern Mills Are Automated;
Controlled By The Sawyer) > Debarking Of Logs >
 Cellular Struc.; Hollow, Tubular Cells; w/ Cellulose Sawing Debarked Logs Into Lumber > Surfacing
 Spring Wood – Early Wood; Lighter color/side Lumber Members Smooth after drying/seasoned
 Summer Wood – Late Wood; Darker color/side  Strength of lumber increases as
MC (Moisture Content) decreases
 Annual Ring – renamed Growth Ring
 DRY / SEASONED LUMBER
Min. of 19% MC
 Heart Wood – inner portion of tree trunk; dark, old
growth rings Not susceptible to fungal decay
 Relatively more decay resistant than sapwood  GREEN LUMBER
 Before Pressure-Treated Wood, Commonly 20% more MC
specified for lumber elements resting directly on  Ave. MC of Lumber at fsp (fiber saturation point) is
concrete or masonry foundations, sill plates & Approx. 30%
sleepers
 Redwood & Cedar – alternative to Pressure- (2) Ways to Season or Dry Lumber
Treated Wood
 Sapwood –before bark; outer portion of tree trunk; 1) AIR SEASONING – Lumber Is Dried Naturally;
light, growth rings Slow & can take months
2) KILN SEASONING – Faster; high-temperature in kiln
 Hardwood – not based on density; flowering tree; also kills fungus; KD (kiln-dried)
broad leaves
 Deciduous (means, “fall-off”), shed & regrow (2) METHODS OF SAWING LUMBER
leaves annually ex. NARRA TREE 1) PLAIN / FLAT–SAWN LUMBER –
 Longitudinal cells have small & large cavities;  Some growth rings run parallel, diagonal, &
rays more prominent; more interesting grain to edges of cross-sect. rings are perpendicular
 HARDWOOD LUMBER – Finished Flooring,  Less than 45 degrees, angle of growth ring
Paneling & Molding
2) RADIAL–SAWN LUMBER – or QUARTER SAWING
 Softwood – also called Conifers; don’t bear flowers;  Typical Structural Lumber
single main stem ex. BENGUET PINE  Log is cut into 4 pieces thru center; growth rings
 Needle-like leaves; Evergreen trees (do not shed) are perpendicular to its wider faces
 Longitudinal cells of same type & size; rays less  more complex & wasteful; but more dimensionally
prominent; less interesting grain; matures faster stable; resists wear & abrasion more
 SOFTWOOD LUMBER – Framing Lumber (Studs,  commonly specified as High–Grade Finish Floors
Floor & Ceil. Joists, Rafters, Headers, Etc.), Roof  more than 45 degrees, angle of growth ring
Shingles, Fencing, Finish Flooring Also; Doors,
Windows & Cabinets (4) Seasoning Distortion of Lumber from Shrinkage

LUMBER – Wood products from logs via sawing &

planning operations only w/ no further manufacturing

35 pcf – (Pounds per Foot)

Approx. Density of Lumber

 Wood is “Anisotropic” character; stronger along

the grain than across when cut; microstructure of
longitudinal hollow tubes
 Low tensile strength & shrinks substantially across
the grain; & weaker in shear along the grain
 Glue–Laminated Lumber, Parallel Strand Lumber, LUMBER SURFACING – Lumber Used For
Laminated Veneer Lumber Conventional Wood Light Framing Is Surfaced Smooth
 S–GRN / Surface Green – Surfaced Before Seasoning
Manufactures Wood Products – altered or transformed  S1S – Surfaced on one side; one wide face only
wood fibers; have been developed  S2S – Surfaced on two sides; both wide faces
 PLYWOOD – one of its earlier products  S4S – Surfaced on all four faces; for Struc’l Framing
 Wood Trusses & I–Joists are samples of  S1S1E – Surfaced on one side & one edge
manufactured wood products  S2S1E
 S2S2E – used for Struc’l Framing

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 BUILDING TECH
NOMINAL & ACTUAL DIMENSIONS OF LUMBER
 Nominal dim. Correspond roughly to the wood in the DEFECTS OF LUMBER
log before it is sawn, seasoned, & surfaced
 Actual dimensions are accurate for const’n 1) KNOTS – occurs when branch emerges from tree
purpose; has stated inch labels trunk; presence of knot in a member reduces its
 In calculating board feet, use NOMINAL strength; especially if it’s close to member’s edge
dimensions of lumber
 Loose Knot – dead branch during growth
Nominal Dim. Actual Dimension  Knot Hole – rotting occurs in the knot
1 ¾ in (19 mm)  Encased Knot is a knot that isn’t loose but has
1½ 1 ¼ in (25 mm) tightly intergrown w/ adjoining tissue
2 1 ½ in (38 mm)
2) CHECK
3 2 ½ in (64 mm)
Drying of wood at member ends & face; surface
4 3 ½ in (89 mm) dried faster than its interior; separation of wood
5 4 ½ in (114 mm) fibers along the rays perpendicular to growth ring
6 5 ½ in (140 mm)
3) SHAKE – separation of wood fibers along its growth
8 7 ¼ in (184 mm) rings; occurs from growth, not from drying
10 9 ¼ in (235 mm)
12 11 ¼ in (286 mm) 4) SPLIT – weakness from tree growth & intensified
during drying; complete separation of wood fibers
Over 12 inch ¾” (19mm) less through the entire end

1 cubic ft. lumber = 12 bd. Ft. lumber 5) WANE – presence of bark or absence of wood at
(Width in inches x Length in feet x THK in inches) / 12 = corner or along the edge of a piece
Board Feet
6) PITCH POCKET – well-defined opening between
Density of Wood = 35 lbs/ft3 or pounds per cubic foot annual ring & softwood; contain/ed solid or liquid
Moisture Content = Weight of Water / Weight of pitch
Wood

SIZE–BASED LUMBER CLASSIFICATION

SOFTWOOD LUMBER
 Boards – less than 2 inch THK (Nominal)
 Dimension Lumber – 2–4” thk (Nom.)
 Timbers – 5”– greater thk (Nom.)

DIMENSION LUMBER & TIMBERS

 Most of the lumber used for Struc’l Framing of
wood bldg is Dimension Lumber
 2 x (“two-by”) Lumber most commonly used;
available in S4S, Surface Dry condition
LUMBER GRADING
 3” or 4” THK Dim. Lumber is available in Dry or
 Before Lumber pieces leave the mill, it is graded for
Green Condition
appearance or structural properties
 Dimension Lumber – available in lengths 8 , 10,
 STRUCTURAL GRADING – used to rate strength &
and 12 feet and so on
stiffness of lumber piece by visual or machine
 Timbers 5” & higher are generally shipped in
1) Visual Grading – inspector examines, judges, &
green condition & are manufactured in S4S or
rough condition stamps it accordingly
2) Machine Grading – assessed by automatic device
LUMBER STRENGTH & APPEARANCE  Machine–Stress Rated by flexing piece between
 Wood has no uniformity unlike steel or concrete. rollers & measuring its resistance to bending or by
Two Lumber beams obtained from the same log can  Scanning the wood electronically to determine
have different load-carrying capacities its density
 Strength of lumber piece is affected by its species;
& by its growth & manufacturing characteristics
 Grain, Knots, Checks, Shakes, Splits, & Wane
 Slope of Grain Affects Lumber’s Strength.
Member w/ straight grain has maximum strength; As
slope of grain increases, strength of member
decreases

Page 30 of 39
 BUILDING TECH
DIMENSION LUMBER – 2–4 in THK (Nom.) OIL-BORNE & WATERBORNE PRESERVATIVES
1) Light Framing……………...2–4 inches Wide CREOSOTE – Oldest & most effective preservative
 Gen. specified for studs, top & bottom plates against all wood-eating insects; distillate of coal tar,
blocking, black to deep brown in color; used un utility poles, piles,
2) Struc’l Light Framing……..2–4 inches Wide highway guardrail posts, marine bulkheads; human
 Struc’l LF Grades have higher bending strength contact should be frequent; not for struc’l framing,
than LF also not for decks, patios, benches, etc.
3) Struc’l Joists & Planks……5 inches & Wider
 Graded for members under high bending PENTACHLROPHENOL / PENTA
stresses; floor & ceiling joists, rafters, etc. Most common Oil-borne preservative; effective against
 also for high wind & seismic areas Fungi & Land-based insects, but not Marine-borers;
4) Studs…………………………6 inches Wide used for bridge timbers & utility poles
 Graded for straightness of member
WATERBORNE PRESERVATIVES
APPEARANCE GRADING Gen. Greenish color due to copper (CCA, ACQ, & CA)
 Rank visual qualities of lumber intended for flooring, (CCA) CHROMATED COPPER ARSENATE
trim, cabinetry, & other finish & nonstructural  Widely used until 2003; due to envi’t
uses concerns, no longer allowed for resd’l bldgs;
 Boards having fewest defects (knots, checks, only to industrial structures
splits, staining, etc.), receiving the highest grades Replaced by:
 (ACQ) ALKALINE COPPER QUAT and CA
MACHINE–STRESS RATED LUMBER (MSR)  (CA) COPPER AZOLE
 Also known as Machine–graded lumber  (SBX) SODIUM BORATES – or BORAX
 For lumber used in more demanding struc’l For indoor application
applications such as Wood trusses
 Stiffness det. by (NDT) Non–Destructive Testing (LOSP) Light Organic Solvent Preservatives
In w/c piece is subjected to a given load & its  Permethrin, Bifenthrin, Delatmethrin
deflection is noted SOLIGNUM –
Brand Name: SOLIGNUM WOOD PRESERVATIVE
DURABILITY OF WOOD – subject to deterioration  Liquid-type, solvent based, colorless / brown
 Mech’l Deterioration due to Phys’l Wear (foot
traffic, etc.), exposure to climate such as erosion MANUFACTURED WOOD PRODUCTS
from wind & water, material fatigue from repeat  Much Of The Wood Used In Modern Bldgs
expansion & contraction  Make economic use of raw wood mat’ls / waste
 Chem’l Deterioration (effect of acids & alkalis) in  Can exceed struc’l efficiency
 Sawn Lumber may be Laminated for greater
the envi’t; chem’l breakdown from sun’s UV rays
spanning ability & strength
 Major Cause of Wood Deterioration is Biological,  Wood Veneers are laminated for struc’l panels
referred to as BIODETERIORATION (sheath walls, floors, & roofs)
 Wood Strands, Particles & Cellulose Fibers
BIODETERIORATION – Caused By Organisms Who for struc’l / non-struc’l
Use Wood as Food (Fungi & Insects)  Made by bonding together lumber members, wood
 Fungal Decay / Rotting from Fungi veneers, wood strands, wood particles, & other
 Insects are Marine Borers (Water-based), Termites forms of wood fibers to produce a composite
(Land-based), Carpenter Ants (not eat but nest material
inside) (2) Types of Manufactured Wood Products
1) ENGINEERED WOOD – for struc’l applications
REDUCING / PREVENTING TERMITE DAMAGE a) Glue–Laminated Wood – also called GLULAM
 Maintain distance between wood & ground b) Struc’l Composite Lumber
 Soil barrier; chem’l soil treatment c) Wood I–Joists, Plywood
 Aldrin & Dieldrin; 0.5% in water emulsion d) Oriented Strandboard (OSB)
 Preservative–Treated Wood (decay resistant) or e) Wood Trusses
Pressure–Treated Lumber 2) INDUSTRIAL WOOD –
 Preservative injected into Lumber  Particle Board – for cabinetry, furniture, heavy-
 3 Types: Creosote, Oil-borne, or Waterborne duty shipping containers
Preservative  Medium–Density Fiberboard (MDF) –
 For outdoor decks, fences, & lumber replacement of solid lumber; allows precise
underground
machining of precise & intricate moldings
 Use Termite Shield – galvanized sheet steel profiled
 High–Density Fiberboard (HDF) – commonly
w/ a drip edge bend
used for floor underlayment
 Inspection & Remediation
Page 31 of 39
 BUILDING TECH
ENGINEERED WOOD (SCL) STRUC’L COMPOSITE LUMBER
GLULAM MEMBERS – Response To Span – LVL & PSL together
Limitations; for long span beams, heavy columns & (LVL) LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER
trusses  Dried wood veneers glued together
 Made from individual lengths of dimension lumber, approx. 1/8” Thick; seasoned to 12% MC
glued together to form large cross sections
 Wood grain runs in the same direction; gen. used
 Face laminated horizontally, end jointed vertically.
Usually finger jointed, often scarf jointed for floor joists & rafters
 Theoretically can be made of any cross sectional  1–3/4” finished THK; 18” depth for greater
size & length, & can also be curved fastening for floor & roof sheathing

LAMINATING – Effective way to use short (PSL) PARALLEL STRAND LUMBER – variation of
lengths of high grade lumber. Allows use of LVL; glued narrow strands of veneer in place of wide
smaller trees veneers. Strands are veneers chopped into strips of 1/2
 Uses dried lumber or 12% MC. Stronger & inch wide & 8 ft long
stiffer than sawn lumber of same dimensions
 water-resistant adhesive; can be for externally (LSL) Laminated Strand Lumber & (OSL) Oriented
exposed conditions Strand Lumber
 made of shredded wood strands coated w/
Balanced & Unbalanced Glulam Beams adhesive, Pressed into rectangular cross section &
1) Balanced Glulam Beams – symmetrical in lumber cured under heat & pressure
quality above & below the beam’s mid-depth; more  OSL & LSL are the least strong & least expensive
versatile; gen. used for continuous beam over 2 or of composite lumber
more supports, & beam w/ overhangs/cantilever
 Mainly for rim boards & short span headers; For
2) Unbalanced Glulam Beams – quality from upper Nonstructural
laminations differ from its lower lamination;
stamped w/ TOP to ensure correct placement; WOOD I–JOISTS – glued wood flanges (sawn or LVL)
used only as single-span beams to a wood web (plywood or OSB)
 Dimensionally more stable; Lighter & commonly
Specifying Glulam Members – Glulam Member used as floor joists or roof rafters
Grades  Flange Width 1–3/4”, 10”–18” Depth
1) Framing Appearance Grade – lowest appearance  Disadvantage is their thin web, w/c makes it
grade; knots & splits acceptable
relatively unstable; Hence braced during const’n
2) Industrial Grade – when appearance is unimportant or
until the installation of floor or roof sheathing
to be covered in finished mat’l; warehouse
3) Architectural Appearance Grade – intermediate
appearance grade (WPC) WOOD–PLASTIC COMPOSITE Product
4) Premium Appearance Grade – where appearance  Blends plastic w/ wood or agricultural fibers; high
grade is specified important recycled mat’ls content
 UV stabilizers, pigments, lubricants, & biocides may
HYBRID GLULAM BEAMS – substitute composite be added
laminated veneer lumber  Made by pressing, extrusion, or injection molding
 Mostly for exterior decking (of polyethylene (PE) /
(FRP) FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC Glulam Beams
(PPR) polypropylene & wood fiber), ext. rail syst., &
– gluing a thin strip of high-strength FRP between first
finish trim (int/ext)
& second laminations near edges of beam; Fibers used
 In comparison to solid lumber, nonstruc’l composite
are ARAMID, GLASS, CARBON, or High-
lumber expands & contracts; needs greater
performance POLYETHYLENE; 25 to 40% savings
allowance for thermal movement
in wood volume in comparison to conventional glulam
FINGER–JOINTED TRIM – Made from short lengths of
(CLT) CROSS–LAMINATED TIMBERS – Struc’l Panel
solid wood
laminated from solid lumbers w/ members in alternating
 Finger jointer & glued into longer lengths; also
layers; for wall, floor, or roof components
makes use of wood scraps
 Made in ODD number of Layers; 5-Layer & 3-
 Competes w/ the same market as WPC trim;
Layer; seasoned to 12% MC
alternative to conventional nonstruc’l finish lumber
 Thickness range from 2–1/4” to 16”, widths from
 More stable & free of defects then solid lumber;
1.20m to 4.50m, max. length 12m to 18m
mat’l typically finished w/ paint than clear coating

Page 32 of 39
 BUILDING TECH
WOOD TRUSSES (check: type of truss designs) Other Wood Panel Products
 able to carry greater load over a given span using  Hardboard – thin, dense panel made of highly
less material compressed wood fibers; For residential siding or
 Connected by Metal Nail Plate / Gusset Plate – 6, gen. purpose siding; weatherproof
18, 20 – gauge galvanized steel plate w/ 3/8” long
nails punched out of the sheet; machine applied in  Hardwood Plywood – made from birch, maple,
manufacturing plants; trusses are fabricated before poplar, or alder veneers; Popular in cabinetry & finish
brought to site carpentry; for higher quality arch’l woodwork, these
 Gen. 2 x 4 lumber common for Resd’l & panels may be faced w/ fine hardwood face veneers
Commercial; Gen. spaced at 24 inches on center
 LVL, PSL, or GluLam are used I trusses for heavy  Insulating Fiberboard Sheathing – nonstruc’l wall
comm’l & industrial applications sheathing; low-density panel; 1/2” or 3/4” THK
Made of wood / vegetable fibers & binders; coated w/
FLOOR / PARALLED CHORD TRUSS or asphalt for water resistance
TRUSSED JOISTS – top chord is horizontal-parallel to Low-cost; make use of recycled mat’ls; for acoustical
bottom chord; also called trussed joists (function as floor isolation, carpet underlayment
joists); also used as Lintel Beams over openings
Non–Wood Fiber Panels
WOOD PANELS
 used structurally as Floor / Roof / Wall Sheathing  Agrifiber / Bio-Composite Panels – made from
 nonstructurally as exterior siding & interior paneling agricultural waste products (wheat, rice, hemp, etc)

PLYWOOD – struc’l wood panel; a veneered panel &  Strawboard Panels – made of wheat or rice straw;
Oriented Strandboard (OSB) – a nonveneered panel; has natural resins to bind mat’l; faced sides w/ OSB,
Softwood Plywood is Graded A to D etc.
 Bamboo – rapidly growing woody grass; for panels
Plywood Panels – nonstruc’l; thin layers of wood veneer & planks; alternative for int.wood panel or hardwood
glued together (1/8” THK) flooring
 commonly used 4 ft x 8 ft, and 1/4” to 1” THK Performance–Rated Engineered Wood Panels
 Grain on front & back face runs in the long direction  meant for struc’l applications
of the sheet; always an odd # in layers of plywood  has Rating that provides user w/ the panel’s struc’l
 Grain direction in alternate perpendicular to each capability & performance data
other; Produced by a machine that debarks a log  can be used for 3 Situations: Sheathing,
Via Rotary Slicing (most economic method), Combination Floor Sheathing, & Exterior Siding
plainsliced or quartersliced for specific grain design
JOINERY METHODS – Interlocking Joints
Composite Panels – have 2 parallel face veneers Fasteners for Connecting Wood Members
bonded to a core of reconstituted wood fibers  Joints in Contemporary Wood Const’n are made
by simply nailing members, nailing through sheet
Non-Veneered Panels – made up of various metal connectors; some joints use adhesives in
formulations of reconstituted wood fiber mat’ls addition to nails, others screws & bolts when
necessary (Refer to DKC Visual Dictionary: Joinery)
a) (OSB) Oriented Strandboard – struc’l wood; made
up of long shreds / strands of wood compressed &
glued Strongest & stiffest type of nonveneered
panel For sheathing & subflooring of light frame
wood buildings; has greater shear strength then
plywood panel of same size & thickness

b) Particleboard – nonstruc’l; made up of smaller

wood particles then OSB; compressed & bonded
into panels; Used mainly as a base mat’l for wood
veneer & plastic laminate; underlayment panel

c) Fiberboard – nonstruc’l; Very fine-grained board

made of wood fibers & synthetic resin binders
gen. limited to interior uses
(MDF) Med-Density Fiberboard – most commonly
used form of fiberboard

Page 33 of 39
 BUILDING TECH
TYPES OF NAIL – Made of low or medium carbon steel wire,
heat treated to increase its stiffness; Nail Sizes in the US is
specified by a penny (abbreviated as “d”)
 Sizes range from 2d (1” long) to 60d (6” long)
 6d (2”), 8d, 10d (3”),and 16 d are commonly used in wood frame const’n

 Brite Nails – Nails w/o any further treatment for corrosion

 Hot–Dip Galvanized Nails – corrosion resistant
 Stainless Steel Nails – for even higher Corrosion-resistance
 Vinyl–Coated Nails – for increase holding power; nails are phosphate or vinyl-coated
Produce heat from friction when nail is driven w/c melts the vinyl (increases bond)

 Sinker Nails – tapered head that sinks into wood;

gen. vinyl coated; thinner shank, easier to drive into wood

 Duplex Nail – double head for temporary nailing, used in scaffolding & concrete formwork

 Common Nails – for framing connections; most frequently used

 Box Nails – similar to common nail but have thinner shank w/c reduces wood splitting
Gen. used for attaching wood shingles

 Casing Nails – used for finish carpentry; for wood trim, window frames,
Casing, & decks; Small head for countersinking

 Finish Nails – also used for finish carpentry; for finer carpentry & finishing;
Small head also for countersinking
 Shank Nails – Shank Nails are used for attaching wood flooring
 Deformed Shank Nails – more resistant to withdrawal from wood than smooth shank nails
For attaching sheathing, subflooring, & floor underlayment

 Ring Shank Nail – for attaching floor sheathing & gypsum wallboard;
Gives greater holding power
 Roofing Nail – large head for attaching roof shingles;
 Hardened Steel Concrete Nails –
Can be driven into masonry or concrete for attaching furring strips & sleepers
 Cut Nails – long ago used for framing connections; still sometimes used for finish flooring

NAIL CONNECTIONS work best when subjected to shear; that is when load is perpendicular to the length of nails
 Nail Subjected To Shear & Nail Subjected To Withdrawal
1) Face Nailing – strongest; highest withdrawal resistance
2) End Nailing – weakest connection; nail is parallel to grain in the
holding member; used member is not subjected to withdrawal

3) Toe Nailing – stronger than end nailing;

Used where access for end nailing is unavailable
4) Blind nailing – used for finished wood flooring, nonstruc’l

Page 34 of 39
 BUILDING TECH
Power–Driven Nailing & Stapling
 Use Pneumatic or Electric Nailing Guns
 Power–Driven System; nailing by the pull of a trigger
 Nailing Guns use thinner & smaller nails
 Power Stapling also for fastening wood members;
used as an alternative to 8d or 6d nails
 Nail Popping – nail sticking out of wood members; problem for floor sheathing;
Caused when floor joist dry & shrink in size – nails pop out
SCREWS & BOLTS – higher withdrawal resistance then nails; not often used in struc’l
wood; take longer to install & more expensive; commonly used in cabinet work, furniture,
& fastening door & window hardware such as hinges

 Drywall Screws – for attaching wallboard; commonly used

 Lag Screw & Bolts are used for heavy struc’l members
 Flat–Head Screws are used w/o washers & driven flush w/ wood surface
 Round Head Screws are used w/ flat washers
 Oval–Head Screws w/ countersunk washers
 Slotted Head & Phillips Head Screws driven by flat blade & Phillips Drivers
 Self–Drilling Screws
 Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt – both used in wood const’n; Carriage Bolt has a
broad button head that needs no washer & a square shoulder under the head that’s
forced into the drilled hole in the wood to prevent the bolt from turning as the knot from
the opposite end is tightened

SHEET METAL CONNECTORS

1) Light–Gauge Sheet – gauge 16 to 20; Conventional wood framing
Steel Connector
2) Heavy–Gauge Sheet – gauge 7 to 12; used in heavy wood framing
Steel Connector also for high-wind or high-seismic regions
JOIST HANGER – commonly used steel connector
Connects floor joists w/ supporting beam
1) Face–Mounted Hanger – connect joists to beam or header
2) Top–Mounted Hanger – used where face mounting is not

TOP MOUNTED
FACE MOUNTED

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ADHESIVES for Wood Construction

 Formaldehyde – ingredient in some adhesives & binders
 (PF) Phenol–Formaldehyde
– struc’l adhesive for full exterior exposure

 (UF) Urea–Formaldehyde – for interior dry exposure only

 Melamine–Formaldehyde – emission levels under PF & UF

(NAF) No Added Formaldehyde – polyvinyl acetate, isocyanurates

Such as polymeric MDI, urethanes, & bio-based formulations

(ULEF Standards) Ultra Low Emitting Formaldehyde

– for wood products that comply w/ LEED Rating System

PREFABRICATED PANELS
1) Framed Panels – simple sections of conventional dimension lumber framing; sheathed w/ plywood or OSB
2) (SIP) Struc’l Insulated Panels
 Panels adhered to a stiff plastic foam core – EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) Core
 Sandwich composition; Alternative to conventional WLF system (Wood Light Frame)
 Used as wall & roof panels; reduces on-site const’n time, allows less skilled labor
 Req.s hoisting equipment (cranes, fork lifts, booms, etc.)
 4-1/2” or 6-1/2” THK for walls

3) (SSP) Stressed–Skin Panels – panels attached to dimension lumber framing;

Popular choice for const’n of highly energy-efficient homes & small bldgs
4) Panelized Const’n – whole sections of wall & floors are conventionally framed & sheathed in the factory
Trucked to const’n site then installed in rapid succession

MANUFACTURED / MOBILE / MODULAR HOME

 Factory-Built Houses; at times w/ furnishings & then transported to prepared foundations
 Built on its own towable chassis; transported on a conventional flat-bed tractor trailer
 Const’d in units not wider than 14-ft to 16-ft (4.27m to 4.88m) to permit transport on public roads (in the US)
 May be const’d to levels of cost & quality equal to those conventionally const’d

(WLF) WOOD LIGHT FRAME CONST’N – said to be a unique American Const’n System
(2) TYPES OF TIMBER FRAME SYSTEMS
1) Timber Frame w/ Exterior Masonry Walls
a) Mill Const’n – used Cast or Wrought Iron Hardware
b) Type IV Const’n – use Steel Hardware; use glulam & engineered lumber

2) Braced Timber Frame

 Similar to Mill & Type IV Const’n; but w/o exterior load-bearing walls
 Does not have the same lateral resistance as masonry walls
 depend on KNEE BRACES & close fitting joints between frame members
 for 1-2-storey bldgs; for barns, small comm’l bldgs, & individual residences

BALLOON FRAME – what WLF was called; invented to replace Heavy Timber System w/ Lightweight Members
 Early invention began from lack of skilled carpenters; Built by simple nails; can be built by unskilled people
 Thin, closely spaced vertical members (studs) & similar roof & framing members (joists & rafters)
 Studs run the full height of the building; Has Ribbands and Fire Stops at floor lines
 Wall, Floor & Roof Framing Are Completed Before Struc’l Floor / Subfloor / Floor Sheathing
 Continuity of studs became the major limitation of balloon frame
 Long, straight members became expensive. Thus it was modified into a PLATFORM FRAME
 Dimensionally more stable & greater struc’l stability than Platform Frame

PLATFORM FRAME – individual studs are only one storey high; Contemporary WLF
 Struc’l frame is erected Storey by Storey – subfloor at 1st floor level is completed w/c provides a platform for
workers to stand on & build the next storey; Fire Stops at each floor level; Roof Frame same as Balloon framing
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Essentials of Wall Framing
 Doubling the Top Plate makes it stronger, joists or rafters can be placed anywhere on top and their gravity loads
can be transferred to the doubled top plate
 Provides struc’l continuity; can be Lap-Spliced

 if Single Top Plate is used, joists & rafters must be

aligned w/ underlying studs; sheet metal connectors
needed at the joints

 Min. 5-inches away from 2x4 Studs spaced 24” O.C.

If cannot be done, a Third Top Plate is req.d

(3) Types of Foundations in WLF

1) Concrete Slab–On–Grade
2) Reinf. Conc. (Conc. Masonry) Foundation Walls; Crawl Space
3) Reinf. Conc. Basement Walls

Bottom Plate in a Wall Assembly – Typically a single plate; either a Sill Plate or a Sole Plate
 SILL PLATE – referred to as Mud Sill; bottom plate connected to foundation
 Must be Preservative-Treated Wood or Naturally Decay-Resistant Species ex.) YAKAL
 anchored to foundations via BOLTS (Anchor Bolts: min. 1/2-inch diameter, spaced at MAX. 6-ft on centers)
 SILL SEALER – fibrous felt placed between sill & foundation to reduce air infiltration & seal gaps
 Continuous Termite Shield – used for termite-infested areas

 SOLE PLATE – a plate not in contact w/ the foundation

Number of Studs at Wall Corner or at T–Junction between Nails – MIN. of (3) three Studs

Framing Around Wall Openings (Doors & Windows)

 Req.s Jack Studs on both sides of opening
 JACK STUDS – a partial-height stud that supports
the Lintel Beam (Header or Lintel Header)

 CRIPPLE STUD – studs above header or below rough sill (studs found above & below window opening)
 HEADER – made of two or three 2-by Lumber Members, depends on wall thickness
 Precut Stud Length equal to 7-ft 8–5/8 inches because it provides a floor-to-ceiling height of 8-ft

Essentials of FLOOR FRAMING – layout of floor joists is the most critical aspect of floor framing
Support for Load–Bearing & Non– Load–Bearing Walls
 Load–Bearing Wall – wall on upper floor must lie over a wall on lower floor

Role of RIM / BAND Joists – Rim Joists provide lateral restraint to the floor joists, reducing their tendency to buckle
 Similarly, Floor Joists w/ Long Span may req. intermediate full-depth Blocking or Diagonal Bridging
 Required if floor joist depth is greater than 12-inch (Nominal)
 However it is practical to provide rows of blocking or bridging for all joists at 8-ft on centers

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ROOF TYPES & ROOF SLOPE – Roof slope not in degrees but as a Rise-to-Run Ratio at constant value of 12

Essentials of WLF Roof Framing – consists of Trusses or Rafter-and-Ceiling Joist assemblies

 Trusses – often shop fabricated, multi-triangle
 Rafter-and-Ceil. Joist assembly– site-fabricated, single triangle frame
 Alternative to this are Prefabricated Trusses
 Works only if roof slope is greater than 3:12 (25%)
 If less than 3:12, must be replaced by a Ridge Beam, since tension in ceil. Joist is too large to handle
 Rafters are connected by a continuous Ridge Board, runs perpendicular to the rafters
 Rafters are right-angle notched (called “Bird’s Mouth”) on underside to fit a longitudinal member (wall plate)
 “Bird’s Mouth” cut in Rafters is made at the top plate
 Ridge Board – no struc’l function; aligns rafter ends in a straight line at the top; (LVL) Lam’d Veneer Lum.
 Ridge Beam – a struc’l member; Rafters bear on ridge beam at top & on supporting walls at the eave
 Purlins – supported on closely spaced purlin braces / purlin stud; support the Rafters; increase roof stiffness
 Ceil. Joists & Bird’s Mouth notch is for gravity-load resistance of a rafter-ceil-joist assembly
 Collar Ties / Collar Beams – restrain rafters from separating at the ridge; resist wind / uplift loads
 Collar ties located w/in the UPPER 1/3 or attic; located about 18-inch below ridge; of 2 x 4 lumber
 Ridge Strap – alternative to collar tie; 1-1/4-inch wide, Gauge 20, G.I. Sheet Steel
 Vaulted / Cathedral Ceilings – ridge beam remain exposed; since roof w/ ridge beam does not need ceiling joist
ties, a gypsum Board ceiling in roof is attached; Vaulted Ceil may also be used w/ a roof slope greater than 3:12

Sheathing Applied to a Frame – wall, floor, & roof frames must be covered w/ a sheathing mat’l
 Sheathing serves as both struc’l & nonstruc’l functions
 Wall Sheathing serves as a base for exterior wall finish and a nailing base
 Struc’ly integrates studs in a composite wall system; provides bracing to the frame against lateral loads
 Common mat’l for Exterior Wall Sheathing is OSB (Oriented Strandboard); but plywood, gypsum, and other
panels such as Rigid Foam Insulation are acceptable
 Alternative to Panel Bracing is a Diagonal Let–In Brace; consists of
 1 x 4 Lumber member fastened to notched studs to receive the brace
 Angle of brace should be 45–60 degrees
 Steel Angle Let-in Brace may also be used in place of lumber let-in brace
 Floor Sheathing also called Subfloor – struc’l element; transfers dead & live
floor loads to the joists; Subfloor must be perpendicular to floor joists
 Roof Sheathing – struc’l element; commonly use OSB
 require H–Shaped Metal Edge Clips instead of blocking
 Metal Edge Clips leave a gap of 18-inches to allow edges pf panels to expand

REFERENCES
Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2014). Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods (6th ed.). U.S.: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

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