KANGKONG STEMS AS BIOMASS-DERIVED BIOCHAR FOR WATER

TREATMENT: AN APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE CONTAMINANT REMOVAL

A Research Paper
presented to the Institution Review Committee of
Department of Research, Gusa Regional Science High School - X
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
Research 4 for Junior High School

Junior High School – Science Curriculum

EDE LAWRENCE M. NUÑAL

JANELA FATE M. PROSIA
WARNER REIGN A. LUZANO

JANUARY 2024
 Chapter 1

Introduction

Water scarcity and contamination represent significant challenges to global

environmental sustainability, posing threats to both ecosystems and human well-being.

Traditional water treatment methods often rely on synthetic chemicals, leading to concerns

about environmental impact and long-term sustainability. In this context, the quest for

innovative, eco-friendly solutions has become imperative.

Biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from the pyrolysis of biomass, has garnered

attention for its potential in environmental applications, particularly in soil improvement and

water treatment (Synthesis, Technology and Applications of Carbon Nanomaterials, 2019).

This research focuses on breaking fresh ground in the field of biochar application by

investigating the utilization of Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stems, a readily available

biomass source, as a novel biochar for advanced water treatment.

Kangkong, also known as water spinach, is a resilient and fast-growing aquatic plant

that thrives in various climates. Its stems, often considered agricultural waste, possess a

unique composition that presents an opportunity to contribute to sustainable water

management. By converting Kangkong stems into biochar, we aim to explore a dual-purpose

solution: addressing plastic waste concerns and creating a biochar material tailored for

efficient water treatment.

Hypothesis

H0: The application of kangkong stem-derived biochar in water treatment, particularly at

optimized levels determined through systematic experimentation, will result in a significant

enhancement of contaminant removal efficiency and improvement in water quality

parameters compared to untreated water samples.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is centered around the pioneering use of

kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stems as a sustainable source for biomass-derived biochar in

water treatment, introducing an innovative approach to contaminant removal. This

framework encompasses several key dimensions, initiating with the meticulous selection of

kangkong stems as the biomass source for biochar production, influenced by factors such as

availability, sustainability, and chemical composition. The subsequent phase involves

employing diverse pyrolysis methods to convert kangkong stems into biochar, characterized

by its physical and chemical properties to discern its composition and potential adsorption

capabilities.

Moving forward, the study delves into the application of kangkong stem-derived

biochar in water treatment, exploring its efficacy in removing various contaminants through

mechanisms like adsorption and ion exchange. Optimization of biochar application

parameters, including dosage, contact time, and pH conditions, is crucial to enhance

contaminant removal efficiency while ensuring practicality.

Sustainability and environmental impact assessments form another integral part of

the framework, encompassing a life cycle assessment to evaluate energy consumption,

 greenhouse gas emissions, and ecological footprint. Additionally, considerations for biochar

regeneration and reusability are explored to enhance the sustainability of the water treatment

process.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

*Kangkong *Biochar *Efficiency of
Stems (Biomass) Production: Contaminant
Removal
*Pyrolysis
Equipment: *Water *Water Quality
Treatment Improvement
*Water Samples Experiment
Contaminated *Optimal
with Various *Contaminant Biochar
Pollutants: Analysis Application
Conditions
*Laboratory
Equipment

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study

This IPO diagram provides a structured representation of the inputs, processes, and

expected outputs of the study on using kangkong stem-derived biochar for sustainable water

treatment.

Statement of the Problem

 Water contamination and scarcity have emerged as critical global challenges,

impacting ecosystems and human health. Traditional water treatment methods often rely on

synthetic chemicals, raising concerns about environmental sustainability. Concurrently,

plastic waste exacerbates ecological issues. Although biochar has shown promise in water

treatment, there remains a gap in understanding the potential of Kangkong (Ipomoea

aquatica) stems as a biomass source for biochar synthesis and their efficacy in advanced

water treatment. This study aims to answer the following questions:

1. What are the results of Kangkong Stem Biochar in terms of;

1.1 Contaminant Removal Efficiency

1.2 Absorption Capacity

1.3 Microbial Removal

2. What is the resiliency of the usage of the filter over an extended period of time.

Significance of the Study

The research addresses the growing need for sustainable and environmentally friendly

water treatment solutions. By exploring the efficacy of kangkong biochar, sourced from a

readily available agricultural residue, the study contributes to the development of eco-

conscious methods for water purification. Furthermore, the utilization of kangkong stems not

only showcases an innovative approach to biomass-derived biochar production but also

promotes the valorization of agricultural waste, aligning with principles of circular economy

and sustainable agricultural practices.

 The study's focus on local resource empowerment is particularly noteworthy, as it has

the potential to economically benefit communities engaged in kangkong cultivation.

Additionally, the investigation delves into optimizing biochar application levels, ensuring

practicality and effectiveness in diverse water treatment scenarios. Beyond its immediate

applications, the study's consideration of the environmental sustainability of the kangkong

biochar approach contributes to a holistic understanding of its impact.

Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study is comprehensive, aiming to investigate the effectiveness and

environmental sustainability of utilizing kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) stem-derived biochar

for water treatment. The research will systematically explore various biochar application

levels to determine the optimal dosage for contaminant removal, considering a range of

concentrations. By delving into the underlying mechanisms, such as adsorption the study will

provide a thorough understanding of how kangkong biochar influences contaminant removal.

Additionally, the assessment of water quality parameters, including pH, turbidity

ensures a clear evaluation of the treated water's overall quality. The study's commitment to an

environmental sustainability assessment, through a life cycle analysis, addresses the broader

ecological implications of the kangkong biochar water treatment approach. Furthermore, the

optimization of biochar application conditions, encompassing dosage, contact time, and pH

levels, emphasizes the practical implementation of the research findings.

Additionally, the study recognizes the need for ongoing research to address long-term

effects, regeneration techniques.

Operational Definition of Terms

Kangkong Stem-Derived Biochar: Biochar derived from pyrolyzing kangkong (Ipomoea

aquatica) stems under controlled conditions.

Biochar Application Levels: Different concentrations of kangkong stem-derived biochar

applied to water samples, ranging from low to high levels, with specific measured quantities

in grams per liter.

Contaminant Removal Efficiency: The percentage reduction in the concentrations of

contaminants, including heavy metals, organic pollutants, and nutrients, in water samples

treated with kangkong stem-derived biochar.

Water Quality Parameters:

pH: The measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water samples determined using a pH

meter.

Turbidity: The cloudiness or haziness of water, measured using a turbidimeter in

nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).

Dissolved Oxygen Levels: The concentration of oxygen dissolved in water, measured in

milligrams per liter (mg/L) using a dissolved oxygen meter.

Optimization of Biochar Application Conditions - Determination of the most effective

biochar application conditions, including optimal dosage (grams per liter), contact time

(hours), and pH levels, achieved through systematic experimentation and analysis.

Regeneration and Reusability of Biochar - The ability of kangkong stem-derived biochar

to be regenerated and reused for water treatment, assessed through experimental methods that

evaluate the biochar's performance after regeneration techniques, such as heat treatment or

washing.

Chapter II
 Review of Related Literature

Effects of Biochar on Wastewater

Biochar is an inexpensive adsorbent that can be used for wastewater treatment,

especially for the removal of heavy metals. In several cases, these studies have established

the superiority of biochars over activated carbons and shown that biochar is an effective

means of removing heavy metals from aqueous solutions. The composition of the feedstock

is one of the main factors influencing the sorption capacity of biochars. The current body of

literature is incorporated into this review in order to comprehend the general sorption

behavior of heavy metals on biochar adsorbents. Different mechanisms, including

complexation, physical sorption, precipitation, and electrostatic interactions, can be used to

remove heavy metals from biochar depending on the type of biochar. To better understand

how well biochar removes heavy metals and to encourage the use of biochar technology in

water treatment, mathematical sorption models can be employed (Inyang et al., 2016).

Biochar offers an excellent ability to remove inorganic pollutants such as heavy

metals from wastewater. It has been widely recognized that the adsorption capacity of

biochar toward heavy metals largely depends on biochar characteristics and the nature of the

target metals. Biochar can be an effective material for the absorption of heavy metals due to

the abundance of functional groups on its surface such as phenolic, hydroxyl, and carboxyl

groups, and due to its porous structure and its large surface area. (Enaime et al., 2020).

This integration of biochar into the water-sanitation-nutrient-food nexus offers novel

dimensions, yielding triple public health benefits—reduction of indoor emissions, cost-

effective water treatment, and improved food security through spent biochar's application in

soil amendment. The approach also presents a unique opportunity to transition from linear

and open-ended material cycles to cyclic closed loops, unlocking multiple co-benefits in

water and sanitation, energy provision, environmental quality, and food and livelihood

security. (Gwenzo et al., 2017).

Various technologies for biochar production, particularly focusing on the pre-

treatment of raw materials and post-treatment, are succinctly outlined. Biochar has found

widespread use as an adsorbent for the removal of toxic metals, organic pollutants, and

nutrients from wastewater. In comparison to pristine biochar, engineered or designer biochar

typically exhibits a larger surface area, enhanced adsorption capacity, or more abundant

surface functional groups (SFG), making it a promising carbon material for diverse

wastewater treatment applications. This critical review, the first of its kind, underscores the

bright prospects of biochar technology in treating different wastewater types, including

industrial wastewater (such as dye, battery manufacturing, and dairy wastewater), municipal

wastewater, agricultural wastewater, and stormwater. The review also delves into future

research directions, particularly focusing on engineered/designer biochar production and its

application on a larger scale. In summary, the review concludes that biochar technology

presents a novel, cost-effective, and environmentally-friendly approach for wastewater

treatment (Zhang et al., 2020).

Recently, a range of biological and physicochemical technologies have been

innovated and employed for the treatment of contaminated waste and water (W&W). While

technologies centered around biochar (BC) have seen rapid development, predominantly in

laboratory and small-scale settings, only a limited number of these advancements have
successfully transitioned from the laboratory scale to large-scale applications. Several factors

contribute to the slow commercialization of these technologies. This study evaluates the

progress in this field, considering technical, environmental, economic, and social aspects.

According to the findings, certain types of biochar, such as magnetic variants, are presumed

to be sufficiently efficient and economically advantageous, offering the potential for recovery

and reuse, making them most promising for swift commercialization (Kamali et al., 2021).

The use of biochar-immobilized microorganisms has shown potential in enhancing

microbial abundance, the ratio of repeated utilization, and microbial metabolic capacity.

However, research on this method is still in the early stages, with limited focus on

understanding the interaction mechanisms between biochar and microorganisms. Many

studies are confined to laboratory settings. Challenges persist, including the recovery

difficulty post-use and the potential for secondary pollution due to residual pollutants after

biochar adsorption, requiring further clarification. To gain a thorough and profound

comprehension of the technology involving biochar-immobilized microorganisms in

wastewater treatment, comprehensive investigation and analysis are essential (Li et al.,

2022).

Biochar is a promising material for gas storage and separation, soil remediation, and

wastewater treatment. The application of biochar technology in wastewater treatment is the

main focus of this review, which provides an overview of recent research developments on

biochar production and applications. A brief summary of the various biochar production

technologies is provided, with a focus on feedstock pre-treatment and post-treatment. The

adsorbent biochar has been widely used to remove nutrients, organic pollutants, and

hazardous metals from wastewater. Engineered or designer biochar, which represents a novel
form of carbon material with excellent application prospects in various wastewater

treatments, typically has a larger surface area, a stronger adsorption capacity, or a higher

abundance of surface functional groups (SFG) than pristine biochar. The review leads to the

conclusion that biochar technology offers a novel, affordable, and ecologically friendly

approach to wastewater treatment ( Xiang et al., 2020).

Since they have such a large impact on ecosystems and public health, emerging

contaminants have recently come to light as novel and serious water pollutants. Novel and

less expensive methods are needed because the current conventional wastewater treatment

technologies are ineffective at eliminating these trace contaminants. It is commonly known

that biochar is a powerful adsorbent for eliminating both organic and complex inorganic

pollutants from water. This review offers an overview of current studies on the underlying

mechanisms governing the emergence of contaminants in water, their elimination, and the

use of biochar to treat soil in an environmental setting. A range of information is also

presented regarding the application of this resource; it is clear that a variety of cheap,

efficient, modified, and composite biochar that is able to remove emerging contaminants will

be required to further advance research progress (Li et al., 2019).

Due to the agricultural industry's explosive growth and the release of harmful metals,

pesticides, and antibiotics into farmlands, agricultural contamination is becoming more and

more serious these days. Functional materials based on biochar have been used by numerous

researchers to treat contaminated agricultural wastewater. Due to its many advantageous

qualities, biochar has also shown to be a very promising and successful technology in the
field of water purification (e.g., cost effective, high specific surface area, and surface reactive

groups). This review aims to discuss the underlying mechanisms and demonstrate the

application and fabrication methods of biochar-based functional materials for the removal of

various agricultural contaminants. But the use of biochar-based functional materials is still in

its infancy. The main obstacles are the lack of quality standards, the immaturity of

engineered biochar production technologies, and the gap between laboratory scale and field

application. Future studies should prioritize funding relevant research in order to close these

knowledge gaps( Wei et al., 2018)

Wastewater micropollutants pose risks to human health and the environment. Organic

micropollutants can be effectively removed by powdered activated carbon (PAC), although

PAC production is costly and energy-intensive. While carbon can be sequestered and biochar

adsorbents can be less expensive, the overall benefits are dependent on the conditions of

biochar production and treatment capacity. In order to compare the ten environmental effects

of producing and using wood biochar, biosolids biochar, and coal-derived PAC to remove

sulfamethoxazole from wastewater, life cycle assessment was employed in this case.

Moderate capacity wood biochar was found to have better environmental impacts than PAC

in two categories (eutrophication) and better environmental impacts than PAC in four other

categories (smog, global warming, respiratory effects, and noncarcinogenics) related to

energy recovery and carbon sequestration. Due to higher doses of biochar needed to achieve

the treatment goal, low capacity wood biochar performed worse than PAC in five categories,

although it still had even greater benefits for respiratory effects, global warming, and

noncarcinogenics. ( Thompson et al., 2016).

 One inexpensive and renewable adsorbent that can be used to extract dye from wastewater is biochar

Biochar can be used to treat wastewater in an affordable, effective, and greenhouse

gas emission-reducing manner. In this study, the use of biochar as substrates in Vertical Flow

Constructed Wetlands (VFCWs) improved the removal of contaminants from low C/N

wastewaters with varying influent strengths. The removal of nitrogen and organic matter in

VFCWs with and without biochar addition, and with different low C/N influent strengths,
was carefully evaluated. With average removal of organic pollutants (85%), NH4+-N (39%),

and TN (39%), combined VFCWs with biochar addition could be a suitable strategy when

compared to conventional VFCWs, especially at high influent strengths, according to the

results. Meanwhile, N2O emission in VFCWs with biochar added was likewise significantly

lower under different influent strengths (138-1008μgm-2h-1). than in VFCWs without

biochar added (164-1304μgm-2h-1). ( Zhou et al., 2018).

Effect of Biochar on the Environment

The intensive use of biochar can have adverse effects, including potential threats to

food safety and the risk of harming natural ecosystems due to the extensive expansion of

agricultural land for raw material extraction for biochar production. To safeguard against

competition with food production and prevent deforestation, a global transnational integrated

agricultural policy is essential for the sustainable growth of the biochar market. Another

critical concern for the sustainable use of biochar revolves around optimizing the frequency

and cumulative application rates, considering its long-lasting presence in the environment,

potentially spanning decades or even centuries. Additionally, the consequences of biochar

aging in soil and its impact on the soil environment need further exploration, as the long-term

effects of these phenomena remain incompletely understood. Finally, while the use of

biochar as a soil amendment is considered a climate change mitigation strategy, it poses

challenges when viewed from various perspectives. It is perceived as a carbon sequestration

approach, promoting carbon stabilization in soils due to biochar's low biodegradability and

the physical protection of soil organic matter. (Brtnicky et al., 2021, )

 While biochar is extensively utilized in soil enhancement, its introduction can alter

the physical and chemical attributes of the soil, potentially leading to adverse effects on

microorganism growth in the soil and the cultivation of crops. Research indicates that biochar

may present risks to aquatic environments by contributing to eutrophication, hastening the

migration of pollutants, and impeding the growth of aquatic organisms. The environmental

risks associated with biochar stem from its harmful components, unfavorable surface

properties or structure, and chemical characteristics at micro-/nano-dimensions. The broader

adoption of biochar entails potential environmental uncertainties (Xiang et al., 2021).

Biochars are effective agents for sequestering C in soils. Although hydrochars and

low-temperature biochars contain some bioavailable C, it is generally more stable in soils

than C in the original biomass; the C in moderate- and high-temperature biochars is

overwhelmingly stabilized against microbial decomposition and hence will persist for

hundreds if not thousands of years in soils. However, the net greenhouse gas (GHG) impact

due to biochar applications to soil is also influenced by changes in net primary crop

productivity, increases in the efficiency of residue mineralization or humification, soil

organic matter cycling, and emissions of CH4 and N2O. Furthermore, the overall impact of

biochar amendments must also include GHG emissions resulting from biochar production,

transport, and soil application itself (Ippolito et al., 2012).

Effectiveness of Biochar as Filter

 Biochar filters alone may not be sufficient to remove all bacteria and viruses from

water used for irrigation, posing a risk of crop contamination. Additional treatment steps are

likely needed to ensure safe water. However, the study also suggests that biochar filters can

be effective in removing a significant amount of microbes, especially at higher flow rates.

This opens up the possibility of optimizing the design of biochar filters to reduce land

requirements while still achieving similar disinfection levels as traditional sand filters.

Further research is needed to understand the impact of salinity and smaller biochar particles

on microbe removal (Barber et al., 2018).

Agroecosystem researchers and producers have long sought to understand and

improve environmental quality through lowering soil nutrient leaching losses, lowering the

bioavailability of environmental contaminants, sequestering carbon, lowering greenhouse gas

emissions, and increasing crop productivity in severely weathered or degraded soils. The

pyrolysis of biomass yields biochar, which could aid in achieving these objectives. The 2010

American Society of Agronomy-Soil Science Society of America Environmental Quality

Division session, "Biochar Effects on the Environment and Agricultural Productivity," was

organized in order to further understanding of the environmental and agronomic implications

of using biochar. This specialized session, along with sessions from previous biochar

conferences, such as the 2010 U.S. This special manuscript collection is based on the Biochar

Initiative and the Biochar Symposium 2010.Contributions from individuals address the need

for future biochar research, information gaps that exist now, and ways to improve the body of

knowledge about biochar. The use of biochar has a bright future because it can be tailored for

particular environmental uses. (Ippolito et al., 2012)

 Carbon-rich plant and animal residues are pyrolyzed under high temperatures and low

oxygen to produce biochar, which is used more and more for soil compartmentalization and

other beneficial purposes like carbon sequestration and soil quality improvement. Because of

its high specific surface area and highly carbonaceous composition, biochar is also regarded

as a special kind of adsorbent. Consequently, adding small amounts of biochar to soil

amendments may increase adsorption and reduce the amount of contaminants that are

bioavailable to plants, earthworms, microbial communities, and other soil organisms.

Nevertheless, little is known about the processes influencing the behavior and environmental

fate of organic pollutants, particularly pesticides in soil treated with biochar. It has been

demonstrated that biochar affects the degradation and bioavailability of pesticides for living

organisms, as well as the fate and effects of pesticides. Furthermore, some important facets

of biochar's uses in agriculture and the environment are emphasized (Safaei et al., 2016).

Pyrolysis of biomass residues in low oxygen environments yields biochar. Since

biochar has special qualities like high porosity and sorption capacity, large surface area, and

chemical recalcitrance, it has drawn more attention as an amendment for composting and soil

remediation in recent years. An overview of the effects of biochar on the microbial

community structure and chemical properties (nitrogen loss, greenhouse gas emissions,

organic matter decomposition and humification) during the composting of organic wastes is

given in this paper. The use of biochar for the remediation of soils contaminated with heavy

metals and organic pollutants, along with associated mechanisms, are also covered in this

review. Beyond its aging, biochar's effects on the environment, pesticide efficacy, and fate

warrant particular consideration ( Wu et al., 2017).

 As an amendment that reduces greenhouse gas emissions from soil to the atmosphere

and sequesters carbon, biochar has shown promise in recent years. Consequently, it might

mitigate the impacts of climate change on a global scale. Certain studies indicate that crop

yields are increased when biochar is added to agricultural soils. Enhanced microbial activity

and plant nutrient status in the soil, enhanced soil aeration and water-holding capacity, and

adjustments to several important soil chemical properties are the processes at work. In this

review, the production, characteristics, and uses of various types of biochar in agriculture are

thoroughly examined. Because it is a complex organic material, the properties of biochar

vary with the feedstock and production conditions ( Laghari et al., 2016)

Applying biochar improves soil fertility and reduces the effects of climate change.

Carbon (C) in the soil can be sequestered and nutrients can be supplied by biochar. Once

applied to soil, the composition of the biochar—which depends on the kind of feedstock and

pyrolysis conditions used to produce the biochar—determines its capacity to release

nutrients. The mineralization of soil C is significantly impacted by biochar, which can either

positively or negatively prime the microorganisms responsible for soil C cycling. Applying

biochar to the soil, however, may occasionally have detrimental effects on both the soil and

the surrounding environment. For example, because biochar reduces soil C mineralization or

plant nutrient uptake, it may reduce crop productivity and soil nutrient availability. Because

biochar contains hazardous substances like dibenzofurans (PCDD/DF), polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD/DF), it may also have a

negative impact on human health and environmental quality. In this review, we address the

relationship between the composition and function of biochar, assess its contribution to
improved soil fertility and carbon sequestration, and talk about laws and worries about the

harmful effects of biochar on the environment. We also go over future challenges and

research priorities for biochar, as well as a summary of technological developments in

biochar production. ( El-Naggar et al., 2019).

Overuse of land puts a great deal of strain on the ecological environment and has a

number of negative effects on the degradation of land function. The practices of farming,

mining, and heavy metal pollution have left soils with numerous detrimental effects. In

recent years, biochar has gained popularity as an environmentally friendly soil enhancer in

the domains of energy, agriculture, and the environment. Biochar has been thoroughly

researched and evaluated for its potential benefits to agriculture and the environment. On the

other hand, reviews of biochar's structures and other uses are scarce. ( Zhang et al., 2021).

Because of its beneficial effects on the environment, biochar has drawn the attention of agriculturalis
 Biochar is a porous carbonaceous material formed through the thermochemical

breakdown of biomass feedstock, typically conducted in the absence or limited presence of

oxygen. Biomass feedstock encompasses a range of organic waste materials, such as crop

residues, forest remnants, wood chips, algae, sewage sludge, manures, and organic municipal

solid wastes (Colantoni et al., 2016; Xiong et al., 2019). Various methods, including

pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization, gasification, torrefaction, and microwave heating, are

employed for thermochemical decomposition, each characterized by different temperature

and duration parameters (Mohan et al., 2014; González et al., 2017; Fang et al., 2018).

The significance of biochar is underscored by two distinct advantages. Firstly,

biochar production itself can act as a carbon sink, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions by

stabilizing carbon and preventing its release into the atmosphere during biomass degradation

(Creamer and Gao, 2016; Yang et al., 2018a). Secondly, biochar serves as a cost-effective

and environmentally friendly adsorbent (Cha et al., 2016; Inyang et al., 2016), attributed to

its substantial surface area and the presence of abundant surface functional groups (SFG)

(Wang et al., 2017a; Zhang et al., 2017a). Its versatile applications include metal/metalloid

adsorption for water purification (Agrafioti et al., 2013; Van Vinh et al., 2015; Palansooriya
et al., 2019), soil enhancement for improved fertility and crop productivity (Yoo et al., 2018),

contribution to clean energy production as a partial substitute for fossil fuels (Fang et al.,

2018; Cao et al., 2019), and utilization as an adsorbent and catalyst for various pollutants to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Xiong et al., 2017).

While biochar is primarily used for carbon sequestration and soil improvement, it also

offers potential benefits for water quality. Biochar can reduce soil erosion by improving

various soil properties like aggregate stability and organic matter content. Although the

magnitude varies, several studies suggest it also reduces runoff and nutrient loss in runoff.

Biochar can filter urban runoff, reduce pesticide pollution risks, and even decrease nitrate

leaching. However, its impact on phosphate and dissolved organic carbon leaching requires

further investigation.

The effectiveness of biochar depends on factors like feedstock type, pyrolysis temperature,

and application rate. More long-term field studies are needed to understand its performance

under different conditions. Currently, the high cost of biochar limits its large-scale

application. However, some biochars, such as those from gasification, have minimal cost.

Further research is needed to address challenges like biochar erosion and nutrient adsorption.

Overall, biochar has the potential to improve water quality by reducing erosion, nutrient

leaching, and organic pollutant loss. However, more field-scale data is needed for different

scenarios before widespread adoption (Blanco, 2018 ).

Vegetated filters generally performed better than non-vegetated filters for most parameters,

but the difference was only significant for organic matter. Interestingly, vegetated filters were

less effective at removing suspended solids and color.

While corn cob biochar showed slightly better removal efficiencies, no significant

difference was observed between the two types. Nevertheless, corn cob biochar is

recommended due to its ease of production and readily available feedstock. This study

confirms the potential of biochar in enhancing constructed wetlands for wastewater

treatment. Its low density and potential reuse in agriculture further add to its appeal.

However, further research is needed to understand the mechanisms behind biochar's

contaminant removal and explore the potential of higher pyrolysis temperatures for improved

purification (Visiy et al., 2022).

Over the course of 36 days, environmentally relevant concentrations of synthetic

organic chemicals such as atrazine, anthracene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene were

removed from creek water using a biochar filter in conjunction with a biosand filter. At the

start of the experiment, the biochar filter completely removed phenanthrene and anthracene

and significantly removed atrazine and naphthalene. It was found that atrazine removal

decreased with time and was reliant on the pause period/contact time (i.e., the amount of time

atrazine and the biochar in the filter came into contact). Greater removal of atrazine was

achieved with longer pause/contact times; however, no such effect of contact times was seen

with anthracene, phenanthrene, or naphthalene. A variation in the amount of atrazine

removed was noted along the filter column's length, with the least amount of atrazine

removed from water samples collected close to the top being removed. Results of an

investigation into the potential desorption of the chemicals from the biochar media suggested
that atrazine might potentially leach from the biochar. There was no evidence of

phenanthrene, naphthalene, or anthracene leaching. The removal of synthetic organic

compounds from drinking water has been demonstrated to be possible with the use of a

biochar filter, which can be combined with a biosand filter to remove contaminants ( Chan et

al ., 2020).

Numerous pollutants, many exceeding federal maximum contaminant levels, can

enter surface water resources (such as rivers and lakes) through urban storm water runoff.

Because of its ability to remove contaminants and particulate matter, the use of filtration

systems has drawn increased attention. Biochar's large surface area and microporous

structure indicate that it will make an excellent adsorbent or filter. This study used a series of

column experiments to assess the potential application of biochar as a filter media. To

investigate the efficacy of biochar as filter media for the removal of mixed contaminants,

including total suspended solids (TSS), nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), and E. coli, a column was built with an inner diameter of 7 cm (2.75

in.) and a length of 61 cm (24 in.). coli] derived from artificial stormwater ( Reddy et

al.,2014).

Applying biochar is thought to be a new tactic for enhancing soil ecosystem services.

The effects of such an application on parameters related to water quality, however, have not

received much attention. The most recent research on the effects of biochar on nitrate

leaching, water erosion, and other sources of pollution is compiled in this paper. According

to published research, applying biochar generally lowers runoff by 5 to 50% and soil loss by
11 to 78%. This suggests that biochar can be useful in reducing water erosion, though the

amount of reduction in erosion varies greatly. It seems that applying biochar in combination

with other organic amendments (such as compost or animal dung) reduces water erosion

more effectively than applying biochar by itself.Enhancing soil characteristics that influence

soil erodibility, such as organic C, hydraulic conductivity, and aggregate stability, is one

major way that biochar can lessen water erosion. This review also shows that biochar has a

mixed effect on phosphate and dissolved C leaching, but it typically reduces nitrate leaching

by 2 to 88%. Furthermore, biochar lowers pesticide losses, adsorbs pollutants, and efficiently

filters urban runoff. ( Canqui et al., 2019).

While biochar filters were effective in removing yeast from diluted wastewater under

on-farm conditions, they were largely unsuccessful in removing bacteria and viruses. This

suggests that biochar alone may not be sufficient as a sole treatment method for irrigation

water due to potential contamination risks. The study identified the particle diameter of the

biochar as a key factor influencing its effectiveness. Finer biochar particles (1.4mm)

consistently removed more microbes than larger particles, likely due to increased micropore

density and improved contact time between pathogens and adsorption sites.

Other parameters like organic loading rate, electrical conductivity, and microbial

loading rate had no significant impact on microbe removal. This highlights the need for

further research on the influence of higher salinity and even smaller biochar particle sizes.
Despite the limitations, the study also suggests that the current design HLR for biochar filters might be overl

Effectiveness of Carbon Filters

GAC filtration creates an environment favorable for new particle formation, leading

to higher particle levels in the treated water. These particles are enriched with metallic

elements, especially in the larger size fractions (> 3 μm). The element ratio within particles

also increases with size, ranging from 1 to 40. Larger particles, particularly those exceeding

10 μm, exhibit higher organic carbon content and THM formation potential, suggesting a

potential link between particle-bound organic carbon and THM formation. Notably, the bulk

of carbon fines is found in the >10 μm size range. Disinfection efficiency is higher for free

bacteria compared to bacteria attached to particles, indicating that residual attached bacteria

could pose a risk of secondary biological contamination (Lin et al., 2010).

This study investigated the stability and function of bacterial communities within a

bio-activated carbon (BAC) filter used for water treatment. The bacterial community reached

a stable state after 240 days of operation, highlighting the importance of community stability

for efficient pollutant removal. Four dominant bacterial species were identified:

Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Sphingomonas sp., and Acinetobacter sp. These bacteria were
shown to biodegrade 36 out of 41 organic chemicals present in the water, utilizing them as

nutrient sources. Each species possesses specific biodegradation capabilities, targeting

various organic pollutants like hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds, and polysaccharides.

This research provides valuable insights into the microbial communities responsible for

pollutant removal in BAC filters, paving the way for further development and application of

these sustainable water treatment systems (Zhang et al., 2011).

This research examined the biological colonization of new GAC filters, highlighting

its practical and theoretical implications. From a practical perspective, the findings indicate

that colonization takes over three months, which is crucial information for water producers.

While the study shows that significant biodegradable organic carbon removal is maintained

during colonization, the early phase releases more bacteria than mature filters. This

necessitates additional disinfection treatment if used in drinking water applications.

Interestingly, even adsorption-based filters experience early colonization and likely release

even more bacteria.

The high bacterial release during early colonization also holds important theoretical

implications. It suggests a selection process for bacteria that can attach and form films on the

GAC surface. This process explains why colonization takes so long. While the exact

mechanisms are not fully understood, the research suggests that protozoan grazing plays a

major role in controlling bacterial biomass after the initial colonization phase. This

hypothesis requires further investigation, particularly through developing methods for

protozoan enumeration in GAC filters.

Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the complex biological processes

occurring within GAC filters. It highlights the practical considerations for water producers
during the colonization phase and offers a framework for further research into the microbial

communities and their roles in maintaining filter performance (Servais et al., 1994).

This study investigated two techniques for improving the removal of smaller natural

organic matter (NOM) fractions during drinking water treatment. The findings showed that

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) filtration outperformed both conventional treatment

(coagulation and sand filtration) and submerged ultrafiltration membrane processes in

removing NOM. This was evident in its superior removal of UV254, a measure of NOM

concentration, and individual humic fractions. Notably, GAC filtration removed an additional

23.4% of NOM measured as UV254, further increased the removal of the high-molecular-

weight (HMW) precursor of trihalomethanes (THMs), and potentially reduced the low-

molecular-weight (LMW) fraction that typically escapes conventional treatment methods.

Overall, this study presents GAC filtration as a promising approach for achieving superior

removal of smaller NOM fractions in drinking water treatment, improving water quality and

potentially reducing THM formation (Marais et al., 2018).

Numerous reports highlight the presence of Alphaproteobacteria in biofilters used for

drinking water treatment. The study presented in Table 2 outlines the microbial compositions

of Alphaproteobacteria in different granular activated carbon (GAC) samples. Initial samples

lacked genus-level identification for most Alphaproteobacteria, but by day 160, a significant

shift occurred, with the genus Sphingomonas becoming predominant.

Sphingomonas is commonly found not only in drinking water biofilters but also in

drinking water and biofilms. This genus is known for its ability to degrade various

environmental chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), isoproturon,

lindane, and terpene 2-methylisoborneol (MIB). The ubiquity of Sphingomonas in

oligotrophic water environments may be attributed to its capability for environmental

chemical degradation. Similarly, the presence of Bradyrhizobium, found in BAC filters and

drinking water biofilms, has been linked to the biodegradation of environmental pollutants.

The study concludes that the dominance of Alphaproteobacteria, including

Sphingomonas and Bradyrhizobium, in BAC filters contributes to the removal of dissolved

organic carbon (DOC) and assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in the overall biofiltration

system. The pilot-scale BAC filtration system effectively reduces DOC and AOC, with

microbial community structures evolving over time. Further research is needed to understand

the community dynamics in drinking water biofilters (Liao et al., 2013).

Under optimal conditions for addressing turbidity and color, the conventional water treatment process involv

In pre-oxidation using chlorine (Cl2 mg L1/1 h) followed by coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and sa
In the disinfection phase (chlorination) of sand-filtered water without pre-oxidation, DCF

was reduced by about 35% and 97% for contact times of 30 minutes and 24 hours,

respectively. Chlorine proved to be an effective oxidant under the studied conditions, but

incomplete mineralization of DCF occurred, leading to the formation of byproducts because

the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration remained comparable to that in synthetic

water.

Among the treatment stages investigated, the most substantial removal of DCF occurred through adso

Chlorine oxidation produced three tentative byproducts, involving hydroxylation,

aromatic substitution (chlorine replacing a hydrogen), and decarboxylation/hydroxylation.

Chlorine dioxide oxidation resulted in only one byproduct (hydroxylation).

This study underscores the importance of gaining a better understanding of the

identification, occurrence, and fate of pharmaceutical byproducts formed during drinking

water treatment and assessing their (eco)toxicological effects. Future research should focus

on pharmaceutical removal using a combination of conventional processes and non-

conventional methods such as GAC filtration, ozonation, nanofiltration, and oxidative

processes (Rigobello et al., 2013).

 The Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) values in the Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) samples, as m

The average Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) content per cell, a measure of metabolic activity, ranged

High-Energy Sonication (HES) treatment was found to be more effective than Low-

Energy Sonication (LES) for biomass removal from GAC, reducing cultivability without

affecting free ATP concentration. Modeling suggested over 90% removal of attached

biomass with a series of six to eight HES treatments. The study also emphasized that ATP

concentrations in GAC filters cover a wide range and are influenced by factors such as

running time and ozone pretreatment. The concentrations of active biomass on GAC,

calculated for the total accessible surface, are in a similar range as biofilms in distribution

systems, indicating limited availability of growth substrates. Future investigations will

explore the identity and physiological properties of predominant bacteria in GAC filters for a

more comprehensive understanding of biomass activity (Knezev & Kooij, 2004).

CHAPTER 3

Methodology

Research Design

The proposed research design for the study on the effectiveness and environmental

sustainability of kangkong stem-derived biochar for water treatment involves an

Experimental Research Design. The study will utilize a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)

approach, where water samples will be randomly assigned to different levels of kangkong

biochar application. The independent variable, biochar application levels, will be

systematically manipulated to assess its impact on contaminant removal efficiency and water

quality parameters. A control group, consisting of untreated water samples, will serve as a

baseline for comparison, allowing the isolation of specific effects attributed to the biochar

treatment.

Research Setting

This research utilizes the equipment inside the Chemistry Lab in GRSHS-X for

creating the biochar. The equipment that the researchers used is the for turning the kangkong
stems into biochar. The process may take several hours to complete. After that, the

researchers took the biochar and conducted on the polluted waters in. This observation took

almost a month to complete.

Sampling Procedure

The procedure used in the observations involves randomized sampling. With this, the

researchers can generalize their findings and can give unbiased data for easier analysis. The

researchers chose this procedure for its simplicity and the fact that the data gathered is rather

alike.

Data Analysis

After the data was gathered, the researchers used T-Test to analysis the effectiveness

of kangkong biochar.