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RES L4: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS/DESIGNS

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

I. Competencies

 Differentiate qualitative from quantitative research.

 Demonstrate thorough understanding of the concepts of research methods.
 Conceptualize the appropriate research design for their chosen research
problem.
 Explain on how to organize literature background.
 Demonstrate skill in acknowledging sources of documentation or citation of
references.
 Write a literature background of the study.

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Notes:
Qualitative Research

Qualitative research deals with understanding human behavior in a natural setting,

It is naturalistic in nature because it studies human behavior and the reasons that govern it
(Sanchez, 2003). The emphasis is on the complexity of humans and their ability to shape
and create their own experience. Naturalistic investigations place heavy emphasis on
understanding the human experience as if is lived, usually through collections and analysis
of data that are narrative and subjective.

Characteristics of a Qualitative Research

1. Human understanding and interpretation

Date analysis results show an individual’s mental, social, and spiritual
understanding of the world. Hence, though their world views, you come to know what kind
of human being he or she is, including his or her values, beliefs, likes, and dislikes.

2. Active, powerful, and forceful

A lot of changes occur continuously in every stage of a qualitative research. As
you go through the research process, you find the need to amend or rephrase interview
questions and consider varied ways of getting answers, like shifting from mere speculating
to tr traveling to places for data gathering. You are not fixated to a certain. Rather, you are
inclined to discover your qualitative research design as your study gradually unfolds or
reveals itself in accordance with your research objectives.

3. Multiple research approaches and methods

Qualitative research allows you to approach or plan your study in varied ways. You
are free to combine this with quantitative research and use all gathered data and analysis
techniques. Being a multi-method research, a qualitative study applies to all research
types: descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, case study, etc.

4. Specificity to generalization
Specific ideas in a qualitative research are directed to a general understanding of
something. It follows an inductive or scientific method of thinking, where you start thinking
of particular or specific concept that well eventually lead you to more complex ideas such
as generalizations or conclusions.

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5. Contextualization
A quantitative research involves all variables, factors, or conditions affecting the
study. Your goal here is to understand human behavior. Thus, it is crucial for you to
examine the context or situation of an individual’s life-the who, what, why, how, and other
circumstances- affecting his or her way of life.

6. Diversified data in real-life situations

A qualitative researcher prefers collecting data in a natural setting like observing
people as they live and work, analyzing photographs or videos as they genuinely appear to
people, and looking at classrooms unchanged or adjusted to people’s intentional
observations.

7. Abounds with words and visuals

Words, words, and more words come ion big quantity in this kind of research. Data
gathering through interviews or library reading as well as the presentation of data analysis
results, is done verbally. In some cases, it resorts to quoting some respondent’s answers.
Likewise, presenting people’s world views through visual presentation are significantly
used in a qualitative research.

8. Internal analysis
Here, you examine the data yielded by the internal traits of the subject individuals
(i.e., emotional, mental, spiritual characteristics). You study people’s perception or views
about your topic, not the effects of their physical existence on you study. In case of objects
(e.g., books and artworks) that are subjected to a qualitative research, the investigation
centers on underlying theories or principles that govern these materials and their
usefulness to people.

Qualitative research focuses on:

1. Gaining insights on and an understanding of the individual’s perception of

events;

2. Concerned with in-depth descriptions of people on vents and their interpretation

of experiences;

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3. Data are collected through unstructured interviews and participant observation.

4. The research is to synthesize the patterns and the theories in the data.

5. Not limited by existing theories but must be open to new ideas and theories.

Qualitative research emphasizes the dynamic, holistic, and individual aspects of

human experience within the context of those who are experiencing them.
The collection and analysis of information progresses as the researcher sifts
through the information. Insights are gained, new questions emerge, and further evidence
is sought to confirm the insights.

Common Types of Qualitative Research

1. Phenomenological study

This type of research seeks to find the essence or structure of an experience by

explaining how complex meanings are built out of simple units of inner experience. It
examines human experiences through the description provided by subjects.

Example: What are the common experiences encountered by a spouse with a

spouse who is undergoing rehabilitation.

2. Ethnographic study

This study involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups. In
this type of research, the researcher immerses with the people and becomes a part of their
culture.
Example: What is the demographic profile and migratory adaptations of squatter
families in Barangay Totolan, Dauis, Bohol?

3. Historical study

This study is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis
of data from past events. This is not only limited to obtaining data from the past, but it also
involves relating their implication to the present and the future time.

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Some sources of data for a historical study are as follows:

A. Documents - wide range of printed materials that can be found in libraries,

archives or personal collections

B. Relics and artifacts - such as the equipment used by nurses during WW II usually
found in museums

C. Oral reports- are information that are passed through word of mouth

The data sources are further classified as follows:

A. Primary sources – when the material provides first-hand information, e.g., oral
histories, written records, diaries, eyewitness accounts, pictures,
videos, and other physical evidence

B. Secondary sources - are second-hand information such when a person

narrates information heard from the original sources, or a
material written as an abstract of the original material

The materials used in the study are assessed through the following hallmarks of validity:

A. Internal Criticism
This involves establishing the authenticity of the materials by looking at the
consistency of information. Motives and possible biases of the author must be considered
in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.

B. External Criticism
This is based on the analysis of the material; the ink and the type of paper used;
the layout and physical appearance; as well as the age and texture of the materials itself.

4. Case study
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 It is an in-depth examination of people or an institution. Some of its purposes are
to gain insights into a little-known problem; provide background data for broader studies; or
explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes.

5. Grounded theory study

The method involves comparing collected units of data against one another until
categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations between these categories and
properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and suggestive and are not tested in
the study.

Example: Ten school counselors were given structured interviews to help determine
how their professional identity is formed.

This data was coded first to form concepts and then to form connections between
concepts. A core concept emerged, and its process and implications were discussed.
School counselors’ professional interactions were identified as defining experiences in
their identity formation.

6. Narrative analysis
The main sources of data for this type of research are the life accounts or stories
as told directly by the individual subject based on his/her personal experiences, apart from
the perspective of the larger society. The purpose of the study is to extract meaningful
context from these experiences.

The common types of narrative analysis are as follows:

A. Psychological – involves analyzing the story in terms of internal thoughts and

motivations. The latter analyzes the written text or spoken words
for its component parts or patterns.
B. Biographical - takes the individual’s society and factors like gender and class
into account
C. Discourse analysis - studies the approach in which language is used in texts and
Contexts

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7. Critical qualitative research
This type of research seeks to effectuate change and advocate empowerment
among individuals by divulging and critiquing the social, cultural, and psychological
perspective on present-day contexts. As such, it ultimately challenges the current norm,
especially on power distributions, building upon the initial appraisal of the said present-day
perspectives.

Example: A critical examination of the consumer education texts used in adult literacy
programs revealed content that was disrespectful of adult learners and their previous
experience as consumers, promoted certain ideologies regarding
consumerism and defended the status quo by placing blame for economic troubles on
individual inadequacies, ignoring societal inequities.

8. Postmodern research
As opposed to the traditional form of qualitative analysis, the approach of this type
of research seeks query on the facts that have been established truths, the ability of
research and science to discover this truth, and all generalization and typologies.

9. Basic interpretative qualitative study

This is used when a researcher is interested in identifying how individuals make
meaning of a situation or a phenomenon. It uses an inductive strategy, collecting data from
interviews, observations or documentary analysis, a process of analyzing patterns or
common themes and the outcome is rich descriptive account that makes reference to the
literature that helped from the study.

Example: An interview of women from varying background and a comparison of

developmental patterns discerned with earlier findings on male development.

They found women’s lives evolved through periods of tumultuous, structure-building

phases that alternated with stable periods.

Anderson (2010) lists the following strengths of a qualitative research:

1. Data are usually collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be
generalized to a larger population.
2. It is useful for describing complex phenomena.
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3. Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
4. Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided or
redirected by the researcher in real time.
5. It provides individual case information
6. Cross-case comparisons and analysis can be conducted.
7. It provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of
phenomena.
8. It can describe in rich detail the phenomena as they are situated and
embedded in local contexts.
9. The researcher almost always identifies contextual and setting factors as they
relate to the phenomena of interest.
10. Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research.

In line with this, Anderson (2010) also enumerates the following weaknesses of
qualitative research.

1. The knowledge produced might not generalize to other people or other settings.
2. It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research
within the scientific community.
3. The researcher’s presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable
in qualitative research, can affect the subjects’ responses.
4. It generally takes more time to collect the data when compared to
quantitative research.
5. Data analysis is often time-consuming.
6. The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a traditional, positivist, scientific method which refers to

general set order by disciplined procedures to acquire information (de Belen, 2015).
The evidence for a study is gathered according to the established plan through
structured instruments. Usually the information gathered in such study is quantitative, i.e.,
numeric information that results from some type of formal measurement, and is analyzed
with statistical procedures.
To assess the quality of quantitative studies, the commonly used is the degree to
which research findings can be generalized to individuals other than those who

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participated in the study. It is based on the concepts of manipulation and control of
phenomena and the verification of results validating empirical data. It frequently uses a
deductive or theory-testing approach.

Comparison Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

It involves processes, feelings, and There is one concrete reality that is
motives (the why’s and the how’s), and governed by unchanging natural laws that
produces in-depth and holistic data. can explain any given phenomenon.
Usually concerned with generating Usually starts with neither a theory nor
hypothesis from data rather than testing a hypothesis about the relationship between
hypothesis two or more variables
Uses either unstructured or semi- Uses structured research instruments like
structured instruments questionnaires or schedules
Uses small sample size chosen purposely. Uses large sample sizes that are
representatives of the population
Has high validity Has high output replicability
Used to gain greater understanding of Used to gain greater understanding of
individual differences in terms of feelings, group similarities
motives and experiences
Uses more flexible processes Uses structured processes
Methods include field research, case Methods include census, survey,
study, secondary analysis experiments, and secondary analysis

Main Characteristics of the Quantitative Approach

1. The data are usually gathered using more structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the
problem.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high
reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective

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 answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
7. The project can be sued to generalize concepts more widely, predict future
results, or investigate causal relationships.
8. The researcher uses questionnaires or other forms of research tools to collect
numerical data.

Strengths of the Quantitative Approach

1. Quantitative approach involves a greater number of subjects and enables a

broader study, as well as enhancing the generalization of the results.
2. Study results are more objective and accurate. Usually, to support a certain
generalization by using a summary of data, quantitative research employs
certain procedures on a few variables to ensure the reliability of data.
3. Quantitative research, when the right procedure is used, can be replicated, as
well as analyzed in comparison with other similar works.
4. You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across
categories and over time.
5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a “distance” from participating
subjects and employing facilitators unknown to them.

Limitations of the Quantitative Approach

1. Quantitative data, while they can test a hypothesis, may be limited in explaining
their context. This is because the explanation often focuses on numerical results
as basis.
2. The research is often conducted in an artificial setting, where a certain level of
control is exercised. Because of this, the results may not necessarily reflect the
real-life situation presented in the problem. Additionally, the use of research tools
may only reflect the researcher’s point of view instead of the subjects.

Descriptive Designs

The most commonly – used method of investigation in educational research

because it is easier to conduct as compared to other designs.

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Descriptive research design consists of various forms of which the most widely-employed
are the ; (1) survey, (2) the case study, (3) content analyses, (4) trend analyses, (5) the
feasibility study, (6) the correlational study (7) Causal-comparative research or study, and
(8) Experimental research or study. The discussion is limited to these descriptive research
forms.

Descriptive- survey research design

Results of a survey serve as a basis for establishing status, inferences, factors

associated with data, and comparison of data with norms. The information obtained
through the survey method provide a reference point for analysis classification and
evaluation. Almost all types of descriptive studies use the survey method.

Descriptive Research

Describes the phenomena being studied. It addresses the “what” question. Data
are gathered and descriptive statistics are then used to analyze such data. Thus,
descriptive research considers one variable at a time and is typically the entry-level type of
research in a new area of inquiry. It typically describes what appears to be happening and
what the important variables seem to be.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of fact in group or case

under study.
2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general
characteristics of the group or case under study.
3. What cause the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.
4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change
or progress that took place between the periods may be noted or evaluated
for any value it gives.
5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to
determine their similarities and differences.
6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually
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 controlled.
7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally cross-sectional, that is,
it studies the different sections belonging to a the same group.
8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of
verification and comparison.

Value, Importance, and Advantages of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research…

1. contributes much to the formulation of principles and generalizations in

behavioral sciences.
2. contributes much to the establishment of standard norms of conduct,
behavior, or performance.
3. reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial measures may be
instituted.
4. makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on prevailing
conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain
issues.
5. gives a better and deeper understanding of phenomenon on the basis of an
in-depth study of the phenomenon.
6. provides a basis for decision-making.
7. helps fashion many of the tools with which we do research, such as, instruments
for measurement of many things, instruments that are employed in all types of
quantitative research.

Techniques Under the Descriptive Method of Research

Survey

The survey is useful when the objective if the study is to see a general picture of
the population under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics,
opinions, and their knowledge about and behavior towards a certain phenomenon. It is the
design to use when the investigator wishes to cover a relatively large population, which
other research designs are unable to do.
Survey can be classified in either of these two forms – census and sample survey.
The census or complete enumeration as it is also known, covers the entire population

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under investigation. The sample survey, or simply survey as it is known today, is limited in
scope in that it covers only a portion of the study population.
The survey of whatever form – census or sample survey – uses either the
questionnaire or the interview schedule as its instrument in collecting data needed in the
study. The questionnaire is a set of questions which the subject of the study answers by
himself. The interview schedule is also a set of questions which the interview uses in
personally interviewing the subject of the study.

Types of Survey Technique

Total population survey. The entire population is involved in the survey.

Sample survey. Only a sample or portion of the population is involved in the

survey.

Social survey. The investigator researches on the attitudes and behaviors of

different groups of people.

School survey. This is used to gather data for and about schools and to assess
educational achievement and education itself.

Public opinion survey. This is used to gauge the reactions of people towards certain
issues or persons.

Poll survey. This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they are voting for
a certain candidate in an election.

Market survey. This is aimed at finding out what kinds of people purchase which
products, and how packaging, advertising, and displaying affect
buying, prices and so on.

Evaluation survey. The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished
and with a critical eyes, evaluates the results whether they are
satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making improvements.

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Comparative survey. In this survey, the results from two different groups,
techniques, or procedures are compared.

Short-term survey. In this survey, data are collected over a period of weeks,
months, or even years but the period should be less than five years.

Long-term survey. Any survey conducted for more than five years is a long-term
survey.

Longitudinal survey. This is almost the same as the long-term survey.

Cross-sectional survey. In this type of survey, several groups in various stages of

involvement is studied simultaneously.

Job analysis survey. This provides information on the general duties and
responsibilities of workers, their education, training, experiences,
salaries, types of knowledge and skills and others that help
administrators or managers in setting up training programs and
recruitment policies.

Community survey. This survey provides information on the various aspects of the
community: health, employment, housing, education,
economic resources, delinquency, family, population, other
social problems, and so on.

Correlational study. This is a study that shows the relationship between two or more
variables, that is, how a variable varies with another.

Case study
The case study is the appropriate design to use when the aim of the study is to
have a deeper, more thorough and more comprehensive understanding of an individual
or group (family, organization, etc.). It is also useful when the
investigator wishes to know/capture the processes which explain the characteristics and
behaviour of a person, group or institution under investigation.

In using the case study as an approach or method for a research project, the
researcher has to discover and identify all the important variables that have contributed to
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the development of the case investigated into what it is at the time of study. This would
involve a historical study of its past, determining its present condition and knowing the
environmental factors which individually and collectively affect its development or growth.

The advantage of the case study over other research designs is the opportunity it
allows to study in depth what interests the researcher. It also permits understanding certain
processes which other designs cannot capture in a one-shot survey or observation. Its
disadvantage lies in its “lack of breadth,” meaning, the investigator is limited to the study of
one or few cases, the finding of which cannot be generalized to the population from which
those cases were purposely drawn.

Differences Between Survey and Case Study

Survey Case Study

The group surveyed is usually large. Case study may involve and usually
involves one person, family, small group,
or small community.
The number of aspects or variables in the Usually all aspects or variables in the life
life of the group in the life of the group cycle of the case under study are included.
surveyed is limited.
Cause-effect relationships are not given Finding the causes of certain phenomena
emphasis. Aim of the study may only be to is always a part of a case study.
determine status.
Representativeness is important and is Representativeness is not important. The
given emphasis. results of a single case study do not
provide certainty that the case is truly
representative.
Curiosity, interest, or just to determine Abnormalities or undesirable traits or
norm or status may initiate a survey. conditions usually initiate a case study.
Only conditions or practices present during Data about the case from birth or origin or
the survey are considered except in even of the future are considered.
comparative studies when present
conditions are compared with conditions in
the past.

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Content analysis
When the objective of the study is to find out the type and/or the quality of
messages found in the document (such as speeches, business records, minutes of
meetings) or mass media (such as newspapers, journals and magazines), then the design
or method to use is content analysis.

Content analysis not only requires a “critical eye” in analysing written materials or
documents but also a big dose of patience. The researcher may have to wade through
volumes of dusty old newspapers, stack of books, numerous folders of speeches, of
business records, and of minutes of organization’s meetings. Doing this alone will put to a
hard test the patience of a researcher?

Trend analysis
Some persons may want to foretell, on the basis of available data, the direction
and future status of certain phenomenon like population enrolment, business growth,
household expenditure and residential location. For this particular concern, the most
appropriate research design is the trend analysis.
To determine whether a population will increase to a certain size in the year 2000,
the researcher has to examine records on birth rates over a period of time, or he may
conduct surveys on births repeated at intervals. In the same manner, school
administrators will be able to predict their future enrolment by examining their enrolment in
the past and other related factors such as prevailing political and economic conditions.

Feasibility study
This research design is to be used when the objective is to find out the variability
of starting a business venture, or establishing certain institutions, or establishing certain
institutions, or constructing infrastructures. A feasibility study has been defined as a
“thorough and systematic analysis of all factors that affect the possibility of success of a
proposed undertaking”. (DAP, 1978) I actually is a synthesis of separate studies on the
market, technical, financial, socio-economic and management aspects of the desired
undertaking.

Causal-comparative research
This research attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables
of the study.

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Experimental research
This research is similar to causal-comparative research, in that it also measures
the effect of the independent variable (cause) to the dependent variable (effect); however,
the researcher can control the independent variables in the study, wherein the participants
are randomly assigned.

RESEARCH DESIGNS
The choice of a research design or method is one important decision that has to
be made in any research undertaking. Failure to select the most appropriate design for
Particular study will bring to nothing all the preparations and other efforts for a quality
research output.

Appropriateness of the Research Design

Research design refers to a scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives of
the study. A number of research designs have been developed by researchers. Each
design has its own applicability depending on the problems and objectives of the study and
several other factors like the investigator’s capability, resources and time, from the
available research designs, the researcher is to select that which is appropriate and
effective in attaining his study goals.
This implies that there is no best of versatile research design in the sense that it is
applicable to any investigative study. The appropriateness of a research design then attain
his research objectives.

Reliability and Validity

One other important consideration in selecting a research design is seeing to it

that possible errors are minimized by maximizing the reliability and validity of data.
Reliability refers to the consistency, stability or dependability of the data. A
research method that will give the same results, even if conducted twice is reliable; it is
unreliable when, used the second time, the research yields result different from those of
the first time.
Validity refers to data are not reliable but also true and accurate. In another sense,
it refers to the extent to which an instrument is able to actually assess what it is supposed
to measure. Thus, in research one hears about valid instrument and valid results.
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Threats to Validity

The validity of research results can be maximized by selecting a research design

which is not susceptible or subject to factors which can invalidate the study. While there
are several threats to validity, only the most common ones are presented below.

1. History. This factor refers to events which happen during the life of a project or study.
These events are not part of the study nor those anticipated by the researcher. They
produce effects that influence the outcomes of the study, either increasing or decreasing
expected results.

2. Selection. This factor occurs when subjects of the study are chosen not only by
individuals but by groups. If two groups are selected for comparison purposes, it could be
that the difference between the groups, after one group has been exposed to an
intervention, is not due to the intervention but to the difference in their characteristics such
as sex, age and education, which were not considered during the selection process.

3. Testing. This factor refers to the pre-test given which results in improved performance in
a post-test. People who were given a pre-test are likely to remember some of the
questions and some of the errors they made when they took the post-test. Thus, the like
hood of doing better on the post-test than on the pre-test. One way to control this is by not
giving a pre-test. Another measure is to use an alternate from of instrument.

4. Instrumentation. This factor refers to unreliability or lack of consistency in measuring

instruments which may result in an invalid assessment of performance. The change in the
instrument between the pre-test and the post-test is likely to result in an effect not caused
by an intervention introduced.

5. Maturation. This factor refers to the changes – physiological or psychological – which

may happen to the subjects involved in a study conducted over a period of time. In a
training program which lasts for a long period of time, it is likely that participants will
experience tiredness, hunger, or boredom. Any or all these will affect the performance of
the trainees when measured at the end of the training.

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6. Mortality. This factor refers to load of cases or subjects during the post-test stage of the
study. This is often true when the same group of people are studied over the period of
time. By the time a follow-up study is made on the group, some members may have
dropped out, are nowhere to be found, or refuse to cooperate further in the study, if
members who cannot be contacted are quite different from those who are available, there
is like hood to have a great difference between the results of the first and the second
studies. The difference may be due to the los case rather than to the effect of an
intervention.

Threats to validity must be considered carefully when selecting a research design

or method. If any of the threats is not controlled, it could be a possible explanation for
whatever result of the study, not the intervention to which the subjects have been exposed
to. It is, therefore, important to distinguish an effect caused by an intervention from an
effect caused by a validity threat.

Literature Background Defined

The Webster Dictionary defines literature as “all the writings of a particular time,
country, etc., especially those of an imaginative or critical character valued for excellence
of form and expression.” Any written material then, may it be poetry, a novel, a book or an
article, which meets the required character, form and expression, qualifies to be called
literature.

Reports on studies or investigation is one form of literature that it is not necessary

to distinguish it from literature as other researchers do; thus, their chapter title: Review of
Related Studies and Literature.

The adjective related implies that the literature reviewed are connected to or have
bearing or relation to the subject or problem under investigation. In effect, it narrows down
the materials to be reviewed. Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and
principles to which the present study is related.

For instance, if the present study deals with drug addiction, literature to be
reviewed or surveyed should be composed of materials that deal with drug addiction.
These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional
journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications.

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 These materials are classified as:

A. Local, if printed in the Philippines

B. Foreign, if printed in other lands.

Indeed, why is there a need to review or study again written materials related to
your study? The following are some reasons for making the review.

1. Review of related literature provides the researcher knowledge and background on the
subject under study. By reading what has been done in the past on the issue, he will come
to know what progress has been made in terms of human inquiry on said concern.
2. Review will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating or doing the same study that was
already done before. Unless the researcher’s objective is to find out the change over time
on the same issue, it would be a waste of efforts, time and resources to do the same study.
3.If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides the
researcher information about the aspects of the problem which have not been investigated
or him a basis for deciding what new problem to work on, on the same subject.
4. By reviewing related literature, the researcher will be helped in developing various parts
of his study such as definition of problems and terms, research design, data gathering
techniques and instrument, level and statistical tools for analysis, and form and style of
report presentation.
5.The review provides the researcher insight on the weaknesses and problems of previous
studies. It will give him ideas on how to handle or avoid the same problems which he may
encounter in his own study.
6. It also provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his investigation. It will give
him guidance on how and where to start, who and what he will consult, and what direction
he should be headed to.
7. In relational and exploratory study the review provides the researcher, basis in
determining what variables are related with each other, the
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how to analyze and measure these relationships.
8. The review provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may
relate to his own findings and conclusions.
9.Finally, studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will
ensure a good progress toward the goal of completing his study.

Importance, Purposes, Functions of Related Literature and Studies

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such
reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is
because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research
venture. Reviewed literature and studies help or guide the researcher in the following
ways:
1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may be
found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the study of research problem
already conducted but in another place.
2.They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related
literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an
investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using practically the
same respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be made
first.
4.They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related information. This
is because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicates references about
similar studies.
5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research design especially in

A. The formulation of specific questions to be research on;

B. The formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there should be any;

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 C. The formulation of conceptual framework;

D. The selection and application of methods of research;

E. The selection and application of sampling techniques;

F. The selection and/or preparation and validation or research instruments

for gathering data;

G. The selection and application of statistical procedures;

H. The analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data;

I. The making of the summary implications for the whole study;

J. The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions, and

recommendations; and
6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison between his findings with the
findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end in view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.
Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies

The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be
cited:

A. Characteristics of the Materials Cited

1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid
social, political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical
facts. Researchers in education and psychology are also making great strides. So, findings
fifteen years ago may have little value today unless the study is a comparative inquiry
about the past and the present. Mathematical and statistical procedures, however, are a
little more stable.
RES1 / 2ND
SEMESTER
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2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are extremely
one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some similarity to or
bearing on the problem researched on, should be cited.
4. Materials must not be too few but too many. They must be sufficient enough to give the
researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation.
The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is especially a
problem with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are few related materials or even none at
all.
B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies
The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:
1. By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have the
same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with their
respective authors or writers.
Examples: According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning, etc., etc.
Maglaque found out that praise is an important factor in learning, etc.

2. By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the
same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This
is a summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same
topic.

Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid in the learning of
children.
3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according to
the year they were written. Materials which were written later. This can be done especially
when citation is by author or writer. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be in
the footnote.
C. What to Cite

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It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should
be discussed in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.
D. Quoting a Materials
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial
and it is not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right
sides of the paper but without any quotation marks.
Example: Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Enriquez,

Praise is an important factor in children’s learning. It encourages them to

study their lessons harder. Praise, however, should be given very
appropriately.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related literature and studies may include the following:

A. Books, encyclopedia, almanacs, and other similar references.

B. Article published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers,

and other publications.

C. Manuscripts, monograms, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.

D. Unpublished theses and dissertations.

E. The Constitution, and laws and statues of the land.

F. Bulletins, circulars, and orders emanating from government offices and

departments, especially from the Office of the President of the Philippines and
the Department of Education, Culture and Sports.

RES1 / 2ND
SEMESTER

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G. Records of the schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.

H. Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.

I. Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific,

technological, political, etc. from the government and other entities.

PERFORMANCE TASKS (DO THESE BY GROUP)

Take note: Groupings will be given in the group chats with the names of your research
advisers. Feel free to contact and meet them in person soon.

Start to make/construct/ encode the following:

1. Title Page

2. Approval Sheet

3. Table of Contents

4. Write a RATIONALE of your study (1.5 pages short bondpaper – courier new, size
12)

5. Prepare also your Literature Background and Conceptual Framework

Reminders:

 Do lots of research for your study and do take note the references.

 Each MEMBER SHOULD participate and help in the making of a group output .

 If a member fails to help or won’t cooperate, he or she will be automatically

OUT from the group. And he or she is advised to create another group alone.

 If done with the outputs, do pass to the adviser for necessary corrections.
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 REFERENCE LIST

Almeida, A., Gaerlan, A., Manly, N. 2016. Research Fundamentals

from Concept to Output. Adriana Publishing Co.,Inc. Quezon
City.

Ardales V.1992. Basic Concepts and Methods in Research. Great Books

Trading. Quezon City.

Baceros E. 2000. Developing Basic Research and Writing Skills. Rex

Book Store, Inc., Quezon City.

Calderon J. and Gonzales E. 1993. Methods of Research and Thesis

Writing. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.

Solano, I. 2019. Practical Research 2. Diwa Learning Systems Inc., Makati

City.

Date Finished : ___________________________________

Parent’s Name and Signature : ___________________________________

“You will call, and the Lord will answer; you will cry for help, and he will say: Here
am I”.

Isaiah 58:9

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