ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

BY

L. WAYLAND DOWLING, PH.D.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

AND

F. E. TURNEAURE, C.E.
DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

NEW YORK

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

KE 38860

HARVARD
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
14 NOV 19.2

6042

COPYRIGHT , 1914
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co. —
- Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass. , U.S.A.
 PREFACE

In accordance with the general plan of this series of textbooks ,

the authors of the present volume have had constantly in mind
the needs of the student who takes his mathematics primarily
with a view to its applications as well as the needs of the student
who pursues mathematics as an element of his education.
The processes of analytical geometry find their application , for
the most part, in the scientific laboratory where it is often neces-
sary to study the properties of a function from certain observed
values. The fundamental concept is, therefore, that of functional
correspondence and the methods of representing such correspond-
ence geometrically. For this reason rather more than usual
attention has been given to these subjects (Chapter III ; also
Chapter IX, Arts. 135 to 140).
An intelligent appreciation of functional correspondence re-
quires an intimate knowledge of the relation between an equation
and the graphical representation of the functional correspondence
determined by the equation. Such a knowledge is most easily
obtained by a study of linear equations and equations of the
second degree together with their corresponding loci . This knowl-
edge is not only of importance to the student of applied mathe-
matics, but it has a special disciplinary value for the general
student.
The standard forms of the equations of a number of important
loci are developed early (Chapter IV) , and the properties of these
loci are discussed in detail later (Chapters VI and VII) by means
of the equations already at hand . By this arrangement, it is
hoped that some unnecessary repetition has been avoided.
The equations of tangents to the conic sections have been
derived by means of the discriminant of the quadratic equation
whose roots are the x-coördinates of the points of intersection
with a variable secant, rather than by means of the derivative .
This course has been adopted, first, because the geometric inter-
iii
iv PREFACE

pretation of the discriminant is important in itself ; and, second ,

because the use of the derivative ought, logically, to be preceded
by a chapter devoted to its definition and the methods for finding
it, at least for algebraic functions. Moreover, the use of the
derivative for finding the equations of tangents is only one of
its many applications. No student should feel that his mathe-
matical education is complete without a knowledge of the calculus,
where he will become familiar with the derivative and can appre-
ciate its usefulness in many directions.
The present volume is designed for a four-hour, or a five-hour,
course for one semester, but may be shortened to a three-hour
course by omitting certain parts of the text. For example, Art.
105 may be omitted without marring the continuity of the course.
Again, Arts. 110, 111, and 112 contain all that is essential in
dealing with the general equation of the second degree in two
variables, and the remainder of Chapter VIII can therefore be
omitted from the longer course. Parts of Chapter IX can also
be omitted according to the needs of the student. The chapters
on solid analytic geometry have been added for the benefit of
those students who have time only for an outline of the subject
matter. No apology is therefore offered for the meager treatment.
The authors desire to express their appreciation to their col-
leagues of the University of Wisconsin and of the University
of Illinois for the assistance and the many helpful suggestions
given them during the preparation of the book. They are under
especial obligations to Professor W. H. Bussey, of the University
of Minnesota ; Professor S. C. Davisson, of the University of
Indiana ; Professor J. L. Markley, of the University of Michigan ;
and Professor E. J. Townsend, of the University of Illinois, for
their care and assistance in seeing the book through the press.

L. W. DOWLING,
F. E. TURNEAURE.
UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ,
July, 1914.
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
PAGE
A. The quadratic equation • 1
B. Trigonometric formulas • 1
C. Numerical tables . 3

PART

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER I

SYSTEMS OF COORDINATES
ARTICLE
1. The linear scale 7
2. Directed segments, directed angles . 8
3. Addition of directed segments, addition of directed angles 9
4. Position of a point in a plane • 10
5. Cartesian coördinates 10
6. Rectangular coördinates 11
7. Notation . 12
8. Polar coördinates 13
9. Relation between rectangular coördinates and polar coördinates • 14

CHAPTER II

DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

10. Projections upon the coördinate axes • • 18
11. Inclination and slope of a directed segment • 18
12. The length of a segment • 20
13. Angle which one segment makes with another 22
14. Parallel segments 23
15. Perpendicular segments 23
16. Point bisecting a given segment • 24
17. Point dividing a given segment in a given ratio 25
18. Area of a triangle, one vertex at the origin 26
19. Sign of the expression (≈12 — X2Y1 ) 26
20. Area of a triangle, vertices in any position 28
21. Area of any polygon 30
V
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER III

FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

ARTICLE PAGE

33
22. Constants and variables • 33
23. Functions 33
24. Notation 33
25. Determination of functional correspondence 33
26. Dependent and independent variables 34
27. Graphic representation 34
28. Single-valued and multiple-valued functions 36
29. Symmetry 37
30. Intercepts 38
31. Graph in polar coördinates 39
32. Algebraic functions . 41
33. Transcendental functions 41
34. Graphs of transcendental functions . 41
35. Geometric construction of the graphs of trigonometric functions 42
36. The exponential function . 44
37. Graph of the exponential function 44
38. Inverse functions • 45
39. Graph of an inverse function • 46
40. Observation 48
41. Machines . 48

CHAPTER IV

LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS

42. Locus of a point, equation of locus 53
43. A fundamental problem 53
44. General definition 54
45. The circle 55
46. The equation x² + y² + Ax + By + C = 0 56
47. The straight line . 57
48. The determinant form 59
49. The ellipse 60
50. The axes and eccentricity 62
51. The hyperbola . 63
52. Axes and eccentricity 65
53. The parabola • 66
54. The cassinian ovals . 67
69

55. Recapitulation . 69
56. Polar equation of a circle . 69
57. Polar equation of a straight line 70
 CONTENTS vii

ARTICLE PAGE
58. Polar equation of the parabola 71
59. Polar equations of the ellipse and the hyperbola 71
60. Parametric equations · 73
61. Geometrical construction of the ellipse and the hyperbola 74
62. Recapitulation . 76

CHAPTER V

EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

63. Locus of an equation 77
64. A second fundamental problem 77
65. Discussion of an equation 77
66. Example I. The equation x² + 4 y² = 4 . 79
67. Example II. The equation x² - 4y2 = 4 80
68. Example III. The equation xy - Xx y = 0 . 81
X
69. Example IV. The equation y = 82
1 + x²
70. Example V. The equation y² == x²(b- x) 83
3x + b
x
= a 85
71. Example VI . The catenary, y = ² (ea + e¯ā )
2
72. Example VII. Simple harmonic curves, compound harmonic
curves • 86

8888
73. Example VIII. Damped vibrations 87
74. Polar equations
75. Example IX . The equation r = cos 20 89
76. Example X. The equation r² = a² cos 2 0 90

TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES
77. Translation of the axes 91
78. Rotation of the axes 92
79. Removal of terms of first degree 94
80. Removal of the term in xy 95
81. Classification of algebraic curves 96

CHAPTER VI

LOCI OF FIRST ORDER

82. Linear equations 98
83. Intersection of two lines . 99
84. The pencil of lines 100
85. The pair of lines 102
viii CONTENTS

ARTICLE PAGE
86. The normal form • 102
87. Reduction of Ax + By + C = 0 to the normal form 103
88. Distance from a line to a point 104
89. The angle which one line makes with another 105

CHAPTER VII

LOCI OF SECOND ORDER. EQUATIONS IN STANDARD

FORM

DIRECTRICES
90. Review . 107
91. Directrices 108
92. A fundamental theorem 108
93. Construction of an ellipse or an hyperbola 109
94. Two common properties 110

TANGENTS

95. Equation of a tangent in terms of the slope . 111

96. Coördinates of the point of contact 115
97. Equation of a tangent in terms of the coördinates of the point of
contact • 116
98. Normals . • 119
99. Tangent length, normal length, sub-tangent, sub-normal 119
100. Reflection properties 120

DIAMETERS
101. Definition of diameter 123
102. Conjugate diameters 123
103. The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords 125

POLES AND POLAR LINES

104. Definition of pole and polar line 127

105. Geometric properties of poles and polar lines 129

SYSTEMS OF CONICS

106. The asymptotes of the hyperbola 133

107. Conjugate hyperbolas • · 134
108. The system of concentric hyperbolas 135
109. The system of confocal conics 136
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER VIII

LOCI OF THE SECOND ORDER. EQUATIONS NOT IN

STANDARD FORM
ARTICLE PAGE
110. Translation of the coördinate axes 141
111. Discussion of the equation ax2 + by² + 2 gx + 2fy + c = 0 142
112. The general equation of the second degree 145
113. Removal of the terms of first degree 148
114. First case, ab - h² 0 149
115. Second case , ab - h² = 0 , hf -
— bg 0 . 152
116. Third case, ab -— h² -
= 0 and hf - bg = 0 155
117. Recapitulation 156

TANGENTS AND DIAMETERS

118. Tangents 157
119. Diameters 159

SYSTEMS OF CONICS
120. The pencil of conics 163
121. The system of circles with a common radical axis . 163
122. The parabolas in the pencil U + kV = 0 164
123. Straight lines in the pencil U + Vk = 0 165
124. The pencil of conics through four given points 167

CHAPTER IX

LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER AND OTHER LOCI

125. Introductory note • 169

ALGEBRAIC LOCI
126. The Cissoid of Diocles • 169
127. The Conchoid of Nicomedes 170
128. The Witch of Agnesi 171
129. The Limaçon of Pascal 172

TRANSCENDENTAL LOCI
130. The cycloid • 173
131. The hypocycloid 175
132. Special hypocycloids · 176
133. The epicycloid 177
134. The cardioid • 178
X CONTENTS

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

ARTICLE PAGE
135. Typical equations . 182
136. Loci of typical equations 182
137. Selection of type-curve and determination of constants 186
138. Test by means of linear equations . • 187
139. Examples and exercises . 189
140. Type, y = a + bx + cx² + dx³ + ... + kon 193

PART II

SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER X
SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES
141. Rectangular and oblique coördinates 195
142. Spherical coördinates 196
143. Cylindrical coördinates . 197

CHAPTER XI

DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE

144. Projections upon the coördinate axes 199
145. Length of a segment 199
146. Direction angles and direction cosines of a segment 200
147. Relation connecting the direction cosines of a segment . 200
148. Projection of a segment upon any line 202
149. Projection of a broken line 202
150. The angle between two segments 203
151. Perpendicular segments, parallel segments 203
152. Point dividing a given segment in a given ratio 204

CHAPTER XII

LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS

153. Surfaces and curves 207
154. Equations of loci · 207
155. The sphere 208
156. Surfaces of revolution 209
157. Cylinders 210
158. The right circular cone 211
159. Plane sections of a right circular cone • 211
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XIII

THE PLANE AND THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE

ARTICLE PAGE
160. The normal form of the equation of a plane • 213
161. The intercept form of the equation · 215
162. Equation of a plane through three given points 215
163. Determinant form of the equation . 216
164. Perpendicular distance from a plane to a point 217
165. Angle between two planes • 218
166. Pencil of planes with a common axis · 219
167. Pencil of planes with a common vertex . 220
168. The equations of a straight line in space 221
169. The projecting planes of a line 222
170. The intersection of two planes 223
171. Intersection of a line with a plane 225

CHAPTER XIV

EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

172. Second fundamental problem 228
173. Construction of a surface from its equation 228
174. The quadric surfaces, or conicoids 229
175. The ellipsoid 230
176. The hyperboloid of one sheet . 231
177. The hyperboloid of two sheets 233
178. The elliptic paraboloid . 234
179. The hyperbolic paraboloid 235
180. The quadric cone 236
181. Cylinders 237
182. Pairs of planes 237
183. Ruled surfaces 238
184. Equation of generator 239
185. Tangent lines and planes 240
186. Circular sections 242
187. Asymptotic cones 243
188. Projecting cylinders of a curve in space 244
189. Parametric equations of curves in space 245
190. The circular helix . 246
ANSWERS о 249
 GREEK ALPHABET

LETTERS LETTERS
NAMES NAMES
Lower Lower
Capitals Case Capitals Case

ZI
AB

А α Alpha N ν Nu
В β Beta Å Xi
F A E

O
γ Gamma 0 Omicron
Δ 8 Delta II π Pi

€ Epsilon Р ρ Rho
N H

WE

Ꮓ * Zeta Σ σ Sigma
Н η Eta T T Tau

Ꮎ Theta Y υ Upsilon
I し Iota Φ Phi
K K Kappa X Χ Chi
Λ λ Lambda ¥ 4 Psi
M μ Mu Ω Omega
3

xii
 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

INTRODUCTION

A. The quadratic equation. For convenience in reference the

following formulas and tables are introduced.
Any quadratic equation may be written in the form
ax² + bx + c = 0.

The two roots of this equation are

b + √b2-4ac b −√b² - 4 ac
X1 = and x2 = -
2a 2a
b
By addition, x1 + x₁₂ =
a
C
By multiplication, X1X2 ==
a
The sum and the product of the roots can therefore be found
directly from the equation without solving.
The character of the roots depends on the quantity under the
radical, b² 4 ac.

If b2-4ac > 0, the roots are real and unequal,

if b2 -- 4 ac = 0, the roots are real and equal,
if b2-4 ac < 0, the roots are imaginary.

The expression b2-4 ac is called the discriminant of the

equation, and when placed equal to zero expresses the condition
which must hold between the coefficients, if the two roots of the
equation are equal.

B. Trigonometric formulas. If A, B, and C are the angles of a

triangle and a, b, c are respectively the lengths of the sides
opposite, then :
1
2 INTRODUCTION

(1) Law of sines :

sin A sin B sin C
a b
(2) Law of cosines :
a² = b² + c² -
− 2 bc cos A,
b² = a² + c² - 2 ac cos B,
c² = a² + b² -
– 2 ab cos C.

(3) Law of tangents :

tan ¦ (A + B)
=a+ b
tan ¦ (4 – B) a - b'

Addition formulas.
If A and B are any angles , then
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B ± sin B cos A,
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B,
: tan Atan B
tan (A + B) =
1 tan Atan B
 TABLES 3
3

C. TABLES
Common Logarithms
N OD 1 D2D 3D 4D 5D 6D 7 D8 D9 D
10 0000 430043 43 0086 42 0128 42 0170 42 0212 41 0253 41 0294 40 0334 40 0374 40
11 0414 39 0453 39 0492 39 0531 38 0569 38 0607 38 0645 37 0682 37 0719 36 0755 37
12 0792 36 0828 36 0864 35 0899 35 0934 35 0969 35 1004 34 1038 34 1072 34 1106 33
13 1139 34 1173 33 1206 33 1239 32 1271 32 1303 32 1335 32 1367 32 1399 31 1430 31
14 1461 31 1492 31 1523 30 1553 31 1584 30 1614 30 1644 29 1673 30 1703 29 1732 29
15 1761 29 1790 28 1818 29 1847 28 1875 28 1903 28 1931 28 1959 28 1987 27 2014 27
16 2041 27 2068 27 2095 27 2122 26 2148 27 2175 26 2201 26 2227 26 2253 26 2279 25
17 2304 26 2330 25 2355 25 2380 25 2405 25 2430 25 2455 25 2480 24 2504 25 2529 24
18 2553 24 2577 24 2601 24 2625 23 2648 24 2672 23 2695 23 2718 24 2742 23 2765 23
19 2788 22 2810 23 2833 23 2856 22 2878 22 2900 23 2923 22 2945 22 2967 22 2989 21
20 3010 22 3032 22 3054 21 3075 21 3096 22 3118 21 3139 21 3160 21 3181 20 3201 21
21 3222 21 3243 20 3263 21 3284 20 3304 20 3324 21 3345 20 3365 20 3385 19 3404 20
22 3424 20 3444 20 3464 19 3483 19 3502 20 3522 19 3541 19 3560 19 3579 19 3598 19
23 3617 19 3636 19 3655 19 3674 18 3692 19 3711 18 3729 18 3747 19 3766 18 3784 18
24 3802 18 3820 18 3838 18 3856 18 3874 18 3892 17 3909 18 3927 18 3945 17 3962 17
25 3979 18 3997 17 4014 17 4031 17 4048 17 4065 17 4082 17 4099 17 4116 17 4133 17
26 4150 16 4166 17 4183 17 4200 16 4216 16 4232 17 4249 16 4265 16 4281 17 4198 16
27 4314 16 4330 16 4346 16 4362 16 4378 15 4393 16 4409 16 4425 15 4440 16 4456 16
28 4472 15 4487 15 4502 16 4518 15 4533 15 4548 16 4564 15 4579 15 4594 15 4609 15
29 4624 15 4639 15 4654 15 4669 14 4683 15 4698 15 4713 15 4728 14 4742 15 4757 14
30 4771 15 4786 14 4800 14 4814 15 4829 14 4843 14 4857 14 4871 15 4886 14 4900 14
31 4914 14 4928 14 4942 13 4955 14 4969 14 4983 14 4997 14 5011 13 5024 14 5038 13
32 5051 14 5065 14 5079 13 5092 13 5105 14 5119 13 5132 13 5145 14 5159 13 5172 13
33 5185 13 5198 13 5211 13 5224 13 5237 13 5250 13 5263 13 5276 13 5289 13 5302 13
34 5315 13 5328 12 5340 13 5353 13 5366 12 5378 13 5391 12 5403 13 5416 12 5428 13
35 5441 12 5453 12 5465 13 5478 12 5490 12 5502 12 5514 13 5527 12 5539 12 5551 12
36 5563 12 5575 12 5587 12 5599 12 5611 12 5623 12 5635 12 5647 11 5658 12 5670 12
37 5682 12 5694 11 5705 12 5717 12 5729 11 5740 12 5752 11 5763 12 5775 11 5786 12
38 5798 11 5809 12 5821 11 5832 11 5843 12 5855 11 5866 11 5877 11 5888 11 5899 12
39 5911 11 5922 11 5933 11 5944 11 5955 11 5966 11 5977 11 5988 11 5999 11 6010 11
40 6021 10 6031 11 6042 11 6053 11 6064 11 6075 10 6085 11 6096 11 6107 10 6117 11
41 6128 10 6138 11 6149 11 6160 10 6170 10 6180 11 6191 10 6201 11 6212 10 6222 10
42 6232 116243 10 6253 10 6263 11 6274 10 6284 10 6294 10 6304 10 6314 11 6325 10
43 6335 10 6345 10 6355 10 6365 10 6375 10 6385 10 6395 10 6405 10 6415 10 6425 10
44 6435 9 6444 10 6454 10 6464 10 6474 10 6484 9 6493 10 6503 10 6513 9 6522 10
45 6532 10 6542 9 6551 10 6561 10 6571 9 6580 10 6590 9 6599 10 6609 9 6618 10
46 6628 9 6637 9 6646 10 6656 9 6665 10 6675 9 6684 9 6693 9 6702 10 6712 9
47 6721 9 6730 9 6739 10 6749 9 6758 96767 9 6776 9 6785 9 6794 9 6803 9
48 6812 9 6821 9 6830 9 6839 9 6848 9 6857 9 6866 9 6875 9 6884 9 6893 9
49 6902 9 6911 9 6920 8 6928 9 6937 9 6946 9 6955 9 6964 8 6972 9 6981 9
50 6990 8 6998 9 7007 9 7016 8 7024 9 7033 9 7042 8 7050 9 7059 8 7067 9
51 7076 8 7084 9 7093 8 7101 9 7110 8 7118 8 7126 9 7135 8 7143 9 7152 8
52 7160 8 7168 9 7177 8 7185 8 7193 9 7202 8 7210 8 7218 8 7226 9 7235 8
53 7243 8 7251 8 7259 8 7267 8 7275 9 7284 8 7292 8 7300 8 7308 8 7316 8
54 7324 8 7332 8 7340 8 7348 8 7356 8 7364 8 7372 8 7380 8 7388 8 7396 8
 4 TABLES

Common Logarithms — Continued

NO 1 D2 D3 D4 D 5D 6D 7 D 8 9 D
55 7404 8 7412 7 7419 8 7427 8 7435 8 7443 8 7451 8 7459 7 7466 8 7474
56 7482 8 7490 7 7497 8 7505 8 7513 7 7520 8 7528 8 7536 7 7543 8 7551 8
57 7559 7 7566 8 7574 7582 7 7589 8 7597 7 7604 8 7612 7 7619 8 7627 7
58 7634 8 7642 7 7649 7657 7 7664 8 7672 7 7679 7 7686 8 7694 7 7701 8
59 7709 7 7716 7 7723 8 7731 7 7738 7 7745 7 7752 8 7760 7 7767 7 7774 8
60 7782 7 7789 7 7796 7 7803 7 7810 8 7818 7 7825 7 7832 7 7839 7 7846 7
61 7853 7 7860 8 7868 7 7875 7 7882 7 7889 7 7896 7 7903 7 7910 7 7917 7
62 7924 7 7931 7 7938 7 7945 7 7952 7 7959 7 7966 7 7973 7 7980 7 7987 6
63 7993 7 8000 78007 7 80147 8021 7 8028 7 8035 6 8041 7 8048 7 8055 7
64 8062 7 8069 6 8075 7 8082 7 8089 7 8096 6 8102 7 8109 7 8116 6 8122 7
65 8129 7 8136 6 8142 7 8149 7 8156 6 8162 7 8169 7 8176 6 8182 7 8189 6
66 8195 7 8202 7 8209 6 8215 7 8222 6 8228 7 8235 6 8241 7 8248 6 8254 7
67 8261 6 8267 7 8274 6 8280 7 8287 6 8293 6 8299 7 8306 6 8312 7 8319 6
68 8325 6 8331 7 8338 6 8344 7 8351 6 8357 6 8363 7 8370 6 8376 6 8382 6
69 8388 7 8395 6 8401 6 8407 7 8414 6 8420 6 8426 6 8432 7 8439 6 8445 6
70 8451 6 8457 6 8463 7 8470 6 8476 6 8482 6 8488 6 8494 6 8500 6 8506 7
71 8513 6 8519 6 8525 6 8531 6 8537 6 8543 6 8549 6 8555 6 8561 6 8567 6
72 8573 6 8579 6 8585 6 8591 6 8597 6 8603 6 8609 6 8615 6 8621 6 8627 6
73 8633 6 8639 6 8645 6 8651 6 8657 6 8663 6 8669 6 8675 6 8681 5 8686 6
74 8692 6 8698 6 8704 6 8710 6 8716 6 8722 5 8727 6 8733 6 8739 6 8745 6
75 8751 5 8756 6 8762 8768 6 8774 5 8779 6 8785 6 8791 6 8797 5 8802 6
76 8808 6 8814 6 8820 5 8825 6 8831 € 8837 5 8842 6 8848 6 8854 5 8859 6
77 8865 8871 5 8876 6 8882 5 8887 6 8893 6 8899 5 8904 6 8910 5 8915 6
78 8921 6 8927 5 8932 6 8938 5 8943 6 8949 5 8954 6 8960 5 8965 6 8971 5
79 8976 6 8982 5 8987 6 8893 5 8998 6 9004 5 9009 6 9015 5 9020 5 9025 6
80 9031 5 9036 6 9042 5 9047 6 9053 5 9058 5 9063 6 9069 5 9074 5 90796
81 9085 5 9090 6 9096 5 9101 5 9106 6 9112 5 9117 5 9122 6 9128 5 9133 5
82 9138 5 9143 6 9149 5 9154 5 9159 6 9165 5 9170 5 9175 5 9180 6 9186 5
83 9191 5 9196 5 9201 5 9206 6 9212 5 9217 5 9222 5 9227 5 9232 6 9238 5
84 9243 5 9248 5 9253 5 9258 5 9263 6 9269 5 9274 5 9279 5 9284 5 9289 5
85 9294 5 9299 5 9304 5 9309 6 9315 5 9320 5 9325 5 9330 5 9335 5 93405
86 9345 5 9350 5 9355 5 9360 5 9365 5 9370 5 9375 5 9380 5 9385 5 9390 5
87 9395 5 9400 5 9405 5 9410 5 9415 59420 5 9425 5 9430 5 9435 5 9440 5
88 9445 5 9450 5 9455 5 9460 5 9465 4 9469 5 9474 5 9479 5 9484 5 9489 5
89 9494 5 9499 5 9504 5 9509 4 9513 5 9518 5 9523 5 9528 5 9533 5 9538 4
90 9542 5 9547 5 9552 5 9557 5 9562 4 9566 5 9571 5 9576 5 9581 5 9586 4
91 9590 5 9595 5 9600 5 9605 4 9609 5 9614 5 9619 5 9624 4 9628 5 9633 5
92 9638 5 9643 4 9647 5 9652 5 9657 4 9661 5 9666 5 9671 4 9675 5 9680 5
93 9685 4 9689 5 9694 5 9699 4 9703 5 9708 5 9713 4 9717 5 9722 5 9727 4
94 9731 5 9736 5 9741 4 9745 5 9750 4 9754 5 9759 4 9763 5 9768 5 9773 4
95 9777 5 9782 4 9786 5 9791 4 9795 5 9800 5 9805 4 9809 5 9814 4 9818 5
96 9823 4 9827 5 9832 4 9836 5 9841 4 9845 5 9850 4 98545 9859 4 9863 5
97 9868 4 9872 5 9877 4 9881 5 9886 49890 4 9894 5 9899 4 9903 5 9908 4
98 9912 5 9917 4 9921 5 9926 4 9930 49934 5 9939 4 9943 5 9948 4 9952
99 9956 5 9961 4 9965 4 9969 5 9974 4 9978 5 9983 4 9987 4 9991 5 9996 4
 TABLES 5

Trigonometric Functions
[Characteristics of Logarithms omitted - determine by the usual rule from the value]
Radians De- SINE TANGENT COTANGENT COSINE
grees Value log10 Value log10 Value log10 Value log10
.0000 0° .0000∞0 .0000 -∞
∞ ∞ 1.0000 0000 90° 1.5708
.0175 1° .0175 2419 .0175 2419 57.290 7581 .9998 9999 89° 1.5533
.0349 20.0349 5428 .0349 5431 28.636 4569 .9994 9997 88 1.5359
.0524 3° .0523 7188 .0524 7196 19.081 2806 .9986 9994 87° 1.5184
.0698 4° .0698 8436 .0699 8448 14.301 1554 .9976 9989 86° 1.5010
.0873 5° .0872 9403 .0875 9420 11.430 0580 .9962 9983 85 1.4835
.1047 6° 1045 0192 .1051 0216 9.5144 9784 .9945 9976 84° 1.4661
.1222 7° .1219 0859 .1228 0891 8.1443 9109 .9925 9968 83° 1.4486
.1396 8° .1392 1436 .1405 1478 7.1154 8522 .9903 9958 82° 1,4312
.1571 9° .1564 1943 .1584 1997 6.3138 8003 .9877 9946 81° 1.4137
.1745 10° .1736 2397 .1763 2463 5.6713 7537 .9848 9934 80° 1.3963
.1920 110.1908 2806 .1944 2887 5.1446 7113 .9816 9919 79° 1.3788
.2094 12° .2079 3179 .2126 3275 4.7046 6725 .9781 9904 78° 1.3614
.2269 13° .2250 3521 .2309 3634 4.3315 6366 .9744 9887 77° 1.3439
.2443 14° .2419 3837 .2493 3968 4.0108 6032 .9703 9869 | 76° | 1.3265
.2618 15° .2588 4130 .2679 4281 3.7321 5719 .9659 9849 75° 1.3090
.2793 16° .2756 4403 .2867 4575 3.4874 5425 .9613 9828 74 1.2915
.2967 17° .2924 4659 .3057 4853 3.2709 5147 .9563 9806 73° 1.2741
.3142 18° .3090 4900 .3249 5118 3.0777 4882 .9511 9782 72° 1.2566
.3316 19° .3256 5126 .3443 5370 2.9042 4630 .9455 9757 71° 1.2392
.3491 20° .3420 5341 .3640 5611 2.7475 4389 .9397 9730 70° 1.2217
.3665 21° .3584 5543 .3839 2842 2.6051 4158 .9336 9702 69° 1.2043
.3840 22° .3746 5736 .4040 6064 2.4751 3936 .9272 9672 68° 1.1868
.4014 23° .3907 5919 .4245 6279 2.3559 3721 .9205 9640 67° 1.1694
.4189 24.4067 6093 .4452 6486 2.2460 3514 .9135 9607 66° 1.1519
.4363 25.4226 6259 .4663 6687 2.1445 3313 .9063 9573 65° 1.1345
.4538 26° .4384 6418 .4877 6882 2.0503 3118 .8988 9537 64° 1.1170
.4712 27.4540 6570 .5095 7072 1.9626 2928 .8910 9499 63° 1.0996
.4887 28° .4695 6716 .5317 7257 1.8807 2743 .8829 9459 62° 1.0821
.5061 29° .4848 6856 .5543 7438 1.8040 2562 .8746 9418 61° 1.0647
.5236 30° .5000 6990 .5774 7614 1.7321 2386 .8660 9375 60° 1.0472
.5411 31° .5150 7118 .6009 7788 1.6643 2212 .8572 9331 59° 1.0297
.5585 32° .5299 7242 .6249 7958 1.6003 2042 .8480 9284 58° 1.0123
.5760 33° .5446 7361 .6494 8125 1.5399 1875 .8387 9236 57° .9948
.5934 34.5592 7476 .6745 8290 1.4826 1710 .8290 9186 56° .9774
.6109 35° .5736 7586 .7002 8452 1.4281 1548 .8192 9134 55° .9599
.6283 36.5878 7692 .7265 8613 1.3764 1387 .8090 9080 54° .9425
.6458 37° .6018 7795 .7536 8771 1.3270 1229 .7986 9023 53° .9250
.6632 38° .6157 7893 .7813 8928 1.2799 1072 .7880 8965 52° .9076
.6807 39° .6293 7989 .8098 9084 1.2349 0916 .7771 8905 51° .8901
.6981 40° .6428 8081 .8391 9238 1.1918 0762 .7660 8843 50° .8727
.7156 41° .6561 8169 .8693 9392 1.1504 0608 .7547 8778 49° .8552
.7330 42° .6691 8255 .9004 9544 1.1106 0456 .7431 8711 48° .8378
.7505 43° .6820 8338 .9325 9697 1.0724 0303 .7314 8641 47° .8203
.7679 44° .6947 8418 .9657 9848 1.0355 0152 .7193 8569 46° .8029
.7854 45.7071 8495 1.0000 0000 1.0000 0000 .7071 8495 45° .7854
Value log10 Value log10 Value log10 Value log10 De- Radians
COSINE COTANGENT TANGENT SINE grees
6 TABLES

Exponential Functions

ex -x ex

x loge x Value log10 Value log10 x loge x Value log10 Value log10

0.0 81 1.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 2.0 0.693 7.389 0.869 0.135.9.131
0.1-2.303 1.105 0.043 0.905 9.957 2.1 0.742 8.166 0.912 0.122 9.088
0.2-1.610 1.221 0.087 0.819 9.913 2.2 0.788 9.025 0.955 0.111 9.045
0.3-1.204 1.350 0.130 0.741 9.870 2.3 0.833 9.974 0.999 0.100 9.001
0.4 -0.916 1.492 0.174 0.670 9.826 2.4 0.875 11.02 1.023 0.091 8.958
0.5-0.693 1.649 0.217 0.607 9.783 2.5 0.916 12.18 1.086 0.082 8.914
0.6-0.511 1.822 0.261 0.549 9.739 2.6 0.956 13.46 1.129 0.074 8.871
0.7 -0.357 2.014 0.304 0.497 9.696 2.7 0.993 14.88 1.173 0.067 8.827
0.8 -0.223 2.226 0.347 0.449 9.653 2.8 1.030 16.44 1.216 0.061 8.784
0.9 -0.105 2.460 0.391 0.407 9.609 2.9 1.065 18.17 1.259 0.055 8.741
1.0 0.000 2.718 0.434 0.368 9.566 3.0 1.099 20.09 1.303 0.050 8.697
1.1 0.095 3.004 0.478 0.333 9.522 3.5 1.253 33.12 1.520 0.030 8.480
1.2 0.182 3.320 0.521 0.301 9.479 4.0 1.386 54.60 1.737 0.018 8.263
1.3 0.262 3.669 0.565 0.273 9.435 4.5 1.504 90.02 1.954 0.011 8.046
1.4 0.336 4.055 0.608 0.247 9.392 5.0 1.609 148.4 2.171 0.007 7.829
1.5 0.405 4.482 0.651 0.223 9.349 6.0 1.792 403.4 2.606 0.002 7.394
1.6 0.470 4.953 0.695 0.202 9.305 7.0 1.946 1096.6 3.040 0.001 6.960
1.7 0.531 5.474 0.738 0.183 9.262 8.0 2.079 2981.0 3.474 0.000 6.526
1.8 0.588 6.050 0.782 0.165 9.218 9.0 2.197 8103.1 3.909 0.000 6.091
1.9 0.642 6.686 0.825 0.150 9.175 10.0 2.303 22026. 4.343 0.000 5.657

log, x = (log10 ) ÷ M; M = .4342944819 .

 PART I

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER I

SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES

1. The linear scale. Analytic geometry is based upon a geo-

metric representation of numbers.
Choose a straight line AB of indefinite length and upon it a
fixed point O. With a convenient unit lay off the equal distances
OP1, P1P2, P2P3, ... to the right, and OQ1, Q1 Q2, 223, ... to the
left. We will now agree that the points P1, P2, P3, ... shall
represent the positive integers 1, 2, 3, ..., respectively, and the
points Q1, Q2 Q3, ... shall represent the negative integers -1,
- -
— 2, — 3, ... , respectively .
-3 -2 -1 1 12 2 3
+
A Q3 PR P P3 B
Q₂
FIG. 1

The intervals along the line AB can be divided into fractional

parts of the unit, thus obtaining points representing fractional
numbers. For example, the point R bisecting the segment P₁P₂2
represents the positive number 1.5.
The subdivision can be carried on indefinitely and we may
infer, finally, that the following statement and its converse hold
concerning this representation.

Each of the points on the line AB represents a number ; namely,

that number which expresses the distance and direction of the point
from O in terms of the unit chosen.
Conversely, if x is a positive (or negative) number, it is repre-
sented by a point x units to the right (or left) of 0.
7
8 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. I.

The line AB, together with the points constructed as explained,

is called a linear scale. It is the geometric equivalent, or graphic
representation, of the system of real numbers.
The point O is called the origin ; it represents the number zero.
The scale on a thermometer is an example of a linear scale.
Here the points on the scale represent the numbers expressing
degrees of temperature.

EXERCISES
1. Construct a linear scale using half an inch for the unit. On this scale,
mark the points representing 3, 1 , -2, - 21.
2. Is the scale on an ordinary carpenter's square a linear scale ? Where
is the origin ?
3. If the origin of the scale is moved two points to the left, how will this
affect the numbers represented by the scale ? If the origin is moved two
points to the right, how will the numbers be affected ?
4. The freezing and boiling points on a Fahrenheit thermometer are at 32°
and 212° respectively , while on a centigrade thermometer they are placed at 0°
and 100°. Compare the units of these two scales. Five degrees below zero
on the centigrade is equivalent to what reading on the Fahrenheit ? Con-
struct the two scales in this exercise.

ЯВ 2. Directed segments, directed angles. It

is frequently necessary to distinguish be
tween the two directions in which a seg-
ment may be laid off on a given straight
line. This is done by calling one direction
positive and the other negative. Thus, if
FIG. 2
we agree to call
BA
the direction from A to B (Fig. 2) posi-
tive, then we shall call the direction from
Bto A negative. Expressed in symbols , 1A
AB = — BA.

Segments of a straight line to which a

direction has been attached are called
directed segments .
In a similar way, an angle can be
directed. For example, the acute angle FIG. 3
ARTS . 2, 3] DIRECTED SEGMENTS , DIRECTED ANGLES 9

shown in Fig. 3 can be described by a line rotating with the

hands of a clock, or clockwise, from OB to OA ; or counterclockwise,
from OA to OB. It is customary to consider counterclockwise
rotation as positive, and clockwise rotation as negative. Thus, the
acute angle AOB is considered as a positive angle and the acute
angle BOA, as a negative angle. In symbols,
AOB == -
- BOA.

3. Addition of directed segments, addition of directed angles. If

AB, BC, and AC are three directed segments along the same line
(Fig. 4), then the equation
AB + BC = AC

B
FIG. 4

has the following simple interpretation ; namely, a point moving

along the line from A to B and then from B to C is in the same
final position as it would have been had it moved directly from A
to C. With this interpretation, the above equation is readily
seen to hold however the points A, B, and C are situated with
respect to each other.
Again, we have

AC - AB = AC + BA = BA + AC = BC.

Similarly, the equation B

AOB + BOC = AOC (Fig. 5)

is interpreted as follows ; rotation

through the angle AOB and then
through the angle BOC is equivalent to
rotation through the angle AOC.
Again,
AOC - BOC = AOC + COB = AOB. FIG. 5
10 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. I.

EXERCISES

1. Construct a linear scale, using half an inch for the unit, and mark the
points A, five units to the right of the origin, and B, three units to the left
of the origin. State the geometric meaning of OA OB, of OB – - OA, of
OA + AB. What directed segment is equivalent to each ? What is the
numerical value of each ? Is there a directed segment in the figure equiva-
lent to OA + OB ?
2. What is the difference in absolute temperature between --5° Fahren-
heit and 20 centigrade ?
3. Represent geometrically the difference in time between 10 a.м. and
3 P.M. as the difference between two directed angles.
4. In surveying, the azimuth of a line is its direction expressed in degrees,
measured from the South point around towards the West, or clockwise .
Thus the azimuth of a line running due North is 180° ; of a line running due
East is 270° ; etc.
What is the azimuth of a line running N 25° E ? Of a line running
N 10° W ?
5. What is the difference in azimuth between two lines, one running
S 40° W and the other S 10° E ?
6. What is the difference in azimuth between two lines, one running
S 40° E and the other N 25° E ?

4. Position of a point in a plane. When we have once chosen

a unit of distance, one number is sufficient to locate a point on a
line ; namely, the number expressing its distance and direction
from a fixed point, the origin (Art. 1) .
It requires two numbers to locate a point in a plane and these
numbers are called the coördinates of the point.
The coördinates of a point may be chosen in many different
ways. Any particular way of choosing them gives rise to a
system of coördinates. There are two systems of coördinates in
common use ; namely, cartesian coördinates, named after René
Descartes, who first used this system (1637 ), and polar coördi-
nates . These systems of coördinates will be explained in the
succeeding articles.

5. Cartesian coördinates. Choose two linear scales OX and

OY (Fig. 6) with their origins coinciding at O. Through any
point P in the plane XOY draw parallels to OX and OY, meet-
ing OY and OX in E and D, respectively. The numbers repre-
ARTS . 4-6] RECTANGULAR COÖRDINATES 11

sented by D and E on their respective scales are the cartesian

coördinates of P. By article 1, these coördinates express the dis-
tances and directions of D
and E from O in terms of the
unit chosen ; or the distances
and directions of P from OY
and OX measured along par-
allels to OX and OY, re-
spectively. Thus, if x and y
denote the numbers repre- D₁ X
sented by the points D and
E, respectively, the coördi
nates of P are

x = ODEP R E₁
and y = OE = DP. FIG. 6

In the same way, the coördinates of P₁1 are

x₁ = OD₁ = E₁P, and y₁ = OE₁ = D₁P₁.

Hence any point in the plane XOY has an x-coördinate and a

y-coördinate represented by points on the scales OX and OY,
respectively.
Conversely, any two numbers x and y serve to locate a point
in the plane. For, let D and E be the points representing x and
y upon their respective scales. Through D draw a line parallel
to OY, and through E a line parallel to OX. These parallels
meet in a single point P ; the point whose coördinates are x and y.
The scales OX and OY are called the coördinate axes, or sim-
ply the axes. OX is called the X-axis, and OY the Y-axis.
The segment OD is often called the abscissa of the point P; and
the segment DP the ordinate of P.
The units of distance used in constructing the two linear scales
OX and OY are usually taken to be the same, but it is not neces-
sary to take them so. In many cases it is more convenient to
use different units.

6. Rectangular coördinates. The coördinate axes may intersect

at any angle, but it is generally simpler to take them perpendicu-
12 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. I.

lar to each other. In this case, cartesian coördinates are called

rectangular coördinates.
In rectangular coördinates, the axes divide the plane into four
quadrants named first, second , third, and fourth quadrant as
indicated in Fig. 7.
Y

II. Quadrant I. Quadrant

+3
-5
X

III. Quadrant IV. Quadrant

FIG. 7

The algebraic signs of the coördinates of any point depend

upon the quadrant in which the point lies. Thus,

POINTS IN QUADRANT y
8
+11+

I
++

II
III
IV

Conversely, the algebraic signs of the coördinates determine the

quadrant in which the point lies. For example, if x = -5 and y = 3,
the point lies in the second quadrant as indicated in the figure.
7. Notation. The notation P = (a, b) , or P(a, b) , indicates that
the coördinates of the point P are
xa and y = b.
The x- coördinate is always written first. For example, to indi-
cate the position of the point P in Fig. 7, we write P = ( - 5, 3),
or P ( − 5, 3).
ARTS. 7, 8] POLAR COORDINATES 13

EXERCISES
1. Draw the axes OX, OY and locate the following points : (1 , 3) ,
(2, -
− ) , (0, 5) , (5, 0) .
2. Where are the points located for which x = 0 ? For which x = 1 ?
For which y = 0 ? For which y == 1 ?
3. By means of a geometrical construction , locate accurately the points
(√2, 3) , (√3, √2) , ( √5, √6) . Can the point (0, ) be located accurately ?
4. The axes OX, OY are perpendicular to each other ; locate the points
P₁ = ( 1 , 2) , P₂ = (5, 5 ) , and P3 = ( 5, 2) . Find the lengths of the sides of
the triangle P₁P2P3.
5. Let the axes OX, OY make an angle of 60 degrees with each other ;
plot the points in the preceding exercise and find the lengths of the sides of
the triangle P₁P₂Pз.
6. With rectangular coördinates, show that the points (2, 3) , (2, − 1) ,
( − 2, -
− 1) , and ( -2 , 3) form a rectangle. Find the lengths of the sides,
the lengths of the diagonals, and the area of this rectangle.
7. With rectangular coördinates, show that the points ( 1, 1) , (3 , 1 ) , and
(2, 2) form an isosceles triangle which is half a square. Find the coördi-
nates of the fourth vertex, the lengths of the sides, the lengths of the diago-
nals, and the area of the square.

8. Polar coördinates. The position of a point P in a plane is

also determined by its distance r, in terms of a given unit of dis-
tance, from a fixed point 0,
called the origin or pole, and
the angle which OP makes
with the positive direction of
a fixed linear scale OX, called
the initial line or axis (Fig. 8).
OP is called the radius vector,
and the angle XOP the vec-
torial angle, or simply the
angle. r and are the polar
FIG. 8
coördinates of P. The nota-
tion P = (r, 0) , or P(r, 0) , means that r and ✪ are the polar coördi-
nates of P.
A given number r and a given angle o determine uniquely the
position of a point in a plane with reference to a fixed origin and
initial line. For, imagine the initial line OX (Fig. 9) to be rotated
14 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. I.

through the given angle about O into the position OX '. On

OX ' mark the point which represents the given number r. There
is but one such point. For example, the point P( -5, -30° ) is
obtained by rotating OX through the angle -30° and marking
the point 5 units from O on the negative end of the scale OX'.

→X
-30°

FIG. 9

On the other hand , a given point has many sets of polar coör-
dinates. For example, the point P in Fig. 9 is ( -5, — 30°) ,
(5, 150°) , ( −5, 330°) , (5, -210 °) , etc. It is always possible,
however, and usually most convenient, to choose the polar coör-
dinates of a point so that the radius vector shall be a positive
number, and 0 < 0 ≤2π.

9. Relation between rectangular coördinates and polar coördinates.

In Fig. 10, let O be the origin and OX the initial line, so that
Y the polar coördinates of
any point as P are :

r = OP and - XOP.

Let OX and OY be the

У

X- and Y-axes, respec-

tively, so that the rec-
D x tangular coördinates of
P are

FIG. 10 x = OD and y = DP.

Now, wherever the point P may be located in the plane, we

always have
x = r cos 0 and y = r sin 0. (1)
ART . 9] RELATION BETWEEN COÖRDINATES 15

From equations (1), by squaring and adding, we obtain

x² + y² = r². (2)

Also from equations (1) , we have

X
0 arc cos -= arc sin Y. (3)
r r
From (2) and (3) ,
x = arc sin ม
r = ± √x² + y² and = arc cos
± √x² + y² ± √x² + y²

= arc tan y • (4)

x

Equations (1 ) serve to change the polar coördinates of a point.

into rectangular coördinates ; and equations (4) are used to change
rectangular coördinates into polar coördinates. For example, the
rectangular coördinates of the point P( -5, -30°) are

- 5√3
x = − 5 cos ( — 30°) = · y = − 5 sin ( — 30 °) = 5
) . ( See Fig . 9. )

Again, the polar coördinates of the point P( - 3, -

− 4) are

r = √9 + 16 = 5, 0 = arc cos ( — }) = arc sin ( − ) = 233° 8 '.

In solving this problem, r was taken to be the positive square

root of 25. With r = -- 5,

0 == arc cos (3 ) = arc sin ( 4) = 53° 8'.

EXERCISES

-—
1. Plot the points ( 3 , — 30 ° ) , ( − 4, 2 ) , (3 , 2 radians ) . Find the
rectangular coördinates of these points .
2. Find the polar coördinates of the points whose rectangular coördi-
nates are ( 3, -
— 7 ) , (4, 2) , ( — 3 , - 5 ) . Plot the points .
3. Where do the points lie for which the radius vector is constant ?
For which the vectorial angle is constant ?
4. If x 4 and r = 5, find y and e. Is there more than one point satis-
fying the given conditions ?
16 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. I.

5. With a centigrade scale on the X-axis and a Fahrenheit scale on the

Y-axis, plot a number of points whose coördinates represent the same abso-
lute temperature. For example (0, 32) , ( 5 , 41 ) , etc. Try to show that all
these points must lie on a straight line, and to find where this straight line
meets the X-axis.
6. Flot a number of points for which the radius vector is twice the
abscissa. Join the points plotted . Do they lie on a straight line ?
7. Elevations of points on the ground above a fixed datum plane are
sometimes expressed in meters, while the distances of these points from a
given place of beginning may be expressed in feet .

Plot the points whose elevations and distances are as follows :

DISTANCE ELEVATION
100 feet 3.2 meters
200 feet 6.0 meters
250 feet 8.0 meters
300 feet 7.0 meters
400 feet 5.0 meters
500 feet 3.0 meters
600 feet -2.0 meters
A broken line drawn through the points thus determined is called a
profile.
8. Reduce the elevations of exercise 7 to feet and plot the same profile.
9. From a point O, the azimuths and distances to three points A, B,
and Care as follows :

AZIMUTH DISTANCE

A 120° 10 rds.
B 180° 15 rds.
C 240° 12 rds .

Make an accurate map of the triangle ABC. With O as origin and OB

as Y-axis, compute the rectangular coördinates of A, B, and C. With O as
pole and OB as initial line, compute the polar coördinates of A, B, and C.
10. Construct a scale on the X-axis , the unit of measure representing
one foot ; and a scale on the Y-axis , the unit of measure representing one
meter. Take one meter equivalent to 3.28 feet. Plot a number of points
whose coördinates represent the same distance, for example ( 3.28 , 1 ) ,
(6.56, 2) , etc. Show that these points lie on a straight line passing through
the origin .
ART. 9] RELATION BETWEEN COÖRDINATES 17

11. Construct a scale on the X-axis representing British money, and a

scale on the Y-axis representing American money. Take £ 1 equivalent to
$4.87. Plot a number of points whose coördinates represent the same value,
for example ( 1, 4.87) , (2 , 9.74) , etc. Showthat these points lie on a straight
line passing through the origin.
12. Plot the points whose polar coördinates are ( − 6 , 20°) , ( −5 , −315°) ,

(−4, 1 ) , ( -3, 3,7) . Change the coordinates of these points so that r

and shall be positive, and less than 360°.
13. Change the polar coördinates of the points in exercise 12 to rectan-
gular coördinates.
14. With a convenient unit, mark the points U and B on the X-axis ,
representing the numbers 1 and b, respectively. On the Y-axis, mark a point
A, representing the number a. Join A to U, and through B draw a parallel
to AU, meeting the Y-axis in C. Prove that C represents the number ab.
15. With a convenient unit, mark the point U, on the X-axis, represent-
ing the number 1 ; and on the Y-axis the points B and A, representing the
numbers b and a, respectively. Join B to U, and through A draw a parallel
to BU, meeting the X-axis in the point C. Show that C represents the
number .

16. With a convenient unit, mark the points U and A on the X-axis,
representing the numbers - 1 and a , respectively ( a being a positive number) .
On UA as diameter, draw a circle and prove that it meets the Y-axis in points
representing the numbers ± √a . In this way construct geometrically √2,
√3, √5.
 CHAPTER II

DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

10. Projections upon the coördinate axes. Let PP₂ be any

directed segment. Through P (x₁, y₁) and P₂(x2, y2) draw parallels
to the axes as shown in Fig. 11. The segments DD, and E₁E2,
thus determined upon

E the axes , are called

P P₂ the projections of P₁P₂
E
upon the X-axis and
upon the Y-axis, re-
E
P₂ P spectively. The pro-
E jections themselves
D₁ are directed seg-
Di
M D2 D2
ments, and therefore
FIG. 11 (Art. 3)
D₁D₂ = D₁O + OD₂ = − OD₁ + OD² = X2 − X19
- OE₁ + OE2 = Y2 - Y1 (1)
E₁E₂ = E₁0 + OE

If we call P the initial point and P₂ the terminal point, the

projection of PP, upon the X-axis is found by subtracting the
x-coördinate of its initial point from the x-coördinate of its
terminal point. Similarly, the projection upon the Y-axis is
found by subtracting the y-coördinate of the initial point from
the y-coördinate of the terminal point.
11. Inclination and slope of a directed segment. Let the coördi-
nate axes be rectangular . Through the initial point of a directed
segment draw a line parallel to the X-axis, having its positive
direction the same as that axis . The line P₁D (Fig. 12) is this
parallel. The positive angle through which it is necessary to
rotate this parallel to make it coincide with the given directed
segment is the inclination of the segment. Thus the angle DP¸Ð½
18
ART. 11] INCLINATION AND SLOPE 19

is the inclination of each of the directed segments in Fig. 12

The inclination may have any value from 0° to 360° inclusive.
The tangent of
the inclination is
called the slope of
the directed seg-
D
ment. Through P2, P3 P3
X
the terminal point
(a) (b)
of the segment,
draw a line paral-
lel to the Y-axis
and let it meet the
parallel to the X- X
axis in P. The P3 D
D P P
tangent of the Pi

angle DPP is P (c)

then PP But (a)
P₁P3 FIG. 12
PP₂2 is equivalent
to the projection of PP,2 upon the Y-axis and P₁P,3 is equivalent
to the projection upon the X-axis. Hence ,
Y2 -- 31
slope of P₁P = tan DP₁P₂ = (2)
x2 - x1
For example, the slope of the segment joining (-4, -2) to (2,5)
is
5 - (- 2)
=7
2 - (- 4) 6

Although reversing the direction of a segment changes its

inclination by 180°, it does not change its slope. For,

=
slope of PP₁₁₂ = slope of PP.
X1 X2

EXERCISES
1. Determine the projections, the inclination, and the slope of each of
the following directed segments :
(a) ( — 2 , 4) , ( 3 , 6) ; ( b) ( − 5, 7) , ( − 4, ---− 2 ) ; ( c) ( 3 , − 2) , (5 , 6 ) ;
(d) ( − 3 , 2 ) , ( — 2, -− 3) .
Draw each segment .
20 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II.

2. If the coördinate axes make an angle of 60° with each other, determine
the angle which the directed segment (2 , 1 ) , (4, 2) makes with each axis.
3. Draw the triangle whose vertices are (1 , 2 ) , (5 , 4 ) , (2, 6) , using
rectangular coördinates.
(a) Find the lengths of the projections of the sides upon the X-axis.
What is the sum of these projections ?
(b) Find the inclination of each side. How can the angles of the triangle
be found from these inclinations ?
4. Show that the sum of the projections of the sides of any triangle upon
either axis is zero, provided that the sides be taken in order around the
triangle.
5. Fig. a represents a
railroad cutting in a side-
hill. The slope of the
natural surface is 1 : 4 and
(α) that of the proposed cut-
ting is 1 : 2. At what
heights above the bottom
of the cut and at what dis-
tances out from the center
(b) line are the points of inter-
section a and b ?
6. Fig. b is the outline
of a roof truss of 80-ft. span
and 20-ft. rise. The spaces
ab, bc, etc. , are equal and
the members bf, cg, and dh are perpendicular to the member ae. Calculate
the slopes of ae, bf, fc, and ge with respect to a horizontal axis ak.
7. Calculate the slopes of cf and ch with respect to the line ae taken as
the horizontal axis.
YA
12. The length of a segment.
The problem to find the dis-
tance between two points whose
coördinates are given, that is, 3 P3
the length of the segment join-
ing them, depends upon the
problem of finding the length r2 P₂
of one side of a triangle when
the other two sides and their in- 2
cluded angle are given. Thus,
with cartesian coördinates, let FIG. 13
ART. 12] THE LENGTH OF A SEGMENT 21

P1(x1, y1 ), P2(x2, y2) be the given points, and let the angle XOY
be w (Fig. 13). Draw parallels to the axes through P₁ and
P₂ forming the triangle PPP. The sides PP, and PP, are
known from the given coördinates of P₁ and P2, and the angle
P₁PP₁ = the angle XOYw. Therefore, by the law of cosines,

P₁P²² = P₁P¸² + P2P3² − 2 P₁P3 · P₂P3 cos w. (1)

If PP is a directed segment, PP, and PP₂2 are respec-
tively equivalent to its projections upon the X- and Y-axes. In
terms of these projections, formula (1 ) becomes
P₁P,²
2 = P,P² + P₂P²² + 2 P₁P¸3 · PP₂2 cos w, (2)
or (Art. 10) ,
P₁P¸² = (x² − − Y1 )² + 2 (X2 -
-×1 ) ² + (Y2 - − X1 ) (Y2 − Y₁ ) cos w . (3)

With rectangular coördinates, w = 90° and the triangle PPP, is

right-angled at P. We have, then, only to find the length of
the hypotenuse, having given the other two sides.
With polar coördinates, let P₁ = (~₁ , 0₁ ) and P₂2 = ( ½, 02) . In
the triangle POP₂, two sides and the included angle are known,
hence
P₁P₂² = r₁² + r²² – 2 r₁r₂ cos (02 – 01). (4)

EXERCISES
1. The angle between the axes being 45°, find the distance between the
points ( 3, - 5) and (5, 2).
2. Plot the points whose polar coördinates are (−3, 7) and (2, 2 )
and find the distance between them.
3. The rectangular coördinates of Pi are (3, — 2 ) and the polar coördi-
nates of P2 are ( - 5 , 60°) . Find the length of P₁P2.
4. The vertices of a triangle are situated at the points ( 5 , − 2) , ( −4, 7) ,
and (7, — 3) , in rectangular coördinates. Find the lengths of the sides.
5. Milwaukee is 80 miles east of Madison and 80 miles north of Chicago.
What are the polar coördinates of Chicago with respect to Madison as origin
and the line from Madison to Milwaukee as axis ? The polar coordinates of
Portage being ( 40, ) , find the distance from Chicago to Portage.

6. Show that the formula (3) Art. 12, holds for all positions of the points
P₁ and P2.
22 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II.

13. Angle which one segment makes with another. Let the seg-
ments PP, and QQ, produced if necessary, meet in the point A
Y (Fig. 14). The angle which
Q1Q2 makes with P₁P₂2 is de-
P fined as the positive angle
02 Q through which it is necessary
01
D to rotate PP₂2 about A until
A
it coincides in direction with

Q2 Q1Q2. In the figure, this

angle is PAQ which is
X clearly the difference be-
tween the inclinations of the
FIG. 14
two segments. If 02 and 0₁
are respectively the inclinations of QQ2 and PP, and is the
angle P4Q then
Ф = 02-01. (1)
Formula (1) holds only when 02 >01. When 02 < 0₁, the angle
which QQ2 makes with P₁P₂2 is given by the formula
= 2π + (02-01), (2)
as the student may easily verify. In either case
tan 02 - tan 0₁ ·
tantan (0₂ — 01) := (3)
1 + tan 02 tan ₁
Y
If m₂ and m₁ are respectively the P
slopes of QQ2 and PP, formula (3)
becomes
m2 -- m1
tan & = (4)
1 + mom1

As an example of the use of formula

(4) , we will find the angle which the seg- X
ment joining (3, 5) to ( − 2 , — 6) makes
with the segment joining ( -1, 2) to 58 8
(3, -— 4) (Fig. 15) . Here m2, the slope
of Q1 Q2, is equal to -− 3 and m₁, the slope
22
of P₁P2, is equal to . Hence

tan = --_ = 37 and 58° 8'.

1-33 23, P₂ FIG. 15
ARTS . 14, 15] PARALLEL SEGMENTS 23

14. Parallel segments. Parallel segments either have equal

inclinations , as at (a) ( Fig. 16), or else their inclinations differ
by 180° as at (b) . In either case, their slopes are the same

P
Y Y P

P₂ P2

→X →X

(a) (b)
FIG. 16

(Art. 11 ) . For example, the segment joining (1 , 2) to ( −2, −3)

is parallel to the segment joining (2, 1) to (5, 4) , since the
slope of each is §.
15. Perpendicular segments . When two segments are perpen-
dicular to each other, their inclinations differ by an odd multiple
of 90° and therefore , in every case,
1
tan 02 ==- cot 0₁ - " or
tan 01
1 •
m2 mi (1)

Thus, the slope of each segment is the negative reciprocal of

the slope of the other.
Conversely, if the product of the slopes of two segments is -1 ,
the segments are perpendicular to each other. For then the tangent
of the inclination of one of them
Y
is equal to the negative of the
cotangent of the inclination of Q2
D
the other. Hence, their inclina-
tions differ by an odd multiple 21
-X
of 90° ; that is, the segments
are perpendicular to each other. FIG. 17
In Fig. 17, PP₂ makes an
angle of 90° with Q1Q2, but Q1Q2 makes an angle of 270° with
PP2
24 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II.

EXERCISES
1. Find the angle which the segment ( − 3 , 2 ) , (4 , — 1 ) makes with the
segment ( -3, 2 ) , ( 8 , 5) . Draw the figure.
2. Compute the lengths of the sides and the angles of the triangle whose
vertices are (- 3, 2 ) , ( 4, -
− 1 ) , and ( 8 , 5 ) . Draw the figure.
3. Show that the triangle whose vertices are (3, 2 ) , ( 0 , 3.5 ) , and ( 1 , 5.5)
is right-angled.
4. Show that the segments ( — 3, 5 ) , (3, 2) and ( − 1 , 6) , ( 3, 4) are
parallel. Draw the figure and compute the perpendicular distance between
the segments .
5. Join the extremities of the segments in the preceding exercise and
compute the area of the quadrilateral so formed.
6. Draw the diagonals of the quadrilateral in the preceding exercise and
find the acute angle which one makes with the other.

16. Point bisecting a given

segment. Let P₁ = (x , y ) and
E2 P P2 (x, y ) ; it is required to
P find the coördinates of the point
P= (x, y) bisecting the segment
E, P₁ PP (Fig. 18) . The parallels to
the axes through P must bisect
O D₂ D D₁1 X the projections DD₂ and E₁E₂
FIG. 18 in D and E, respectively. Hence
(Art. 10)
X - X1
x = OD = OD₁ + D₁D = ×1 +
2
-
and y = OE = OE₁ + E₁E := 9

whence x1 + x2 91 + Ve
x= y= • (1)
2 2

For example, the coördinates of the point bisecting the segment

(1, 3) , ( 3, 1) are
1 -3-
x= 1,
2

У - 3-1-1
1.
2
ART. 17] POINT DIVIDING A GIVEN SEGMENT 25

17. Point dividing a given segment in a given ratio. The results

of the preceding article can be generalized . Thus, suppose the
point P (Fig. 19 ) divides
the segment P₁P₂ so that Y

P₁P E 2 P₂2
= r.
PP2 E

Then the points D and E

divide the projections of E.
P₁
PP in the same ratio.
Hence,
D₁ D D2
-
PP_=D,D = (x =
FIG. 19
PP DD2 (x2 - x)

and PP = EE = (y - Y₁) = 1.
PP EE (Y2 - Y)

Solving these equations for a and y, we have

rx2
x = x1 +
r +1 (1)
Y1 + ry2 .
y=
r+1

For example, to find the coördinates of the point dividing the

segment P₁ (2, 4) , P₂ = ( -3, 2) in the ratio 2 : 3, we have
r . Substituting in the above formulas we find x = 0 and
y = §. Hence the point (0, g) divides the given segment in the
ratio 2 : 3.

EXERCISES
1. Find the coördinates of the points which bisect the sides of the tri-
angle (2 , 5) , ( — 2 , 2 ) , ( 4, -— 5 ) .
2. In the preceding exercise, join the vertices to the mid-points of the
sides opposite and show that the points dividing each segment from vertex
to opposite side in the ratio 2 : 1 coincide.
3. Generalize the preceding exercise and thus prove that the medians of
any triangle meet in a point.
4. Show that the points ( 2, 3 ) , (4 , 1 ) , ( 8 , 2) and ( 6 , 4 ) form a parallelo-
gram . Find the coördinates of the mid-points of the diagonals.
5. Find the coördinates of the points which trisect the segment ( 6, 4 ) ,
(-3 , 1) .
26 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II .

6. Find the coördinates of the point P dividing the segment P₁ = (3, 4) ,

P₂ = (−2, −6) in the ratio 3 : 5. Prove the result by calculating the lengths
of the segments P₁P, PP, and showing that their ratio is §.
7. The segment in the preceding ex-
Y P2 ercise crosses both axes. Find the co-
ordinates of the points of crossing.

18. Area of a triangle, one vertex

at the origin. To find the area of
P the triangle OP₁P₂ (Fig. 20) , let
P₁ = (x₁, Y₁), P₂ = (X , Y½) , and D¸Ð½,
D₂ D. the projection of PP, upon the
x-axis. Then, if A represents the
FIG. 20 required area,

A = trapezoid PP,D,D, + triangle P₂OD, - triangle OD,P₁

-
= (Y₁ + Y½) + X2Y2_X₁Y1 .
Y₂) (X₁ — X₂) +
2 2 2
Hence, we have
A = (X1Y2 - XY1) (1)
2

The expression x₁₂ ―

— x₂y₁ is a determinant and is often written
thus ;
X1 Y1
X2 Y2

In determinant notation , the formula for the area of the triangle

is then
x1 y1
(2)
X2 Y2

For example, the area of the triangle formed by joining the

extremities of the segment P₁ = (3, 1) , P₂ = (1 , 3) to the origin is
3 1
14 = 4.
21 3

19. Sign of the expression (x₁₂ - x1 ) . The sign of the

expression ( 2-1 ) is not the same for all positions of the
segment P₁P2. Thus, if P₁ = (3, 1) and P₂ = ( 1 , 3 ) , the expres-
sion has the value + 8, while for the segment P₁ = (1 , - 2) ,
ART . 19] SIGN OF THE EXPRESSION (X1Y2 - Y2X1) 27

P₁2 = ( -1, 1 ) , which has the same length and the same slope as
the former, the expression ( 22 ) has the value 1.
Changing to polar coördinates by means of the relations

x₁ = r₁ cos 01, Y₁ = r₁ sin 01, x2 = r₂ cos 02, y2 = r₂ sin 02 (Art. 9) ,

the expression (x₁₂ -

— x₁₁ ) becomes

r₁₂(cos e sin 02- - cos 0₂ sin 0₁) = r₁₂

r₁r½ sin ( 02—0₁) .

Sincer, and r₂ may be considered as positive numbers (Art. 8),

-
the sign of (x2 - xy ) will be positive when sin (0, 0 ) is posi-

ΑΥ
AY

P₂
P.
P

РК P₂
02 P₁
X -X
P₁₂
P
P
(a) P₁
P (b)
FIG. 21

tive ; that is, when 02-0, is an angle in the first, or the second,
quadrant. In either case, the segment PP, has a position such
that , in passing from P₁ to P2, the origin lies to the left as at ( a),
Fig 21.
On the other hand, the expression (x₁₂ — X₂y₁ ) will be negative
when 0-0 is an angle in the third , or the fourth, quadrant ; and
then the segment P₁P,2 has a position such that, in passing from
P₁ to P2, the origin lies to the right as at (b) .
Conversely, if the segment PP has a position such that the
origin lies to the left (or the right) when the segment is traversed
from P₁ to P2, the sign of ( y - 1) will be positive (or nega-
tive). For then the angle 0 -- 0₁ must lie in the first, or the
second, quadrant (or in the third, or the fourth, quadrant) . Con-
28 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II.

-
sequently the area of the triangle OPP, which is (~₁₂ — X2Y1),
is positive when the origin lies to the left, as at (a), Fig. 21 , and
negative when the origin lies to the right, as at (b).

EXERCISES

1. P₁ ( 5, 3 ) and P2 = ( − 1 , -
− 3 ) ; determine the area of OP₁P2, O being
the origin. Explain the sign of the result. Draw the figure.
2. If O is the pole, show that the area of the triangle OP₁P2 is
rir2 sin (02 - 01) ,
where P₁ (r1, 01 ) and P2 = (12, 02).
3. If P₁5,
= (5, 1) and P2 (3, -30° ) , find the area of OP₁P2.
4. Given P1 ( 3, - — 60°) and P₂ = (3 , 4) , find the area of OP₁P2.
5. When the segment P₁ P₂ passes through the origin, what is the value of
the expression ( x12 - X2Y1 ) ?
6. If P₁ = ( - 3, 1 ) and P2 = ( 1 , -
− 2 ) , in which quadrant is the angle
02-01 ? Draw the figure and find the area of OP₁P2.

YA P₂
P

X Y 0
P2 (b)
P₁

(a)
P3
P₁·
X
(c)
FIG. 22

20. Area of a triangle, vertices in any position . Join the ver-

tices of the triangle to the origin O. Let P1, P2, P3 (Fig. 22) be
the vertices, taken in counterclockwise order about the triangle.
The area of P₁PP¸ is then given by the formula

area P₁P2P3 = area OP₁P2 + area OP¿P3 + area OP3P₁ . (1)

ART. 20] AREA OF A TRIANGLE 29

Thus in (a), each of the component triangles has a positive area,

by the preceding article, and their sum is obviously the area of
P₁P‚и. 3. In (b) , the areas of OP¸Ð½2 and OP¿P¸3 are positive num-
bers, while the area of OPP₁1 is a negative number. The alge-
braic sum of these numbers is clearly the area of P¸Ð½Ð¸. Finally,
in (c) , the area of OPP₂ is a positive number , while the areas of
the remaining two triangles are expressed by negative numbers.
The algebraic sum of these numbers is again the area of P¸Ð½Ð¸. 3.
Replacing the area of each component triangle in (1) by its
value in terms of the coördinates of the vertices (Art. 18) , we have

area P₁P2P3 = 1 [ (X1Y2 − X2Y1) + (X2Y3 −X8Y2) + (X8Y1 − X1Y8 ) ] . (2)

The area can be expressed in determinant notation. Thus

X1 Y1 1
area P1P2P3 = X2 Y2 1 9 (3)
x3 y3 1

since, if the determinant is expanded, the result agrees with

formula (2).
The following is a convenient rule for computing the area.
Let PPP be the vertices, taken in counterclockwise order about the
triangle. Arrange the coördinates in rows, thus

X1 X2 X3 X1 .
Уг Уг Уз Уг

multiply each x by the y standing in the next column to the right and
add the products, thus
X1Y2 + X2Y3 + X3Y1 ;

multiply each y by the x in the next column to the right and add the
products, thus
Y1X2 + Y2X3 + Y3X1 ;

subtract the latter sum from the former and take half the difference,
the result is the area of the triangle P₁P₂P3.

For example, to find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
P₁ = (−1 , 3) , P2⇒ (3, 2 ) , P3 = (5 , 4 ) ( Fig. 23 ) , arrange the coördinates as
30 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [ CHAP . II .

in the rule, being careful to note

that the vertices are taken in
counterclockwise order ; thus
P
-1 3 5 -1
3 24 3.
P
The area is then
[ ( −2 + 12 + 15)
ΙΟ − (9 + 10 −4) ] = 5.

FIG. 23 If the vertices are taken in

clockwise order about the tri-
angle, the result obtained by using formula (2 ) or formula ( 3 ) or the rule
just stated will be numerically the same but will be negative in sign , as the
student may easily verify .

EXERCISES

1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (2, -– 6) , ( — 9, 7 ) ,

(8,3) .
2. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are ( 1 , - 2) , (2 , 1 ) ,
and ( 3,2 ) . Explain the result.
3. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices in polar coördinates are
- 2 π and Draw the figure.
(6, 1) , ( − 6, 3 (2, 34 ).
4. The vertices of a quadrilateral are ( 1 , 6 ) , ( 8 , 10 ) , ( 10 , — 2) , and
( -5, -8) . Compute the area of the quadrilateral by dividing it into two
triangles . Draw the figure .
5. When three points are in the same straight line, they are said to be
collinear. Show that the points ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 3, 1 ) , and (4 , 0) are collinear.
6. Where will the line joining the points ( 2 , 5 ) and (3, 6) meet the axes ?
7. If P1 (x1, yı ) , P2(x2, y2) , and P3 (x3, yз ) are three collinear points,
show that
X1 Yı 1
X2 Yı 1 -- = 0.
X3 Y3
State and prove the converse.

21. Area of any polygon. Formula (2 ) of article 20 can be

extended to find the area of any polygon when the coördinates of
the vertices are given. Thus when the vertices, taken in counter-
clockwise order about the polygon, are joined to the origin , a
ART. 21] AREA OF ANY POLYGON 31

number of component
triangles are formed
(Fig. 24) . It is geo-
metrically evident that
the algebraic sum of
the areas of these tri-
angles is the area of
the polygon. A con-
venient rule for com-
puting the area of a
polygon is, therefore, FIG. 24
obtained by extending
the rule in Art. 20. Thus, write the x's over the y's and form the
cross-products :
X1 X2 X3 X4 ... Xn X19
/1
Y Y2 Y3 Y4 ... Yn Yı
The required area is then

A = { [ (X1Y2
(X1Y2++X2Y3
X₂Y3 + + ...
+ X3Y4 + ··· + X„ Y₁ ) − (Y₁X2 + Y2X3 + Y3X4 + ...
··· + Y₁₁ ) ] ·
(1)
For example, to find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are, in
counterclockwise order ( 8 , 10 ) , ( — 1 , 6 ) , ( — 5 , -8 ) , and ( 10, -
− 2 ) , we
have
8 -1 -5 10 8
10 6 - 8 - 2 10
and the area is, therefore,
≥ [ ( 48 + 8 + 10 + 100) − ( — 10 — 30 — 80 — 16 ) ] = 151 .

EXERCISES

1. The vertices of a hexagon are ( 6 , 1 ) , ( 3 , -— 10 ) , ( — 3 , -

— 5) , ( — 12,
0) , ( — 4, 6) , and (9 , -4) . Draw the hexagon and compute its area.
2. A surveyor finds that the corners of a four-sided field are situated ,
with respect to a north and south road and an east and west road, as
follows : A = ( 25, 32) , B = ( 48 , 65) , C = ( 94 , -
— 10) , and D = ( 30, — - 40) .
Distances are measured in rods. Make a map of the field and compute the
number of acres it contains. ( 160 square rods = 1 acre) .
3. From a point O in a quadrangular field , the distances and directions to
the corners are as follows : A = 120 feet, N. 65° E.; B = 216 feet, N. 32° W.
C = 320 feet, S. 74° W.; D = 65 feet, S. 23° E. Make a map of the field and
compute its area.
32 DIRECTED SEGMENTS AND AREAS [CHAP. II.

4. In surveying, points are frequently located by azimuth and distance

from a given point, that is, by polar coördinates . It frequently becomes
necessary to plot the outlines of tracts of land determined in this way and to
calculate areas.
Draw the polygonal figure whose vertices are determined by the following
azimuths and distances :
AZIMUTH DISTANCE AZIMUTH DISTANCE
125° 115 feet 342° 175 feet
170° 160 feet 15° 40 feet
250° 200 feet 73° 10 feet

(a) Calculate the coördinates of the vertices of this figure referred to N.

and S. and E. and W. lines through the given fixed point, as origin.
(b) Calculate the directions of the sides of this figure .
(c) Calculate the area of the polygon.
5. Fig. 24 A represents a cross section of one side of a railroad cutting.
Calculate the area of this section, using coördinates as shown.
In railroad field books the data for this
problem would generally be recorded as
follows :
(012) (12,11) Center
XXXIX
(20
(592

The ordinate, or depth of cutting, is writ-

ten above and the distance out from the
(8,0) center line (abscissa ) is written below.
The coördinates ( ) are not actually re-
FIG. 24 A corded as the number 8 is the fixed width
of the bottom of the cut. Arranging the
coördinates in the above manner, the correct result is obtained by taking
positive products along diagonal lines sloping downwards towards the right
(shown by full lines ) and negative products along the other diagonals (shown
by dotted lines) .
6. Compute the area of cross section given by the following cross section
notes, left and right of the center line :
Center
( 8 ) 14 16 3 10 10 17 18 16 (g)
What side slope of the finished cut has been assumed in this problem ?
7. Drop perpendiculars from the vertices of a polygon upon the X-axis,
as in Fig. 24. Show that the area of the polygon is the algebraic sum of the
areas of the trapezoids thus formed . Compute the area of the hexagon in
exercise 1 by this method.
 CHAPTER III

FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

22. Constants and variables. The numbers and magnitudes

considered in mathematics are either constants or variables . The
coördinates of a fixed point are constants ; the coördinates of a
moving point are variables.

23. Functions. Ifto each given value of a variable x there corre-

spond one or more values of a variable y, then y is called a function
of x.
As examples, the cost of a money order is a function of the
amount ; the temperature at a given place is a function of the
time ; the cost of insurance is a function of the age of the in-
sured ; the distance a body falls freely in space is a function of
the time the body has been falling.

24. Notation. To denote that y is a function of x, the notation

y =f(x) (read y equals ƒ of x) is used.
When several functions are to be considered in the same prob-
lem, different symbols are used. Thus, y = fi (x) , y = f2 (x),
(read y equals fi of x, y equals f, of a, . . .). Or use is made of
Greek letters, as y = p(x) , y = 4(x) , . . . (read y equals phi of
x, y equals psi of x, . . .).

25. Determination of functional correspondence. A functional

correspondence can be established, or set up, between two variables
in different ways. Thus, the correspondence may be primarily
established :
I. By an equation connecting the two variables, as y = x² ;
II. By a table exhibiting corresponding values of the variables ,
as a table of logarithms ;
III . By a curve drawn automatically, thus exhibiting graphi-
cally the correspondence between two variables .
33
34 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

26. Dependent and independent variables . If functional corre-

spondence is established by an equation, the value ( or values ) of
the function can, in general, be readily computed for any value
assigned to the variable x. Thus, for example, if y = 2x², the
value of y is easily computed for any assigned value of x. In
general, y (the function) is called the dependent variable, and x,
the independent variable.

27. Graphic representation . A table of corresponding values

of a function and the independent variable can be derived from
the equation by assigning to the independent variable a series
of values , arbitrarily chosen, and computing the corresponding
values of the function . With these corresponding values of
and y as rectangular coördinates, a series of points can be con-
structed . The ordinates of these points, taken together, form a
graphic representation of the function . For the functions con-
sidered in this book, a curve can be drawn through all the points
constructed as above. This curve is called the graph of the function.
Thus, from the equation y = 2x², we obtain the following table of
corresponding values :

x = - 3, ― 2, 1, 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4,

y = 18, 8, 2, 0, 2, 8, 18, 32,

The process of constructing the points whose coördinates are

given in the table and drawing the curve through them, is called
plotting. Figure 25 shows the completed graph. In constructing
this graph, the unit of the scale on the X-axis was taken four
times as great as the unit on the Y- axis in order to represent
more of the curve within a small compass (cf. Art. 5). The curve
shows at a glance the change in value of the function for any
given change in value of the independent variable x. For exam-
ple, as x changes from - 3 to +3, the point which represents it
moves from D to D. At the same time the function y first
decreases from 18 to 0 and then increases from 0 to 18.
When a function ceases to decrease and begins to increase, or
vice versa, it is said to have a turning point. Thus, the function
y = 2x² has a turning point at the origin .
ART. 27] GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION 35

When a function has no turning points, it is called a monotone

function.
It is important to know whether a function has turning points
or not, and, if it has, to know for what values of the independent

3,18) (318)

2,8) 2,8)

(-1,2)
D D₂ D3 D D. De

FIG. 25

variable they exist. At a turning point, the function has a max-

imum or a minimum value.

EXERCISES

1. Draw the graph of the function y = 2x + 3. Find the coördinates of

the points where the graph crosses the axes . Does the function have turn-
ing points, or is it a monotone function ?
2. Draw the graph of the function expressing the law of falling bodies,
s = } gt². Take g = 32 and corresponding values of s and t as ordinates and
abscissas respectively . Make the unit of the scale on the t-axis ten times as
great as the unit on the s- axis. Where is the turning point of the functions ?
3. Drawthe graph of the equation expressing Boyle's law, pok. Take
k = 4 and corresponding values of p and v as ordinates and abscissas respec-
tively. Make the units the same on each axis. Is p a monotone function
of v or not ?
4. Make careful drawings of the graphs of the function y = x² for n = — 1,
0, 1 , 2, and 3. Use the same axes and preserve the figures. For which of
the given values of n is y not a monotone function of x ?
36 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III .

5. Draw the graph of the function y = 4x² . Determine the value of

x for which this function has a turning point. Has the function a maximum
or a minimum value at the turning point ?
6. Draw the graph of the function y = x² - 4x + 3. Determine the coör-
dinates of the turning point. Has the function a maximum or a minimum
value at the turning point ?

28. Single-valued and multiple-valued functions. When there

corresponds but one value of the function to each given value of
the independent variable, the function is called single-valued . If
there is more than one value of the function corresponding to any
given value of the variable, the function is called multiple-valued.
For example, the function y = 2 x² is single-valued ; but the func-
tion y² = 2x is multiple-valued, since to each value of x there
correspond two values of y.
The following is a table of corresponding values for the func
tion y² = 2x.

x= —
- 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ....

y = Imag., Imag. , 0, ± √2, ± 2, ± √6, ± √8, ....

·0

FIG. 26
ARTS . 28 , 29] SYMMETRY 37

The graph is shown in Fig. 26, where the same unit is used for
the scale on the Y-axis as for the scale on the X-axis.
The curves in Figs. 25 and 26 are called parabolas.

29. Symmetry. A curve, or graph, is symmetrical with respect •

to a straight line when the line bisects all the chords of the curve
drawn perpendicular to it.
For example, the parabola shown in Fig. 25 is symmetrical
with respect to the Y-axis and the parabola in Fig. 26 is sym-
metrical with respect to the X-axis.
As another example, consider the single-valued function
y = 5 x - 6 - x². (1)
The following is a table of corresponding values :
x= 0, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 5, ....
- 2, 0, 1, 0, − 2, — 6, ....
y = − 6,
The graph is shown in Fig. 27, where the units on the two axes
are the same. We now see that the curve is symmetrical with
to

FIG. 27
38 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

respect to a line parallel to the Y-axis and passing through the

point (5, 0).
The symmetry is also shown, without plotting, by solving
equation (1) for x. Thus,
x= ± √y, (2)
and therefore, for a given value of y, x has two values represented
by points equidistant from, and on opposite sides of, the point
x= We thus see that the line
parallel to the Y-axis through the
point x = bisects the chords of
the curve drawn perpendicular to it.
Notice that the function has a
turning point at x = , that the
value of y is there equal to , and
that this is the maximum value of y.
A curve is symmetrical with respect
to a point if the point bisects all the
chords of the curve drawn through it.
For example, consider the func-
tion y = 2³. The graph is shown
in Fig. 28, where the unit of the
scale on the X-axis is taken five
times as great as the unit of the
scale on the Y-axis . We see that
the origin bisects all the chords of
the curve drawn through it. Hence
the curve is symmetrical with re-
FIG. 28 spect to the origin.

30. Intercepts. The distances from the origin to the points

where a graph crosses the axes are called the intercepts. Thus,
in Fig. 27 , the curve crosses the X-axis twice, at two and three
units to the right of the origin. The X-intercepts are + 2 and
+3. The curve crosses the Y-axis six units below the origin.
The Y-intercept is ― 6.
The X-intercepts are the roots of the equation ofthe graph when y
is put equal to zero, and the Y- intercepts are the roots of the equation
when x is put equal to zero.
ART. 31] GRAPH IN POLAR COÖRDINATES 39

EXERCISES
1. Draw the graph of the function y = x² - 2x - 3 . Find the position
of the line of symmetry, the intercepts, and the coördinates of the turning
point.
2. Draw the graph of the function y, when y² - 2y = 2x - 1 . Find the
position of the line of symmetry and the intercepts. Is y a single-valued , or
multiple-valued function of x ?
3. Given yx - 4. Show that the line bisecting the first and third quad-
rants is a line of symmetry. Find the coördinates of the points where this
line meets the curve. Is y a monotone function of x ? A single-valued func-
tion of x ?
4. Show that the graph of y = (x -
− 1 ) ³ + 2 is symmetrical with respect
to the point (1 , 2) .
5. Show that if an equation contains only even powers of y, the graph is
symmetrical with respect to the X-axis ; and if it contains only even powers
of x, the graph is symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis.
6. If y = ax² + bx + c, find the coördinates of the turning point.
7. A rectangle is inscribed in a circle of radius 5. Express the area of
the rectangle as a function of the length of one side . Draw the graph of the
function thus found, and find the coördinates of the turning point. What
is the length of the side of the rectangle of maximum area inscribed in the
circle ?
8. A box is to be constructed having a square base and containing 108 cubic
feet. The box is to have no cover. Express the number of square feet of
lumber required as a function of the length of the side of the base. Draw
the graph of the function obtained and locate the turning point. What are
the coördinates of the turning point ? What is the size of the box requiring
the least amount of lumber to construct it ?

31. Graph in polar coördinates. Let r be given as a function

of 0, then corresponding values of the independent variable and of
the function can be regarded as polar coördinates of points . When
r and are connected by an equation, a table of corresponding
values can be computed and plotted as in rectangular coördinates.
The totality of radii obtained in this way forms a graphical repre-
sentation of the function, and a smooth curve drawn through the
plotted points is the graph of the function in polar coördinates. For
example, let the function be given by the equation

r = 20.
40 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

The following is a table of corresponding values, 0 being measured

in radians :
π π π 2π 5π
0 = 0, 9 π,
6' 3' 2' 3 6
r = 0, 1.0472, 2.0944, 3.1416, 4.1888, 5.2360, 6.2832 , ....

A part of the graph is shown in Fig. 29. The curve is called a

spiral of Archimedes, after its discoverer.

FIG. 29

EXERCISES

1. Draw the graph of the equation r = and compare with the graph in
the preceding article.
2
2. Draw the graph of the function r = 0 . The curve is called the recip-
rocal spiral.
3. How does the graph of r = 20 + 1 differ from the graph in the preced-
ing article ?
4. If the abscissa of every point in Fig. 27 , Art. 29, is diminished by 21
units, how will this affect the graph ? How will it affect the equation ?
Write the new equation and draw the graph. Compare the graph with those
in Arts. 27 and 28.
5. In the spiral of Archimedes, let the radius vector rotate in the negative
direction. Draw the curve and compare with the graph in Art. 31 .
ARTS . 32-34] TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 41

6. Draw the graph of r = 30. How does this curve differ from the spiral
of Archimedes in Art. 31 ?
7. In Fig. 29, the curve will cross the initial line when @ is any integral
multiple of π. Why ? What is the distance between any two consecutive
points of crossing ?
8. Draw the graph of x = a0, where a is any constant number. For what
values of does the graph cross the initial line ? What is the distance be-
tween any two consecutive points of crossing ?

32. Algebraic functions. If the function and the independent

variable are connected by an algebraic equation, that is, an equa-
tion involving only a finite number of the fundamental operations
of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution , and
evolution, the function is called an algebraic function . Thus, for
example, in each of the equations y = 2x2, y2 = 2x, y² - 5y + x = 0,
x³ -
− 3 xy + y³ = 0, y is an algebraic function of x.
To find the value, or values , of an algebraic function for any
given value of the independent variable, it is usually necessary
to solve an algebraic equation. For example, if y2-5 y + x = 0,
it is necessary to solve a quadratic equation to find the values of
y for any given value of x.

33. Transcendental functions. In many cases of great practical

importance, the function and the independent variable are not
connected by an algebraic equation, and then the function is
called a transcendental function. The simplest examples of trans-
cendental functions are furnished by the trigonometric functions
and logarithmic functions . Thus,

y = sin x and y = log x

are transcendental functions.

To find the value of a transcendental function for a given value
of the independent variable, use is made of a table. We thus
have tables of logarithms and tables of trigonometric functions.

34. Graphs of transcendental functions. Corresponding values

of function and independent variable can be taken directly from
the table and the function exhibited graphically in rectangular
coördinates or in polar coördinates, as in the preceding articles.
42 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

EXERCISES

1. Draw the graphs of the following functions . State which are algebraic
functions and which are transcendental functions.
(a) y = tan x, (b) y³ = x², (c) y = cos x,
(d) y² = 4x², (e) y = log x, (ƒ) x² + y² = 2x.
2. Draw the polar graphs of the following functions.
α
(a) r = sin 0 " (b) r = 2 a (1 − cos 0) , (c) r = a ( 1 + cos 0) .

3. Using the relations between rectangular and polar coördinates (Art. 9) ,

change the equations in exercise 2 to rectangular coördinates and plot y as a
function of x.
4. Change the equation ( ƒ) of exercise 1 to polar coördinates and plot r
as a function of 0.

π
D B D' F

FIG. 30

35. Geometric construction of the graphs of trigonometric func-

tions. The graphs of trigonometric functions can be constructed
geometrically without the use of tables. For example, to con-
struct the graph of y == sin x, let O be the origin ( Fig. 30) and F
the point representing on the scale OX. With any point A on
OX as center and the unit of the scale on the Y-axis as radius,
draw a circle. Let BAP be any angle x measured in degrees.
The perpendicular DP is then sin x. Take the distance OD
' so
that
OD' : OF : : x° : 180° ,

then the point D' represents the angle x measured in radians on

the scale OX. Through D' draw the perpendicular to OX and
through P the parallel to OX. Let these lines meet in P' , then
ART. 35] GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF FUNCTIONS 43

D'P':= DP = sin x. Hence, as P describes the circle, P' describes

the graph of y = sin x.
For convenience, divide OF into a number of equal parts and
erect perpendiculars to OX through the points of division, then
divide the quadrant BPC into the same number of equal parts
and draw parallels to OX through the points of division. Each
perpendicular meets its corresponding parallel in a point of the
graph, as indicated in the figure.
The graph of y = sin x is called the sinusoid, or wave curve.
Trigonometric functions are periodic functions ; that is, the
value of the function is repeated again and again for values of
the variable which differ by a constant. Thus sin x has the same
value when x is increased or decreased by any integral multiple of
2. Many of the phenomena in nature are also periodic. For
this reason, trigonometric functions are of great importance in
the applications of mathematics .

EXERCISES

1. By measuring angles from the line CA, Fig. 30 , instead of from the
line BA, show how to construct geometrically the graph of y = cos x.
2. In Fig. 30, draw the tangent to the circle at B and let it meet the
radius AP produced in K. Then BK is tan BAP (AB = 1 ) ; show how to
construct geometrically the graph of y = tan x.
3. Taking CA for the initial line, show how to construct the graph of
y = cotx.
4. Devise a method for constructing geometrically the graphs of y = sec x
and y cosec x.
5. How can the graph of a trigonometric function be used to find the
value of the function for any given value of the variable ?
6. A point P describes a circle of radius a with the uniform velocity of k
radians per second . Show that the period, that is, the time of one complete
2 π•
revolution, is T
k
7. Let the center of the circle in the preceding exercise be the origin of
rectangular coördinates. Show that, at the end of t seconds, the coördinates
of the point P are
xa cos kt = a cos 2 πt
T
ya sin kt := a sin πι
2
T
44 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

The kind of motion described by either of these equations is called a

simple harmonic motion ( S. H.M. ) , a is called the amplitude and T the
period of the S. H. M.

36. The exponential function . When the function and the in-
dependent variable are connected by the equation
y = a*,

y is called an exponential function of x. The constant a is called

the base. The exponential function is transcendental, since y and
x are not connected by an algebraic equation .

37. Graph of the exponential function. The graph of the ex-

ponential function can be constructed as follows : From a point
A on the X-axis (Fig. 31 ) lay off a unit AB and erect the ordinate
BB, equal in length to the base a. Draw the line AB, and also
the line AZ making an angle of 45° with the X-axis. Through
B₁ draw the parallel to the X-axis meeting AZ in C₂, and through
C₂ the perpendicular to the X-axis meeting AB, in C₁ and the
X-axis in C. The segment CC, is equal in length to a² ; that is,
the value of the function when x is 2. For, by similar triangles,

AB: BB :: AC : CC₁, or
1 : a :: a : CC₁,

since AC = CC, = BB₁ = a . Hence, CC₁ = a².

Similarly, drawing the parallel to the X-axis through C, and
the perpendicular through C , we can prove that DD, is equal in
length to a³. Thus all the positive integral powers of a can be
constructed geometrically. The negative integral powers can also
be constructed by means of the parallels and perpendiculars.
Thus, MM₁ = a¹, KK , = a-2, etc.
Let O be the origin of coördinates and OY the Y-axis. Con-
struct parallels to the Y-axis at intervals of a unit, thus forming
a series of rectangles with the parallels to the X-axis. The
graph of y = a* cuts through opposite corners of these rectangles,
beginning from the point (0, 1 ) and running each way.
The exponential function has no turning points and is therefore
a monotone function (Art. 27) . It is important in representing
physical phenomena which are not periodic, such, for example, as
ARTS . 37, 38] INVERSE FUNCTIONS 45

the retarding effect of friction, the pressure of the atmosphere as

a function of the altitude, etc. The exponential function is also
Y /Z

D₁
C4

C₁
C3 a+
By la3
M C2 192
га

AKMB C D E 2 1 2 3 4 X

FIG. 31

important in computing interest tables, since the amount y, of $ 1

for x years, at rate i compound interest, is given by the formula
y = (1 + i)*.

Frequently the base is taken to be e = 2.71828 .... The num-

ber e is the base of the natural, or naperian, system of log-
arithms.

38. Inverse functions. If two variables are connected by an

equation, or otherwise, either variable may be regarded as a
function of the other. For example, in the equation y = 2 x², we
think of y as the function and x as the independent variable, but
we may regard x as the function and y as the independent variable.
Either of these functions, y or x, is called the inverse of the
other.
It is convenient to retain the notation " y means function and x
means independent variable." Hence, to obtain the equation de-
fining the inverse of a given function y, we have but to inter-
change x and y in the given equation and then express y in terms
46 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III.

of x. Thus, in the above example, the inverse function is defined

by the equation
x = 2 y², or y = ±

Similarly, the equations

y = sin x and x = sin y, or y arc sin x,

define a pair of inverse functions. Again, the equations

y = a* and x = a", or y = log. x,

define a pair of inverse functions.

EXERCISES
1. Draw the graph representing the amount of $ 1 at 5 % compound in-
terest as a function of the time, interest being compounded annually.
2. Show that the following pairs of equations represent inverse
functions : 3 1x
(a) y = 3 x and y = V3 (b) y = 5 x -− 6 -· x² and y = { ± √ ] 1
− x,
logь x
(c) y = ax and y = (d) y tan 2 x and y = arc tan x.
log, a
3. Write the inverse of each of the following functions.
X
(a) y = cos 3x, (b) y = Vttan
α
(c) y = log. (d) y = x² - 5x + 6.
х
4. Show how to construct the graph of y = a from the graph of y = ax
in Art. 37. How will changing the sign of x affect any graph ?
5. Given the graphs of y = a* and y = a- on the same coördinate axes,
a² + a¯x
how can one construct geometrically the graph of y = ?
2
6. With the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x on the same coördinate
axes, construct geometrically the graph of y = sin x cos x.

39. Graph of an inverse function. Since the inverse of a given

function is obtained by interchanging x and y, the graph of the
inverse function can be constructed by interchanging the coördi-
nates of every point on the graph of the given function. Thus ,
if P (Fig. 32) is a point on the graph of the given function , P' is
a point on the graph of the inverse function when
OD' = DP and D'P' = OD.
ART. 39] GRAPH OF AN INVERSE FUNCTION 47

By this construction , P and P' are symmetrically situated with

respect to the line OA bisecting the first and the third quadrants.
As P describes the N
graph of the given
function, P' de-
scribes the graph of Y
the inverse function .
Hence, having given
the graph of any
function, we can ob- &
tain the graph of the
log2x
=2y
"
inverse function by
plotting points sym-
M
metrically situated
to the points of the D'
given graph with re-
spect to the line OA. R
Or we may consider
FIG. 32
the entire plane ro-
tated through 180° about the line OA, carrying the given graph
with it. The new position of the graph is the graph of the in-
verse function. For example, let MN be the graph of y = a*
(Fig. 32), where a is taken to be 2. Rotating the plane about OA,
the curve assumes the position RS, symmetrical to MN with re-
spect to the line OA. Therefore RS is the graph of the inverse
function y = log, x.

EXERCISES
1. Given y - 5 x - 6 - x², draw the graph of the inverse function.
2. Construct the graphs of the following functions :
(a) y arc sin x, (b) y arc tan x, (c) y arc cos x,

(d) y = x³ and y = x²
α
3. Show that the graph of y = and the graph of the inverse function
х
coincide throughout. What condition must be satisfied in order that the
graph of any function shall coincide with the graph of its inverse ?
48 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III .

40. Observation . A functional correspondence between two variables

is often established by observation when no relation between the variables is
known. Thus the temperature at a given place can be observed throughout
the day and the results tabulated. The temperature can then be regarded
as a function of the time, and the functional relationship can be graphically
exhibited as in the preceding articles. In such cases the functional relation-
ship is given in the form of a table of corresponding values.

41. Machines. Machines are devised to draw the graph automatically

and thus avoid the necessity of making repeated observations. For example,
the weather bureau has an instrument to graph the temperature as a func-
tion of the time. Coördinate paper is wound upon a clock-driven drum, and
a pen is connected with a thermometer in such a way that the rise and fall
of temperature is recorded upon the paper at the proper time. The record
exhibits the functional relationship in the form of a graph. Corresponding
values of the function and the independent variable can be read from the
graph as readily as from a table.
Other records exhibit functional relationship in the form of a graph upon
polar coördinate paper.
EXERCISES
1. The following table shows the length of a rubber cord in centimeters
when stretched by a weight in kilograms attached to one end. Draw a curve
representing approximately the graph of the length as a function of the
weight.
Weight 0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Length 10 10.1 10.3 10.6 10.9 11.3 11.7
Weight 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Length 12.2 12.7 13.3 13.9 14.6 15.3
CONN

2. The number of deaths per hundred thousand lives, according to the

American experience table of mortality , is as follows :

AGE NUMBER OF DEATHS AGE NUMBER OF DEATHS

3328888

20 781 60 2669
25 807 65 4013
30 843 70 6199
35 895 75 9437
40 979 80 14447
45 1116 85 23555
50 1378 90 45455
55 1857 95 100000
ART. 41 ] MACHINES 49

Draw a curve representing the graph of the number of deaths as a func-

tion of the age.
3. The net annual premium for an assurance of $ 1000 for life, according
to the American experience table of mortality, interest at 3 %, is as follows :
2383

AGE PREMIUM AGE PREMIUM

+5
20 $ 14.41 40 $24.75
25 $ 16.11 45 $ 29.67
30 $ 18.28 50 $ 36.36
35 $ 21.08

Draw a curve representing the graph of the premium as a function of the

age.
4. The cost of a money order depends upon the amount as follows :

AMOUNT COST AMOUNT COST

$0 to $ 2.50 3 ct. $ 30 to $ 40 15 ct.

$ 2.50 to $ 5 5 ct. $ 40 to $ 50 18 ct.
$ 5 to $ 10 8 ct. $ 50 to $ 60 20 ct.
$ 10 to $ 20 10 ct. $ 60 to $ 75 25 ct.
$20 to $ 30 12 ct. $ 75 to $ 100 30 ct.

Draw a curve representing the graph of the cost as a function of the

amount.
5. Figure 33 A (p. 50) represents a thermograph for April 12, 13,
and 14. The ordinates are made curvilinear to allow for the pivotal motion
of the drawing pen .
Determine the maxima and minima temperatures between noon of
April 12 and noon of April 14. When was the temperature highest ? When
lowest ?
6. Figure 33 B (p . 51 ) is a steam pressure gauge on polar coördinate
paper. The radii are made curvilinear to allow for the pivotal motion of
the drawing pen.
Determine the time of greatest pressure. The time of least pressure.
7. By means of the table of exponential functions (page V) , make a
careful drawing of the graph of y = e*. From the graph thus made con-
struct the graph of y = e-* . Compare the readings from the graph with the
values of e- taken from the table.
From the graph of y = e*, construct the graph of y = — e*.
50 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP . III.

8. Having given the graph of y = f (x) , show how to obtain the graphs
of y = ƒ ( — x) , y = — ƒ (x) , and y = —ƒ ( − x) .
9. According to Boyle's law, the volume of a gas is inversely propor-
tional to the pressure which it sustains. If a volume of 4 cubic feet sustains a
pressure of 1 atmosphere , write the equation expressing the volume as a
function of the pressure. Draw the graph of this function.
10. The increase in length of a metal bar is proportional to the tempera-
ture to which the bar is subjected. If the bar is 1 foot long at 0° temperature

% XIII 10 M** 1b 10XII

12 13 14

April
06 06

09 09

30
OC

FIG. 33 A

and 1.0004 feet long at 20° temperature, write the equation expressing the
length as a function of the temperature. Draw the graph of this function.
11. The intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the source of the light. Write the equation expressing the
intensity as a function of the distance. Draw the graph of this function .
If the intensity of light at a point on the earth directly underneath the sun
is taken as the unit of intensity, calculate the intensity of light on the planet
Venus at a point directly underneath the sun. Take the distance from the
earth to the sun as 93,000,000 miles and the distance of Venus from the sun
as 67,000,000 miles.
ART. 41 ] MACHINES 51

XI
XII0 P.X. ix
25
na

ECT RECORDING
PERFMANUFA BUDEN M
FER CTUREDB
THE SCHAENFEWYGHORARK T CHICAGBEORG FG
GAUG
E
RECORD

TITA

FTE
MVOIIX
IX
FIG. 33 B

12. The water rates of a certain city depend upon the amount consumed
and are as follows :

CONSUMPTION PER DAY RATE PER 1000 GALLONS

0 to 499 gallons .35

500 to 999 gallons .32
1000 to 1999 gallons .28
2000 to 2999 gallons .24
3000 to 3999 gallons .20
4000 to 4999 gallons .15
5000 to 5999 gallons .12
6000 and over gallons .10
52 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION [CHAP. III .

Calculate the monthly (30 days) bill of a consumer and draw a curve
representing the graph of the amount of the bill as a function of the number
of gallons consumed per month.
13. A certain mixture of concrete contains 1.4 barrels of cement per
cubic yard of concrete. If the cement costs $ 1.20 per barrel and the sand
and crushed stone costs $ 2.10 per cubic yard, write an equation expressing
the cost of the concrete as a function of the number of cubic yards. Draw
the graph of this function.
14. Express the area of a circle as a function of the radius and draw the
graph of the function .
15. Draw the graphs of y:= sin x and y = cos x on the same coördinate
axes. From these graphs construct the graph of the function
y = 2 sin x + cos x.
 CHAPTER IV

LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS

42. Locus of a point, equation of locus. When a point P (x, y)

moves in the plane, the path it describes is called the locus of
the point. The coördinates x, y are then variables ( Art. 22) .
If the point P(x, y) moves according to a given law, this law
will lead to an equation connecting x and y called the equation of
the locus. The equation of the locus defines y as a function of x,
and the locus itself is the graph of this function. As an example,
suppose P moves so that it is constantly at a fixed distance from
a fixed point A. We know, then, that the point describes a circle.
This circle is the locus of the point P. The point P moves
according to the given law
AP = constant,

and we shall see that this law leads to an equation connecting

the variable coördinates x and y.

43. A fundamental problem. When the law which governs the

motion of a point is given, a fundamental problem presents itself ;
namely, to find the equation of the locus. For example, suppose
a point moves so that it is always equidistant from the points
F = (1, 2) and F₁ = (3, 1) (Fig. 34). To find the equation of the
locus, let P(x, y) be any point equidistant from F and F₁. Then,
by the given law, PF = PF₁, (1)

for all positions of P. But

PF = √(x -
− 1)² + (y - 2)² and PF₁ = √(x − 3) ² + (y − 1)².
Therefore we have

√(x − 1)² + (y -− 2)² = √(x − 3) ² + (y − 1 )², (2)

53
54 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

which reduces to 4x - 2y - 5 = 0. (3)

This is the required equation . The locus is the perpendicular
bisector of the segment FF₁ .
The following property and its converse are characteristic of this
locus and its equation ; namely, the coördinates of every point
on the locus satisfy equation (3) . For, if the point is on the

XP (x, y)

10-

FIG. 34

locus, it is equidistant from F and F. Therefore its coördinates

satisfy (2) and consequently (3).
Conversely, if the coördinates of any point satisfy equation (3),
the point is on the locus . For then the coördinates of the point
also satisfy equation (2), and the point is therefore equidistant
from F and F₁ ; that is, the point is on the locus.

44. General definition . The property just proved for the

special locus in Fig. 34 leads to the following definition : The
equation of the locus of a point is an equation in the variables x and
y which is satisfied by the coördinates of every point on the locus ;
ARTS . 44, 45] THE CIRCLE 55

and conversely, every point whose coördinates satisfy the equation

lies on the locus.
The locus of a point moving according to a given law is, in
general , a curve, and we shall often speak of the equation of the
locus as the equation of the curve. *
The problem to find the equation of the locus when the law
governing the motion of the point is given will be illustrated in
the succeeding articles, where the equations of a number of im-
portant curves are found and methods given for constructing the
curves .

45. The circle. A point moves so that it is always r units from

a fixed point (a, b) . Find the equation of the locus.
The locus is evidently a circle
whose radius is r and whose Y
center is the point C = (a, b)
(Fig. 35) . P(x, y)
To find the equation of the
locus, assume that P (x, y) is
any point r units from C. The
point P is then on the locus. 'C(a,b)
The statement of the law gov-
erning the motion of P is then
CP = r, (1)
FIG. 35
for all positions of P. But

CP = V ( − a ) + (y − b) , ( 2)
and therefore
(x - a)2 + (y - b)² = r². (3)

If the center of the circle is taken at the origin of coördinates,

then a = 0 and b = 0 , and equation (3) becomes
x² + y² = r2. (4)

Equations (3) and (4) are standard forms of the equation of a

circle. The student should test equation (3) by the definition
given in Art. 44.
* The word " curve " will henceforth be used to denote any continuous line,
straight or curved .
56 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV .

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the following circles :
- 2 , 0) and radius 2 .
(a) Center ( 0, 1 ) and radius 3. (b ) Center ( —
(c) Center (-4, 3) and radius 3. ( d) Center ( 1, 2 ) and radius 6.
2. Find the equation of the circle whose center is (2 , 3) and which passes
through the origin.
3. What is the equation of the circle which has the line joining the points
(3, 2) and ( -7 , 4) for a diameter ?
4. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the three points
(0, 1) , (5, 1) , and (2, − 3) .
5. A point moves so as to be equidistant from the points (3, - − 1 ) and
(-2, 3) . Draw the locus and find its equation.
6. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining
(a, b) to (c, d).
7. A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from the points (8 , 0)
and (2, 0) is constantly equal to 2. Find the equation of the locus.
8. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from
(3, 0) and ( — 3, 0) is constantly equal to 68. Find the equation of the locus.
9. A circle circumscribes the triangle (6 , 2) , (7 , 1 ) , ( 8 , — 2 ) . Draw the
figure and find the equation of the circle.

46. The equation x² + y² + Ax + By + C = 0. When equation

(3) of the preceding article is expanded and arranged according
to the powers of x and y, it takes the form

x² + y² + Ax + By + C = 0, (1)

where A, B, and C are constants depending upon the radius of

the circle and the coördinates of the center.
A second problem now arises : Is equation (1) the equation of
a circle for all possible values of A, B, and C ? To answer this
question, we shall complete the squares of the terms in x and y
separately, and thus put equation (1) in the form
B2 A2 B2
== + C. (2)
( x + 2 )² + (y + 2 )² = 4²
4 4

In this form, the equation states that the length of the segment
A
joining ( −1, to (x, y) is constantly equal to
2 − 2)
LA² B2
+ C (3)
4 4
ARTS . 46, 47] THE STRAIGHT LINE 57

for all positions of the point (x, y) . Let D stand for the ex-
pression under the radical in (3) ; then we can draw the following
conclusions :
1. If D > 0, (1) is the equation of a circle whose center is the
A BY
point 2' 2 and whose radius is VD.

2. If D = 0, ( 1) is satisfied by the coördinates of a single

A B
point ; namely, the point ( -4 , -2). In this case the locus is
called a null circle.
3. If D < 0, there is no point in the plane whose coördinates
satisfy (2) and consequently no point whose coördinates satisfy
(1). In this case the locus is called an imaginary circle.
We shall find it convenient to say that, in any case, equation
(1) is the equation of a circle, but that, in particular cases, this
circle may be a null circle, or an imaginary circle.

EXERCISES
1. Find the coördinates of the center and the radius of the following
circles. Construct the figure when possible.
(a ) x² + y² -
— 6 x --- 16 = 0. (b ) x² + y² -— 6 x + 4 y − 5 = 0.
(c ) 3x² + 3y² — 10 x - — 24 y = 0. (d) ( x + 1 ) ² + ( y — 2 ) ² = 0.
(e) x² + y² = 8x. ( f ) 7 x + 7j2 1 4 x - y = 3.
(g) x² + y2-2x + 2y + 5 = 0. (h ) x² + y² + 16x + 1000.
2. Find the coördinates of the center and the radius of the circle which
passes through the points ( 5 , -
— 3) and ( 0 , 6 ) and has its center on the line
2x - 3y - 6 = 0.
3. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from two
fixed points is constant. Prove that the locus is a circle.
4. A point moves so that the ratio of its distances from two fixed points
is constant. Prove that the locus is a circle if the constant ratio is different
from unity, and a straight line if the constant ratio is equal to unity.

47. The straight line. A point moves on the straight line joining
(x2, y2) . Find the equation of
the fixed points P₁ = (x₁, y₁) and P₂ = (X2,
the locus.
Choose any point P (x, y) on the straight line joining P₁ to P₂
(Fig. 36) . Then,
58 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

slope of segment P₁P = slope of segment P¸Ð½.

But (Art. 11 ),
slope of PP , and slope of PP - 1.
- X2 - X1
Therefore
- 2− - 1.
(1)
x - x1 X2 - X1

The expression 2-1 is called the slope of the line. Represent-

X2 X1
ing the slope of the line by m , equation (1) becomes
(y- y₁) = m (x − x₁ ) . (2)

If the point P₁ = (0, b) , that is , the point of intersection of the

line with the Y-axis, equation (2 ) assumes the form
y = mx + b. (3)
P(x, y)
Y If P₁ = (0, b) and P. = (a, 0),
b
then m = and equation (2)
P₁ ( x1 , y1 ) a
reduces to
x ม
+ = 1. (4)
P2 (x21Y2 ) a

Equations (1 ) , (2) , (3) , and

X (4) are all standard forms of
the equation of a straight line.
FIG. 36 Equation (1 ) is called the two-
point form, equation (2) is the
slope-point form, equation (3) is the slope form, and equation (4) is
the intercept form.
From these equations, we conclude that the equation of a straight
line is offirst degree in the variables x and y.
Conversely, it may be shown that any equation of the first de-
gree in the variables x and y is the equation of a straight line.
For, let
Ax + By + C = 0 (5)

be such an equation. Solving for y, we have

A - C
y =- x
B B
ARTS . 47, 48] THE DETERMINANT FORM 59

Comparison with equation (3) shows that (5) must be the equa-
A
tion of a straight line whose slope is - and whose intercept on
B
- C•
the Y-axis is This reasoning fails when B is zero. In
B
that case, however, equation (5) reduces to Ax + C = 0 , which is
the equation of a straight line parallel to the Y-axis , since x has
C
the constant value for all values of y. Hence, in every case
A
(5) is the equation of a straight line.
48. The determinant form . The equation of a straight line can
be written in the form of a determinant. Thus, the equation
x y 11
X1 Y1 1 = 0 (1)
X2 Y2 1

is the equation of the straight line joining the points P₁ = ( 1, Y1)

and P₂ = (X2, y2) . For, equation (1) is of the first degree in x and
y and therefore is the equation of some straight line, by the pre-
ceding article. Moreover, the equation states that the area of
the triangle whose vertices are (x, y) , (x₁, y₁) , and ( 2, 2) is zero
(Art. 20) . Hence, the point P (x, y) is on the line joining P₁ and
P2
EXERCISES
1. Write the equations of the lines passing through the following pairs of
points :
(a) (0, 1 ) and ( 5 , 6 ) ; ( b ) ( 1 , − 2 ) and ( −3 , 4 ) ; ( c ) ( 5 , — 2 ) and
( — 4, — 1 ) ; ( d ) ( − 1 , 3 ) and (3 , - 4) . Draw the figure in each case.
2. Find the intercepts which each of the lines in exercise 1 makes upon
the coördinate axes. Write the equations in intercept form.
3. With the intercept on the Y-axis and the slope, write the equation of
each line in exercise 1 in the slope form .
4. Write the equation of each of the lines in exercise 1 in the determinant
form .
5. Find the slope and the intercepts of each of the following lines :

(a) 2y + 3x -7 = x + 2 . ยู·- 1 - X -- 3 •
(b) 2 3
х - y 2 x --- 1
(c) Y - 2 = 3. (d)
х 3
60 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV .

6. Write the equation of each of the lines in exercise 5 in the intercept

form . In the slope form .

49. The ellipse . A point moves so that the sum of its distances
from two fixed points F and F is constantly equal to 2 a. Construct
the locus and find its equation.
In the first place, 2 a must be greater than the length of the
segment FF , otherwise no locus is possible. Lay off a line A,B₁,

AY

P(x,y)
M
r ༤.
y
x
F C C Fi B

-2+α-

2a
A1 C B₁
FIG. 37

2 a units in length (Fig. 37) . Take C, any point on A, B₁ , and

with AC as radius describe a circle about F. With CB₁ as radius
describe a circle about F₁. The two circles meet in the points M
and N. These points are on the locus , since the sum of the radii of
the two circles is 2 a. Taking the smaller circle about F, and the
larger about F, two more points , M' and N', are found on the
locus . By taking C at different places on A,B,, as many points
of the locus can be found as may be desired .
Another construction of the locus is made as follows : stick
pins in the paper at the points F and F. Tie the ends of a
string together so that the loop is just equal to 2 a plus the
ART. 49] THE ELLIPSE 61

distance from F to F₁. Drop the loop over the pins and stretch
it taut with a pencil point. Keeping the string stretched, move
the pencil around ; it will describe the locus.
This locus is called an ellipse. The fixed points F and F are
called the foci of the ellipse. The distances from any point on
the ellipse to the foci are called the focal radii of the point.
To find the equation of the ellipse, let the line joining the foci
be the X-axis, and the perpendicular bisector of the segment FF ,
the Y-axis. Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse ; then PF = r
and PF₁ = r₁ are the focal radii of P. By definition we have
r + r₁ = 2 a (1)
for every position of P.
Let 2 c denote the length of the segment FF ; then the coördi-
nates of F and F are ( c, 0) and (c, 0) , respectively. Then
p² = (c + x)² + y² = c² + 2 cx + x² + y²,
and (2)
r² = (c - x)² + y² = c² - 2 cx + x² + y².
By subtraction, we obtain
p² — r₁² = (r— r₁) (r + r₁) = 4 cx.

Hence, since r + r₁ = 2a,

4 cx = 2 cx
r- (3)
2a α
From (1) and (3) we get, cx
r= a +
a
сх (4)
r1 = a -
a

Substituting the value of r in the first of equations (2), we obtain,

after reduction,
x2 y²
+ = 1. (5)
a² a² c2

A further simplification is obtained by putting

a²- c² = b², (6)
and then the equation assumes the final form

+ y2 = 1. (7)
a² b2
Equation (7) is the standard form of the equation of an ellipse.
62 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP . IV.

50. The axes and eccentricity. The segment of the line joining
the foci and limited by the curve is called the major or transverse
axis of the ellipse. That part of the perpendicular bisector of
the segment joining the foci which is contained within the curve
is the minor or conjugate axis of the ellipse. Thus, AB (Fig. 37)
is the major axis and CD the minor axis. The axes intersect in
the center, and cut the curve in the vertices.
When the equation of the ellipse is in the standard form, the
axes of the curve coincide with the axes of coördinates (Art. 49) .
Hence the lengths of the axes of the ellipse can be determined
from the intercepts ( Art. 30) made by the curve upon the coördi-
nate axes . From equation (7) of the preceding article we find
that the intercepts on the X-axis area and the intercepts on
the Y-axis are b. Therefore the length of the major axis is 2 a
and the length of the minor axis is 2b . The segments OB
and OD ( Fig. 37 ) are called the semimajor axis and the semi-
minor axis , respectively .
The ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the
major axis is called the eccentricity of the ellipse. Since the
distance between the foci is 2c and the length of the major axis
is 2 a, the eccentricity is с
e= · (1)
a
From equation (6) (Art. 49) , c = Va2 - b² . Therefore
Va - 62
e= (2)
a
Since a is always greater than c, the eccentricity of the ellipse is
necessarily always less than unity.
Combining equations ( 4) Art. 49, with equation ( 1 ) , we see that
the lengths of the focal radii of the point P (x, y ) are
r = a + ex and r₁ = a - ex. (3)

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the ellipse for which the sum of the focal radii is
8 and the distance between the foci is 6 , the origin being at the center.
What is the eccentricity of this ellipse ? Construct the ellipse.
2. An ellipse passes through the points ( − - 5 , 0) and ( 0 , 3) and is sym-
metrical with respect to both axes. Find the coördinates of the foci and
draw the curve .
ARTS. 50, 51] THE HYPERBOLA 63

3. Write the standard form of the equation of the ellipse having

given : (a ) the length of the transverse axis is 10 and the distance be-
tween the foci is 8 ; ( b ) the sum of the axes is 18 and the difference of the
axes is 6 ; (c ) transverse axis is 10 and the conjugate axis is the trans-
verse axis ; (d) transverse axis is 20 and conjugate axis is equal to the dis-
tance between the foci ; ( e ) conjugate axis is 10 and distance between the
foci is 10.
x2 y2 -
4. The equation of an ellipse is 1. Find the lengths of the
64 + 15
focal radii of the points whose abscissa is 1.
5. Find the lengths of the semiaxes and the eccentricity of each of the
ellipses whose equations are :
x2 y2
(a) 3x² + 2 y2 := 6 ; (b) 3 + 2 = 1 ; ( c ) x² + 3 y² = 2 ; ( d ) 4 y² + 2 x² = 2.

6. The latus rectum, or parameter, of an ellipse is the double ordinate,

or double abscissa, passing through a focus. Find the length of the latus
rectum for each of the ellipses in exercise 5.

51. The hyperbola . A point moves so that the difference of its

distances from two fixed points F and F is constantly equal to 2a.
Construct the locus and find its equation.
Here 2 a must be less than the length of the segment FF₁ .
For, if P is any point in the plane, it is shown in geometry that
the difference be-
tween any two sides
*

of the triangle PFF,

is less than the third
side.
Lay off a line AB
(Fig. 38) 2 a units in
length and take any F Bi A F₁ X
point C on this line
produced . With BC
and AC as radii and
F and F as centers ,
draw arcs of circles
intersecting in M
and N. These points
are on the locus, 2a
A B
since the difference FIG. 38
64 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV .

of the radii of the two circles is 2 a. With the same radii, but
interchanging centers , two more points, M' and N' , are obtained.
Taking C at different places on AB produced, as many points
on the locus can be constructed as may be desired .
The locus is called an hyperbola, the points F and F are its
foci, and the distances from any point on the curve to the foci
are called the focal radii of the point. The two parts of the curve
are the branches.
To find the equation of the hyperbola, we proceed as in the
case of the ellipse. Let the line joining F and F be the X-axis ,
and the perpendicular bisector of FF , the Y-axis. Let F be
c units to the left of the origin and F₁, c units to the right. Take
P(x, y) , any point on the curve, and let r and r₁ be the lengths of
its focal radii (r >r ) . Then, by definition,
r - r₁ = 2 a. (1)
Equations (2) of Art. 49 hold for the hyperbola, and we obtain
from them, by subtraction,
(r− r₁) (r + r₁) = 4 cx. (2)
Combining (1) and ( 2 ) , we have
2 cx
r + r₁ = (3)
a
From (1) and (3) we get
r = сх + a ,
a
сх a (4)
r1 = .
a

Substituting the value of r in the first of equations (2) , in Art.

49, we obtain, after reduction,
x² y² =1. (5)
a c² - a²
བྱེ་

A further simplification is obtained by putting

c² -— a² = b² (6)
མྱེ

and the equation assumes the final form

x2 y2 1.
(7)
a² b²
Equation (7) is the standard form of the equation of an hyperbola
ART. 52] AXES AND ECCENTRICITY 65

52. Axes and eccentricity. The hyperbola meets the line join-
ing the foci in two points B₁ and A, ( Fig. 38) which are equidis-
tant from the mid-point O, as may be seen from the definition of
the curve . The segment B₁₁ is called the transverse axis.
Since the intercepts on the X-axis (when the equation is in the
standard form) are ± a , the length of the transverse axis is 2 a.
The curve does not meet the perpendicular bisector of FF₁,
since every point on this bisector is equidistant from F and F₁,
but a segment extending b units above O and b units below is
called the conjugate axis. O is the center of the curve, and the
transverse axis meets the curve in the vertices, B₁ and Α₁ .
The ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of
the transverse axis is called the eccentricity. Since FF₁ = 2c,
and B₁₁ = 2 a, the eccentricity is
с
e= • (1)
a

From (6) , Art. 51, we have c = √a² + b², and therefore

e = Va² + b² ( 2)
a

From (1) or ( 2) we conclude that the eccentricity of an hyper-

bola is always greater than unity.
Combining equations (4) of Art. 51 with equation (1 ), we
have the lengths of the focal radii in terms of the eccentricity,
namely : r = ex + a and r₁ = ex a. (3)

EXERCISES
1. Write the standard equation of the hyperbola for which the difference
between the focal radii is 6 and the distance between the foci is 8.
2. Write the standard equation of the hyperbola for which the transverse
axis is 12 and the distance between the foci is 16 .
3. Find the length of the focal radii of the point whose ordinate is 1 and
x2 y2
whose abscissa is positive, the equation of the hyperbola being 9 - 4 = 1.

4. Find the semiaxes and eccentricity of each of the hyperbolas whose

equations are :
x2
- y2 = 1; ( c ) 16 x² — y² = 16 ; ( d) a²
(a) 4x²—9 y² = 36 ; (b ) 22 y2 = m .
4 −1 9 4–
66 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

5. When the origin of coördinates is taken at the center of an hyper-

x2 y2 =- 1.
bola and the foci lie upon the Y-axis, the standard equation is
a2 b2
Find the lengths of the semiaxes and the eccentricity of each of the follow-
ing hyperbolas :
(a) 3 y² — 2 x² = 12 ; ( b ) 4 x² — 16 y² = −64 ; (c) y² — mx² = n.

6. The length of the double ordinate, or double abscissa, through a focus

is called the latus rectum of the hyperbola. Find the length of the latus
rectum for each of the hyperbolas in exercises 5 and 6.

53. The parabola. A point moves so as to be equally distant

from a fixed point and from a fixed straight line. Construct the
locus and find its equation.

Let F be the fixed point and AH the fixed straight line ( Fig.
39) . Draw AF perpendicular to AH and a series of lines parallel
H AY to AH, as PD, P₁D1, P½Ð½,
etc. With AD as radius
Pr P(x,y )
and F as center, draw an
arc cutting PD in P and
x+p
Q. These points are on
the locus, since PF = AD
"

= FQ. Repeating the

A kp process with AD , AD,
10

D2 D1
etc., as radii , a series of
points on the locus is ob-
tained.
The locus is called a
parabola (cf. Art . 28).
The fixed point F is
called the focus of the
FIG. 39 parabola and the fixed
line AH is called the directrix. The point O is the vertex.
To find the equation of the parabola, let AF be the X-axis and
OY, the perpendicular bisector of AF, the Y-axis. Let OF = p,
and P(x, y) be any point on the curve . Then by definition,

PF = AD.
ARTS. 53 , 54] THE CASSINIAN OVALS 67

-
But PF = √(x − p) ² + y² and AD = x + p. Therefore,

√(x − p)² + y² = x + P,
or y² = 4px. (1)

Equation (1 ) is the standard form of the equation of the parab-

ola. The number p is called the parameter. The distance from
any point on the parabola to the focus is called the focal radius
of the point. The length of the focal radius of any point (x, y) is
r = x + p. (2)

EXERCISES
1. In the parabola y² = 4 x, find the coördinates of the focus and the length
of the focal radius from the point (1 , 2) .
2. The focus of a parabola is at the point (3, 0) and the directrix is the
line x + 1 = 0. Find the equation.
3. The focus of a parabola is at the point (0 , 2 ) and the directrix is the
x-axis. Find the equation.
4. If the focus is 2 units from the vertex, what is the equation
(a) when the parabola is symmetrical with respect to the X-axis ?
(b) when the parabola is symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis ?
5. Construct each of the following parabolas :
(a) y² = 8x ; (b ) y² =-− 4 x ; ( c) x² = 6y ; (d) x² = — 10 y.
6. The double ordinate , or double abscissa, through the focus is called the
latus rectum of the parabola. Find the length of the latus rectum of each
parabola in exercise 5.

54. The cassinian ovals. A point moves so that the product of

its distances from two fixed points is constantly equal to a². Con-
struct the locus and find its equation.
Let F and F be the fixed points and O the mid- point between
them (Fig. 40). Draw the circle with center O and radius OF,
and let FM be the tangent to this circle at F. Take FM, a units
in length , and through M draw a series of secants to the circle.
Let one of these secants meetthe circle in the points A and A.
Then, we have
MA · MA₁ = FM = a².

Hence, using MA and MA, as radii and F and F as centers, arcs

of circles can be drawn intersecting in points of the locus. Thus,
68 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

the points K, L, S, and T are on the locus. Repeating the

process with other secants, as many points of the locus can be
constructed as may be desired.
The locus is called a cassinian oval, after Cassini, an astronomer
and engineer who lived in the latter half of the seventeenth
century. The points F and F are the foci.

ΑΥ

P(x,y)
K

FIG. 40

To find the equation of the locus, let FF, be the X-axis and the
perpendicular bisector of FF , the Y-axis. Let the distance be-
tween the foci be represented by 2 c, and let r and r₁ represent
the focal radii, PF and PF₁, respectively. Then , as in Art. 49,

p² = c² + 2 cx + x² + y²,
(1)
r² = c² - 2 cx + x² + y².

Multiplying these equations, member by member, and remember-

ing that r · r₁ = a², we have

a₁ = (c² + x² + y²)² — 4 c²x²,

or (x² + y²)² - 2 c² (x² -
— y²) = a¹ — c¹. (2)

If a c, the cassinian oval is called the lemniscate. This is

the curve shown in Fig. 40.
ARTS. 54, 56] POLAR EQUATION OF A CIRCLE 69

EXERCISES

1. The foci of a cassinian oval are at the points ( -2, 0) and (2, 0) .
Construct the curve when the product of the focal radii is 9 ; when the
product of the focal radii is 4 ; when the product of the focal radii is 1.
2. Find the intercepts of a cassinian oval upon the coördinate axes, when
a > c, when a < c, and when a = c.
3. Show that a cassinian oval is necessarily symmetrical with respect to
both axes.

55. Recapitulation. The results of the preceding articles are so

important that they are brought together here in compact form.
The standard forms of the equations should be memorized.

LOCUS OR CURVE STANDARD FORMS OF THE EQUATION IN RECTANGULAR COÖRDINATES

y - yi = 2 – ?1
(a ) Two-point form ; x - x1 X2 -- X1
(b) Slope-point form ; y -· Y₁ = m (x -− x1 ) .
The straight line.
(c) Slope form ; y = mx + b.
818
216+

(d) Intercept form ; 014= 1.

The circle. (a) (x − a) ² + (y — b ) ² = r².

(b) x² + y² = p².
2123
22

x2 = 1.
The ellipse.
b2
+

x2 - y2
The hyperbola. 1.
a² b2

The parabola. y² = 4 px.

56. Polar equation of a circle. Let C = ( b, a) be the center of a

circle of radius a, and P= (r, 0) , any point on the circle (Fig. 41) .
In the triangle COP, we have OC = b, OP = r, and the angle
COP = ± (0 - – α) , depending upon the position of P. But in
either case the law of cosines applies and we have

² + b² - 2 br cos( a) = a². (1)

70 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

P(r, 0) This equation expresses the relation be-

tween r and for any point on the
circle and is, therefore, the polar equa-
C (b, a) tion of the circle.
If the initial line passes through the
center of the circle, a = 0 and (1) re-
duces to
X r² + b².- 2 br cos 0 = a². (2)
FIG. 41
If the pole is taken on the circle,
b = a and (2) becomes the im-
portant form P(r, 0)
r = 2 a cos 0. (3)
This equation is also immedi-
ately deduced from Fig. 42, X
since XPO is a right angle. 2-a-
If the pole is taken at the
center, b = O and (1 ) becomes
r = a, FIG. 42
(4)
which is the simplest form of the polar equation of a circle.

57. Polar equation of a straight line. Let AB be any straight

line, O the pole, and OX the initial line (Fig. 43) . Let p be the
length of the perpendicular
OM let fall from O upon
AB, and a the angle XOM.
P(r, 0) Take P (r, 0) , any point on
the line AB. Then
M
r cos (0 - a) = p (1)
is the polar equation of the
straight line AB.

EXERCISES

FIG. 43 1. The center of a circle is at

the point whose polar coördinates
are and the radius is 4. Write the polar equation of the circle and
3
(3,5)
find the length of the segment of the initial line within the circle.
ARTS . 57-59] POLAR EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE 71

2. The perpendicular from the pole upon a line is 5 units long and makes
an angle of 60° with the initial line. Write the polar equation of the line.
With origin at the pole and X-axis coinciding with the initial line, write the
rectangular equation of the same line and find the intercepts on the axes .
3. A circle is tangent to the initial line at the pole, its radius is 4 units
long, and its center lies above the initial line. What is the polar equation
of the circle ? What is the rectangular equation , the origin being at the
pole, and the X-axis coinciding with the initial line ?
4. Change the intercept form of the equation of a straight line to polar
coördinates. Show that
α = p and b == = p
COS α sin α,
p and a having the same meanings as in Art. 57.
5. Discuss the polar equation of a straight line (Art. 57) for a = 0° , 90°,
180°. Also for p == 0.
6. A circle passes through the origin and has its center on the line bisect-
ing the first and third quadrants . Find the polar equation in each of the
two possible positions . Also the rectangular equation.

58. Polar equation of the parabola. The polar equation of the

parabola assumes the simplest form when the pole is taken at the
focus and the initial line is perpendicular
AY
to the directrix (Fig. 44). Let P(r, 0) be P
any point on the parabola. The length
of the focal radius PF is (Art. 53)

r = x + p. (1) D

But, from the figure,

x = OD = r cos 0 +p. (2)
FIG. 44
Eliminating between (1) and (2) and
solving the resulting equation for r, we have

r = - 2p (3)
(1 - cos 0)

59. Polar equations of the ellipse and the hyperbola. Take the
pole at the left-hand focus and the initial line coincident with
the transverse axis of the curve (Figs . 45 and 46) . Then, for
either curve, the length of the focal radius PF is given by the
formula (Arts . 50 and 52)
r = a + ex. (1)
72 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

AY But, from either figure,

x = OD = r cos 0 - c. (2)

Eliminating x between (1)

and (2) and solving the re-
F D
sulting equation for r, we
have
r= (a- ec) •
(3)
(1 e cos 0)
с
FIG. 45 Replacing e by its value
a'
(3) becomes a² - c²
r= (4)
(a-- c cose)

For the ellipse, a² — c² = b² (Art. 49) and a > c. Hence we con-

clude that r is positive for all values of 0.
For the hyperbola, a² - c² = b² (Art. 51) , and a < c. Hence
a - c cos 0 will be negative, and therefore r positive, when
α
cos > and then the point AY
с
P(r, 0) lies on the right branch
of the curve. For example ,
when 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1 , and
r = a + c = FB. The expres- F A B D
sion a - c cos will be posi-
tive , and therefore negative,
when cos 0 < and then the
с
FIG. 46
point Pr, ) lies on the left
branch of the curve . For example, when = 180°, cos 0 = 1,
and r = -- (c — a) — — FA.

EXERCISES
1. The sum of the focal radii is 8 and the distance between the foci is
6. Write the polar equation of the ellipse and sketch the curve from this
equation.
2. The difference between the focal radii is 4 and the distance between
the foci is 6. Write the polar equation of the hyperbola and sketch the curve
from this equation .
ARTS. 59, 60] PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 73

3. Show from the polar equation that the radius vector for the ellipse
is always finite in length .
4. Show from the polar equation that the radius vector for the hyper-
bola becomes indefinitely long for two values of 0, each less than 180°. Find
these values.
5. The focus of a parabola is 6 units from the directrix. Write the polar
equation and sketch the curve from this equation.
6. Show from the polar equation of the parabola that the radius vector
never becomes indefinitely long except for = 2 nπ, where n is any integer
including zero.
7. Show that the polar equation of the lemniscate is
p2 = 2 c2 cos 2 0,
the pole being at the origin and the initial line coinciding with the X-axis.
Sketch the curve from this equation.
8. Change the standard forms of the equations of the ellipse, hyperbola,
and parabola to polar equations, making use of equations (1) , Art. 9. Why
do not the equations thus found agree with the polar equations in Arts. 58
and 59 ?
9. Derive the polar equation of the hyperbola, assuming the right-hand
focus as pole and the transverse axis as initial line .
10. Derive the polar equation of the ellipse, making the same assump-
tions as in the preceding exercise.
16
11. Compare the equation r = - with equation 4, Art. 59.
5 3 cos 0
Does the given equation represent an ellipse or an hyperbola ? What is the
eccentricity and the length of the transverse axis ?
12. If the semiaxes of an hyperbola are equal, the curve is called the
rectangular hyperbola. Write the polar equation of the rectangular
hyperbola.

60. Parametric equations. It is frequently useful to express

the x and y coördinates of a point on a curve in terms of a third
variable called the parameter. For example, the x and y coördi-
nates of a point on the circle
x² + y² = α² (1)
can be expressed as follows :
x = a cost, y = a sin t, (2)
since these values of x and y satisfy (1) , whatever value is given
to the parameter t. Equations (2) are parametric equations of the
circle whose equation in rectangular coördinates is (1).
74 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

Similarly, a pair of parametric equations of the ellipse

x² y2
+ b2 = 1 (3)

€།
are
x = a cost, y = b sint, (4)

since these values of x and y satisfy (3) for all values of t.

A variety of pairs of parametric equations can be found ex-
pressing the same relation between x and y. For example,
- a 2 at
x = a (1 − t²) nd y =
1 + t² 1 + t2

are parametric equations of the circle ( 1), since these values of

x and y will satisfy (1) for all values of t.

EXERCISES

1. Show that x = a sect and y = b tant are parametric equations of an

hyperbola.
b
2. Show that x = + t and y = b + mt satisfy the slope form of the
m
equation of a straight line for all values of t.
3. Eliminate t from the equations x = t² and y = 2t and thus show that
these equations are parametric equations of a parabola.
4. Write a pair of parametric equations for the standard form y² = 4 px.
5. Show that x = at and y = b ( 1 − t) are parametric equations of a
straight line .
6. Show that the equations
x = c√2(1 + t²)t
1+ t
c√2(1 -
− t²)t
y=
1 + tt
are parametric equations of the lemniscate (Art. 54) .
7. Write the parametric equations of the rectangular hyperbola
x² - y² = a².

61. Geometrical construction of the ellipse and the hyperbola.

The ellipse and the hyperbola can be constructed easily by
means of parametric equations (Figs. 47 and 48) .
Draw the concentric circles whose radii are the semiaxes a
ART. 61 ] GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION 75

and b. These circles are called the major and minor auxiliary
circles, respectively.
For the ellipse, with any value of t, construct OD = a cost and
EP" = b sin t. These are the coördinates of the point P on the
ellipse.

E
ED

FIG. 47 FIG. 48

Similarly, for the hyperbola, OD = a sect and EM= b tan t

are the coördinates of the point P on the curve.
The points P, P', and P" are called corresponding points. As
the radius OP revolves about O, the points P' and P" move on
their respective auxiliary circles, and P describes the ellipse in
Fig. 47 and the hyperbola in Fig. 48.

EXERCISES

1. Write the parametric equations and construct the ellipse whose semi-
axes are 3 and 4.
2. Write the parametric equations and construct the hyperbola whose
semiaxes are 3 and 4.
3. Construct the following loci by assigning arbitrary values to the
parameter t and tabulating the corresponding values of x and y :
t3
(a) x = t − 1 , y = 4 -
— t² ; ( b ) x == 2
1/2 , y = 4 ; ( c ) x = 3 t, y = 3 P² – 18.

4. With as the parameter, construct the locus

x = 6 cos 0 + 3 cos 2 0,
y = 6 sin 0 - 3 sin 2 0.
This locus is called the three-cusped hypocycloid.
76 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. IV.

62. Recapitulation.

LOCUS OR CURVE POLAR EQUATION PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

The circle . r = 2 a cos 0. x = a cost, y = a sin t.
a² - c²
The ellipse. = r, a > c. x = a cost, y = b sin t.
ac cos 0
a2 c2
The hyperbola . = r, a < c. x = a sect, y = b tan t.
ac cos @

The parabola. 2p = r. x = t2 9 y = t.
1 cos 0 4p

EXERCISES
1. Find the lengths of the axes, the distance between the foci, and the
eccentricity of each of the following curves.
(a) 9 y² + 4x² = 36 . (b) 7 x² + 11 y2 = 15.
(c) 100 y² - 25 x² = — 2500. ( d) 17 x² -
— 25 y² :== 116.
(e) 64 y² + 25 x² = 1600. (f) 64 y² - 25 x² ==- 1600.
2. Show that the points (-4, -2 ) , (2 , 1 ) , ( −6, 3) , (0 , 0) , and
(2, - 1 ) lie upon two straight lines. What are the equations of these lines ?
3. The semiaxes of an ellipse are 6 and 4. Find the length of the latus
rectum .
4. Write the polar equation of the hyperbola, if the transverse axis is 6
and the distance between the foci is 10. For what values of 0 is r infinite ?
5. If the perpendicular to the major axis of an ellipse at the point D
meets the major auxiliary circle in P and the ellipse in P' , prove that
DP: DP : a : b,
where a and b are the semiaxes.
6. In geometry it is shown that the areas of rectangles having the same
width are to each other as their lengths. Combining this proposition with
that in the preceding exercise , show that the area of the major auxiliary
circle is to the area of the ellipse as a is to b, and hence the area of_the
ellipse is Tab.
7. If the major auxiliary circle is rotated around the major axis of the
b
ellipse until its plane makes an angle whose cosine is with the plane of
a
the ellipse, and if perpendiculars be dropped from every point of the circle
upon the plane of the ellipse, show that the feet of these perpendiculars lie
upon the ellipse.
 CHAPTER V

EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

63. Locus of an equation. The curve which passes through

all the points whose coördinates satisfy a given equation, and
through no other points, is called the locus of the given equation .
64. A second fundamental problem. In the last chapter we
have found the equations of a number of important loci from
given laws. There now arises a second fundamental problem of
analytic geometry ; namely, given an equation connecting the varia-
bles x and y, to construct the locus of the equation and to discover the
important properties of the locus.
In simple cases the general form of the locus can be determined
by plotting (Art. 27) . But this method alone often fails to reveal
the important properties of the locus, and, at best, leaves wholly
undetermined the form of the locus between consecutive points
plotted . A discussion of the given equation, however, will
reveal certain properties of the locus which, together with a few
plotted points, will determine frequently the form and nature of
the locus.

65. Discussion of an equation. The method to be followed

must depend upon the particular equation under discussion, but
the following outline will serve to indicate what to look for in
any given case.
(a) Symmetry (cf. Art. 29).
(1) If the given equation contains only even powers of y, the
locus is symmetrical with respect to the X-axis. For then, if
P(a, b) is any point on the locus, Q (a, - b) is also on the locus.
(2) If the given equation contains only even powers of x, the
locus is symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis. For then, if
P(a, b) is any point on the locus, Q ( a, b) is also on the locus.
(3) If the given equation contains only even powers of x and of
77
78 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP . V.

y, the locus is symmetrical with respect to the origin. For then,

if P(a, b) is any point on the locus, Q ( a, - b) is also on the
locus.
(4) If the given equation is unaltered when x and y are inter-
changed, the locus is symmetrical with respect to the line bisect-
ing the first and third quadrants. For then, if P(a, b) is any
point on the locus, Q (b, a) is also on the locus ( cf. Art. 39).
(b) Intercepts (cf. Art. 30). The determination of the inter-
cepts furnishes a good point from which to begin the construction
of the locus.
(c) Limits of the locus. It frequently happens that to certain
values of either variable there correspond no real values of the
other. There is no corresponding real point in such a case .
Hence, the locus is confined to those parts of the plane such that to
each value of either variable there corresponds a real value of the
other. For example, the locus of the equation y² = 2 x (Art. 28)
is confined to the part of the plane to the right of the Y-axis.
Whenever to any value of either variable there corresponds no
real value of the other, the locus is said to be limited . The equa-
tion of a limited locus, if it is algebraic, must establish at least
one of the variables as a multiple-valued function of the other.
For in no other way can imaginary values appear. The converse
does not hold, for an equation which establishes one variable as a
multiple-valued function of the other does not necessarily have a
limited locus . Thus, the equation y22 = establishes y as a
multiple-valued function of x, but for no value of either variable
is the other ever imaginary .
. (d) Change of one variable due to a given variation of the other
(Art. 27) . It is important to determine from the equation how
increasing or decreasing one variable will affect the other.
example, if x is allowed to increase in value, will y increase or
decrease in value ? In other words, to determine whether y is a
monotone function or not ; and, if not, for what values of x it is
increasing, for what values it is decreasing, and, if possible, for
what values of x it has turning points .
(e) Behavior of the locus at great distances from the origin.
It is also important to determine from the equation how in-
creasing either variable indefinitely will affect the other.
ART. 66] EXAMPLE I 79

The discussion of an equation according to the foregoing out-

line will be illustrated in the following examples .

66. Example I. Discuss the equation x² + 4 y² = 4 and construct the

locus.
(a) Assume any point P(a, b ) whose coördinates satisfy the given equa-
tion ( Fig. 49 ) . Then the coördinates of the points Q (a, - b ) , S( — a, b),

Pla

Qla-by

FIG. 49

and R( — a, — b ) also satisfy the equation . Hence the locus is symmetrical

with respect to both axes, and also with respect to the origin.
(b) The x-intercepts are +2 and the y-intercepts are +1.
(c) Solving the equation for y, we have
-
y= 2 (1)

from which it is seen that x is limited to the range of values extending from
- 2 to 2 in order that y may have real values. The range of values for x
is indicated by writing
- 2≤ x ≤ +2.
The locus is thus limited to lie between the lines x = - 2 and x = 2 , or the
lines AB and CD in the figure.
Again, solving the equation for x, we obtain
x = ± 2√1 — y². (2)
Hence y is limited to the range
-1≤y≤1

in order that x may have real values. The locus, therefore, lies between the
lines = + 1 and y -- 1, or the lines BC and AD in the figure. The locus,
therefore, lies wholly within the rectangle ABCD.
(d) From equation ( 1 ) it follows that as x increases or decreases from
zero, the positive value of y decreases, and the negative value increases.
80 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP . V.

Hence we conclude that + 2 is a maximum value of y, and — 2 is a minimum

value.
Similar conclusions with respect to the values of x can be drawn from
equation (2 ) .
The foregoing discussion reveals the general form and properties of the
locus. The curve is an ellipse.

67. Example II. Discuss the equation x² - 4 y² = 4 and find the form
and general properties of the locus.
(a) The locus is symmetrical with respect to each axis and with respect to
the origin as in Example I.
(b) The intercepts on the X-axis are 2 ; the locus does not meet the
Y-axis.
(c) Solving the equation for y, we have
4
y= (1)
2

Here y is imaginary for all values of x within the range from -2 to +2.
Hence the range for x is
-2≥x≥2

FIG. 50

in order that y may have real values. The locus, therefore, lies outside the
strip bounded by the lines x = −- 2 and x = +2 (Fig. 50) .
Solving the equation for x, we have
x = ± 2√1 + y².
ARTS. 67, 68] EXAMPLE III 81

Hence x is real for all values of y. The locus is therefore unlimited in the
y-direction.
(d) From equation ( 1 ) , as x increases from 2, the positive value of y
increases continually and without limit, but as x increases from a large
negative value to - 2, the positive value of y continually decreases to zero.
Combining these facts with the symmetry in (a) , we conclude that the locus
spreads out as it recedes from the origin in either direction.
(e) As хx increases indefinitely, the values of y approach nearer and nearer
to + х.. For the radical √x² - 4 is clearly always less than x in value, but
2
for very great values of x, the difference
4
x - √x² 4= 9
x + √x² - 4

is very small and can be made as small as we please by choosing x sufficiently

great. Therefore, at great distances from the origin, the locus lies close to
the straight lines
х
y=±

These lines are called asymptotes. The X-axis bisects one of the angles
between the asymptotes and the locus lies within this angle, one branch on
each side of the origin. The curve is an hyperbola.

EXERCISES

1. Discuss the following equations and draw the corresponding loci :

(a) 4x² + 9 y² = 36 . (b) 4 x² -— 9 y² = 36. (c) y² = 16 x. (d) x² = 9 y.
(e) x² -
— y² = 4. (J) x + y = 4 . (g) y² = 4x².
2. Find the lengths of the axes, the distance between the foci and the
eccentricity of the ellipse in exercise 1.
3. Find the lengths of the axes, the distance between the foci , and the
eccentricity of the two hyperbolas in exercise 1 .
4. Find the equations of the asymptotes for each of the hyperbolas in ex-
ercise 1.
5. Find the coördinates of the focus for each of the parabolas in exer-
cise 1.

68. Example III. Discuss the equation xy - x - y = 0 and find the

form and properties of the locus.
(a) The locus is obviously not symmetrical with respect to either axis nor
with respect to the origin. It is , however, symmetrical with respect to a line
bisecting the first and third quadrants, since if P(a, b ) is any point whose
coördinates satisfy the equation, then the coördinates of the point Q(b, a)
82 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

also satisfy the equation. The points P and Q are symmetrically situated
with respect to the line OA (Fig. 51) .
(b) The locus crosses the coördinate axes only at the origin. The inter-
cept on each axis is therefore zero.

FIG. 51

(c) The locus is not limited in either direction, since each variable is real
for all values of the other.
(d) Solving the equation for y, we have
x •
y= (1)
X —1

Hence, as x increases from a large negative value, y continually decreases

from a value less than 1 , through zero, becoming -— ∞ for x equal to 1. As
x passes the value 1 , y changes suddenly to a very great positive value and
then continually decreases, approaching nearer and nearer to 1. The func-
tion y is therefore monotone. It has a discontinuity at x = 1 .
(e) From equation (1) we see that y approaches nearer and nearer to 1
as x increases or decreases indefinitely. For very great values of x, there-
fore, the locus lies close to the line y = 1. This line is an asymptote to the
curve.
Similarly, solving the equation for x, the line x = 1 is found to be an
asymptote ; that is, for very great values of y the locus lies close to this line.
The above discussion enables us to form a fairly accurate idea of the locus
before any plotting has been done.
x and find the form
69. Example IV. Discuss the equation y =
1 + x²
and properties of the locus.
ARTS. 69, 70] EXAMPLE V 83

(a) The locus is not symmetrical with respect to either axis, but it is
symmetrical with respect to the origin , since if P(a, b) is any point on the
locus, so also is the point Q ( - a, -
— b ) on the locus ( Fig. 52) .

#1+ 0 -3

FIG. 52

(b) The locus crosses the axes only at the origin .

(c) The locus is unlimited in the x-direction , since y is real for all values
of x. But if we solve the equation for x, we obtain

y2
x = 1 + VI - 4y²
2y
and therefore y is limited to the range
-} ≤y≤}
in order that x may have real values. Consequently the locus lies within
the strip bounded by the lines y = - and y = +1.
(d) and (e) . As x increases from zero to 1 , y increases from zero to ;
and as x increases indefinitely from 1 , y decreases slowly from towards
zero. Hence the function y has a turning point at x = 1 and its value there
ist. Also for very great positive values of x, the locus lies close to the
X-axis. Since the locus is symmetrical with respect to the origin, its form
to the left of the origin is known as soon as its form to the right has been
determined. We conclude, therefore, that the function has a turning point
at x = - 1 and that the X-axis is an asymptote to the curve.

x² (b - and find the form

70. Example V. Discuss the equation y² = 3x x)
+b
and properties of the locus.
84 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

(a) The locus is clearly symmetrical with respect to the X-axis ; it is not
symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis, since the equation contains odd powers
of x.
(b) For the purpose of discussion we will suppose that b is a positive
number (Fig. 53) . The locus crosses both axes at the origin and also crosses
the X-axis at x = b.

FIG. 53

(c) From the equation we see that x is limited to the range

- <x<b

in order that y may have real values. The locus therefore lies between the
lines x = - and x = b.
3
(d) As x increases from zero to b, the absolute value of y at first increases
and then decreases to zero. This shows that the locus has a loop at the right
b
of the origin. As x decreases from zero to - the absolute value of y in-
3'
b b
creases very rapidly from zero, becoming infinite at x = — · The line x= - 3
3
is an asymptote to the curve. The locus is called the folium of Descartes .

EXERCISES
1. Discuss the following equations and plot the corresponding loci. Find
the asymptotes when these exist.
ART. 71] EXAMPLE VI 85

(a) xy −x + y = 0. (b) y24x24. (c) x² + y¹ = a }.

x 1
(d) x²y² = (y + 2)²(9 — y²) . = x²²
(e) y = 1 - (f) y =
(x -
− 2) ²°
2. Find the lengths of the semiaxes , the coördinates of the foci, and the
eccentricity of the hyperbola whose equation is ( b ) of the previous exercise.
NOTE. The locus ( d) in exercise 1 is called the conchoid of Nicomedes.

71. Example VI. Discuss the equation of the catenary ; namely,

y = (e" + e ") , and plot the locus .

The equations discussed in the foregoing examples are algebraic equations

and the corresponding loci are called algebraic curves. The locus of a tran-
scendental equation is called a transcendental curve. Thus the catenary is a
transcendental curve.
(a) The locus is symmetrical with respect to the Y-axis, since changing
the sign of x does not alter the equation . The locus is not symmetrical with
respect to the X-axis , since for every value of x, y is positive. The curve
therefore lies entirely above the X-axis.
(b) The curve meets the Y-axis a units above the origin. It does not meet
the X-axis.
(c) The locus is un-
limited in the x-direction ,
since y is real for every
value of x.
(d) and (e) As x in-
creases from zero, y also
2
increases, since neither ea
nor ea can ever become
negative. We conclude ,
therefore, that the function
y has a turning point at the
origin and that its value N
there is a minimum. B"
A a B'
To plot the locus, we con-
10
struct the auxiliary curves
x 2
y₁ = ea and y2 = e a FIG. 54
as in Art. 37, taking a for
the unit of measure. These curves are respectively AB and A'B' (Fig. 54) .
The required locus,
y = ?1+ 2 "
2
bisects the segment of each ordinate contained between the auxiliary curves.
86 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

The catenary is the curve formed by a flexible chain hung between two
supports. It is of great importance in problems connected with the con-
struction of suspension bridges.

72. Simple harmonic curves, compound harmonic curves. The

loci of the equations
2 пх
y = a sin = a cos 2 πω
and y =
T T

are called simple harmonic curves . They are constructed as in

Art. 35. Simple harmonic curves represent simple vibratory
or wave motion like that of a swinging pendulum carried forward
with a uniform velocity in a straight line perpendicular to the
plane in which the pendulum is swinging . The number a is
called the amplitude of the vibration, and T, the period (cf.
exercises, Art. 35).
The loci of equations of the form
2 πω 2 πα 2 πα 2 πα
y = a sin b sin or y = a sin + b cos
T Ꭲ, T₁ T₂

are called compound harmonic curves. To construct a compound

harmonic curve, we plot each of the simple harmonic curves of
which it is composed on the same coördinate axes and take the
algebraic sum of the ordinates for any particular value of x as the
ordinate of the required curve for that value of x.
In general, to construct the locus of an equation of the form
.

y = fi(x) ±ƒ2(x),

plot each of the auxiliary curves

y₁ = f (x) and y½ = ƒ2(x)

on the same coördinate axes and take the algebraic sum of the
ordinates for any particular value of x as the ordinate of the
required locus for that value of x.
Compound harmonic curves occur in the theories of sound,
light, and electricity . Several simple harmonic curves may be
combined to form a compound harmonic curve.
ARTS. 72, 73] DAMPED VIBRATIONS 87

EXERCISES
1. If a pendulum makes 4 complete vibrations per second , show that its
period is T = 4. If the amplitude of the vibration is 2 , show that the motion
of a point on the pendulum is given by the equation y = 2 sin 8 πx, where x
represents time measured in seconds. Construct the locus of the equation.
2. Construct the loci of the following equations :
(a) y = ex + sin x. (b) y = x + sin x. (c) y = 2x - cos x.
(d) y = sin x + sin 2 x. (e) y = x² + 2º. (f) y = x - sin 2 x.
3. The piston of an engine is connected to the drive wheel by a connecting
rod. If the crank pin describes a circle whose radius is 2 feet and makes 200
revolutions per second, what is the amplitude and the period of the
harmonic motion described by the piston ? Write the equation expressing
this motion.

73. Damped vibrations. The loci of equations of the form

.
y = ae-c² sin kx or y = α e-c² x cos kx

represent damped vibrations such as a pendulum vibrating in a

FIG. 55

resisting medium . To illustrate the method of plotting the loci

of such equations, we will construct the locus of the equation

пх •
y = e * sin
2
88 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

Since the absolute value of the sine can never exceed unity,
we see that the absolute value of y can never exceed the value of
пх
e . Again, when x is any odd integer, sin is either +1 or
2
- πX
— 1 , and when x is an even integer, sin is zero . Hence we
2
conclude that the required locus lies between the two curves
y = e¯** and y = - (1)

and crosses the X-axis whenever x is an even integer.

The two curves in (1 ) can be constructed as in Art. 37, and are
called boundary curves. The locus is shown in Fig. 55, where AB
and A'B' are the boundary curves.
In general, the loci of equations of the form
y =f(x) sin k or y = f(x) cos kæ

can be constructed by first plotting the loci of the boundary curves

y =f(x) and y = f(x).

EXERCISES
1. Construct the following loci :
(a) y = x sin x. (b) y = x cos x.
x пх 1
(c) y = 3 sin 3 • (d) y = sin x.
x
(e) y = x² sin x. (ƒ) y = e- sin x.
x2 пх
(g) y ex sin x. (h) y = (3 + 18 ) sin T.
16
2. Discuss the equation y² = x sin² x and construct the locus.

74. Polar equations. When the given equation is in polar

coördinates, the main facts about the locus can also be determined
by a discussion of the equation. The points to be determined by
the discussion are the following :
(a) Symmetry with respect to the pole.
(1) The locus is symmetrical with respect to the pole if, for
any given value of 0, the equation is satisfied by both r and
-r. This will happen when the equation contains only even
powers of r.
ARTS. 74, 75] EXAMPLE IX 89

(2) The locus is symmetrical with respect to the pole if, when-
ever the equation is satisfied by a point (r, 0), it is also satisfied
by (r, 0 + 180°) . For then the locus cuts each radius vector at
points equidistant from the pole.
(b) Points where the locus crosses the initial line. These are
found by putting 0 = 0, or 180°, and solving the resulting equa-
tion for r. If the equation obtained by putting r = 0 in the given
equation is satisfied by some value, or values, of 0, then the locus
passes through the pole.
(c) Limits of the locus. These are determined by finding the
ranges of values of each variable for which the other has real values.
(d) Change of one variable due to a given variation of the other.
It is important to determine from the equation how increasing or
decreasing either variable will affect the other.

75. Example IX. Discuss the equation r = cos 20.

(a) Since r = cos 2 0 := cos 2 (0 + 180°) , the locus is symmetrical with
respect to the pole.
(b) When equals zero or 180°, r = 1. Hence the locus crosses the
initial line on opposite sides of the pole and at a unit's distance from the
pole. Again, r = 0 for
0 = 45°, 135°, 225°, or 315°.
Therefore the locus passes
through the pole four times
during one complete revo-
lution of the radius vector.
(c) The radius vector is
real for every value of 0,
but since cos 2 0 can never
be greater than unity, the
locus is entirely contained
within the circle whose ra-
dius is 1.
(d) As varies from
45° to + 45°, r is posi-
tive and the point (r, 0)
describes the loop to the
right of the pole. Between
45° and 135°, cos 20, and FIG. 56
therefore r, is negative and
the point (r, e) describes the loop below the pole. Between 135° and 225° r
is again positive and the point ( r, e) describes the loop to the left of the pole.
90 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

Finally, between 225° and 315°, r is negative and the point (r, 0) describes
the loop above the pole.
The locus is one of a family of curves known as 66 rose curves 99 from the
form (Fig. 56).

76. Example X. Discuss the equation r2 = a2 cos 2 0.

(a) The locus is symmetrical with respect to the pole , since the equation
contains only the second power of r.
(b) The locus crosses the initial line at the points for which ra and
also at the pole.
(c) The radius vector can be real only when has a value between - 45°
and + 45° or between 135° and 225°. For all other positions of the radius
vector, cos 2 0 is negative and consequently r is imaginary.

FIG. 57

(d) As e increases from 0° to 45°, the absolute value of r decreases from

a to 0. Again, as e increases from -45° to 0° the absolute value of r
increases from 0 to a. The locus consists, therefore, of two loops as shown
in Fig. 57.
ARTS. 76 , 77] TRANSFORMATION OF THE AXES 91

EXERCISES
1. Discuss the following equations and construct the corresponding loci :
(a) ra cos 3 0. (b) r = a sin 3 0. (c) r = 1 + cos 0.
1
(d) r = (e) r1 cos 0.
1 + cos 0
2. Discuss the equations r = a cos no and ra sin ne for n an even
integer ; for n an odd integer. What is the difference in the form of the
curve ?
3. Discuss the equation r = a tane and draw the corresponding locus.
4. Change the equation in Example X, Art. 76, to rectangular coördi-
nates and compare with Art. 54. What is the locus ?
b2
5. Discuss the equation r = 9 first when c >a and then when
ac cos @
c <a. What are the loci ?
6. Discuss the equation r - 2 a sin 0 tane and draw the locus. The
curve is called the cissoid of Diocles.

7. Discuss the equation r2 = The locus is the lituus.

8. Discuss the equation raº. The locus is the logarithmic spiral .

TRANSFORMATION OF COÖRDINATES

77. Transformation of the axes. The equation of a given locus

can be simplified often by changing the axes to a new position in

Pozy

FIG. 58

the plane, and then finding the equation which the new coördinates
of the points on the locus satisfy. The operation of changing the
92 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

axes is called transformation of coördinates, and the process of

finding the new equation from the old is called transformation of
the equation.
When the new axes O'X' and O'Y ' are respectively parallel
to the old axes OX and OY (Fig. 58), the transformation is
called translation of the axes. Let the coördinates of the new
origin O' , referred to the old axes, be h and k ; the coördinates of
any point P, referred to the old axes, be x and y ; and the coördi-
nates of P, referred to the new axes, be x' and y' . Then, from
either of the positions of O' shown in Fig. 58 (cf. Art. 3), we
have
OD = OE + ED and DP DD' + D'P
= h + x' = k + y'.
Hence, x = h + x' and y = k + y'. (1)
It is clear that equations (1) hold wherever the point O' may
be situated, provided the new axes have the same direction as the
old.

Example. Transform the equation y = 2x + 3 by translating the axes

so that the new origin shall be the point ( 1, 5) .
Here, for any point (x, y) in the plane,
and hence for any point on the locus of
the given equation,
x= 1 + x and y = 5+ y'.

Therefore, in terms of x' and y' , the

given equation becomes
5+ y' = 2 (1 + x' ) , or y' = 2 x' . (2)

The given equation y = 2x + 3

and the new equation y' = 2 x' repre-
sent the same locus ; namely, the
FIG. 59
straight line shown in Fig. 59. The
origin is, in the one case, at O, and in the other, at O '.

78. Rotation of the axes. When the origin is not moved, but
the axes are each rotated through a given angle, the transforma-
tion is called rotation of the axes.
To obtain the equations for rotating the axes, let P be any
point in the plane ( Fig. 60) whose coördinates referred to the old
ART. 78] ROTATION OF THE AXES 93

axes are (x, y), and referred to the new axes are (x ' , y') . Let the
angle XOX ' , through which the axes are rotated, be denoted by
Y

D'
а

D X

FIG. 60

0, the angle XOP by 4, and the angle X'OP by α. If OP = r,

then
x = r cos & = r cos (0 + α) = r cos e cos α - r sine sin Ob,
y = r sin & = r sin (0 + α) = r sin 0 cos a + r cos é sin α.

But r cos a = x' and r sin α = y' ; and therefore

x = x' cos - y' sin 0,

(1)
y = x' sine + y' cos 0 .

These equations express the old coördinates of any point in

terms of the new coördinates. To obtain the new coördinates
in terms of the old, we can solve equations (1 ) for x' and y' , or
we can derive x' and y' directly from the figure. In either way
we find
x' = x cos 0 + y sin 0,
(2)
y' = y cos 0 -x sin 0.

Example. Transform the equation 24 xy - 7 y² = 144 by rotating the

axes through the acute angle whose tangent is .
94 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. V.

Here sin = and cos 0= , hence the equations for rotating the axes are
x= x - y',
y = x' + y'.
Substituting in the given equation and reducing, we have
- 16 y'²
9 x'2 — y2
y/2 = 144, or 2/2-1/2-= 1.
16 9

The given equation, therefore, represents an hyperbola whose semiaxes are

4 and 3.
EXERCISES
1. Transform the equation 3x + 7y = 8 to a new set of axes parallel to
the old set, and having the point (4, - 2) as origin.
2. Show that the equation x2 + y² = a2 is unaltered by rotating the axes
through any angle 0. What is the geometrical interpretation of this fact ?
3. Transform the equation x2 y2 10 by rotating the axes through an
angle of 45°.
4. Transform the equation x + y = a by first translating the axes
and then
parallel to themselves , the new origin being at the point (4 , 4) ,
rotating the new axes through the angle 45°. What is the locus of the
resulting equation ? What is the locus of the original equation ?

79. Removal of terms of first degree. When the given equation

is an algebraic equation of the second degree in the variables and
contains terms of the
first degree, the latter
can often be removed
by translating the axes
to a new origin, as il-
lustrated by the follow-
ing example.
Example. Given the
equation 4 x2 +9 y2-16x
— 18 y = 11. Translate the
axes so as to remove the
terms of first degree.
FIG. 61 Substituting for x and
y their values in terms
of x and y' , equations (1) , Art. 77, we have
4(x + h)² + 9(y' + k) ² - 16 (x' + h ) 1
— 18 (y' + k) = 11 .
ARTS. 79 , 80] REMOVAL OF THE TERM IN xy 95

The coefficients of x' and y' in this new equation are respectively 8 h - 16
and 18k -— 18. Hence , if we choose h = 2 and k = 1 , the terms of first degree
will drop out of the new equation and it reduces to
4x/2 + 9 y'² = 36.

This equation represents an ellipse whose semiaxes are 3 and 2, hence the
given equation represents this ellipse . Figure 61 shows the curve and both
sets of coördinate axes.

80. Removal of the term in xy. The term in xy can be removed

from an equation of the second degree by rotating the axes
through the proper angle. This is illustrated in Art. 78.

As another example, we will remove the term in xy from the equation

x² + 2xy + 2 y2 — 4 = 0.
Substituting the values of x and y from equations ( 1 ) , Art. 78, and collecting
terms, the given equation becomes
(cos² + 2 sin² 0 + 2 cos 0 sin 0) x/2 + (2 cos 0 sin 0 + 2 cos² 0 - 2 sin² 0) x'y' +
(sin² + 2 cos² 0.- 2 sin 0 cos 0) y/2 — 4 = 0 . (1)
Putting the coefficient of x'y' equal to zero, we have the equation
2 cos 0 sin + 2 (cos² 0 -
— sin² 0) = 0,
from which to determine e. But this equation is equivalent to
sin 20 + 2 cos 200 or tan 20 = 2.
Therefore 20 = arc tan ( -2 ) = 116° 34' , nearly, or 0 = 58° 17' , nearly.
Since tan 20 - 2,

sin 20 2
we have " cos 20 =
√5 √5

Hence, cos2 0 = 1+ cos 20 V5-1 ,

2 2√5

sin20 = 1 cos 20 = √5 + 1 .9
√2 2√5

and sin @ cos 0 = sin 20 = 1

2 √5
Substituting these values in ( 1 ) , it reduces to
x/2 y/2 - 2.
+
3 - √5 3+ √5
Hence the given equation represents an ellipse.
96 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [ CHAP. V.

EXERCISES
1. Remove the terms of first degree and then the term in xy from the
equations
(a) xy — x − y = 0 ; ( b ) xy − x + y = 0.
What are the loci which these equations represent ?
2. Show that the terms of first degree cannot be removed from the
equation 16 x2 - 24 xy + 9 y² - 20 x - 110 y +225 = 0.

Try to generalize this result so as to tell at a glance whether the terms of

first degree can be removed or not from any equation of the second degree.
3. Given the equation x³.- 3 axy + y³ = 0. Rotate the axes through the
angle 45° and compare the resulting equation with Example V, Art. 70.
What locus does the given equation represent ?
4. In exercise 2, rotate the axes through the angle = arc tan } and
then translate the axes, taking for new origin the point (2, 1 ) . What locus
does the equation represent ?

81. Classification of algebraic curves.

THEOREM. The degree of an algebraic equation in the variables x
and y is unaltered by transformation of coördinates.
For, in transforming the equation by translation or rotation of
the axes we replace x and y by expressions of the first degree in
x' and y' and therefore the degree of the equation cannot be raised
by this process. Neither can it be lowered, for then it would be
necessary to raise the degree in transforming back to the original
axes, and we have just seen that the degree cannot be raised by a
transformation of coördinates. Since the degree cannot be raised
or lowered by a transformation of coördinates, it must remain
unaltered.
Because of the theorem just proved, algebraic curves can be
classified conveniently according to the degree of their equations,
since we now know that the degree of the equation is independent
of the position of the axes with reference to the curve.
If the degree of a given algebraic equation is any integer n,
the corresponding curve is said to be of order n. The straight
line is the only locus of order 1 (Art. 47) . The circle, the ellipse,
the hyperbola, and the parabola are all loci of order 2. The
folium of Descartes is a locus of order 3 (Art. 70). The ovals of
Cassini are loci of order 4 (Art. 54) .
ART. 81 ] CLASSIFICATION OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES 97

The succeeding chapters will be devoted to a special study of

loci of orders 1 and 2.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

1. Show that the triangle whose vertices are (3, 2 ) , ( — 1, − 3) , and

(-6, 1) is a right triangle.
2. On the line y - 50 a segment is laid off, having for abscissas ofits
extremities 2 and 5, and upon this segment an equilateral triangle is con-
structed . What are the coördinates of its third vertex ?
3. Find the coördinates of the point dividing the segment (5, 2) to
(4,7 ) in the ratio 4 : 7.
b
4. Change the polar equation r = a + to one in rectangular coördi-
cos 0
nates. Plot the locus.
5. Remove the terms of first degree from the equation 4 x² +9y - 8 y — 6 = 0
and plot the resulting equation .
6. Find the rectangular equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
whose polar equation is
r= 7
4 cos 0 - 3

7. Discuss the equation y² = 4 x² 23 and plot the locus. Write the

parametric equations of the locus if y = tx, t being the parameter.
8. Discuss the equation y² =x² 2+ and plot the locus. Write the para-
2-х
metric equations if y = tx.
9. Write the parametric equations of the locus of + y = α • assuming
x = a cos¹ 0.
10. OB is the crank of an engine and AB the connecting rod, A being
the piston. A moves in a straight line passing through O. Find the equa-
tion of the locus of any point P on the connecting rod . Let P be a units
from A and b units from B, and let r be the length of the crank, OB. Dis-
cuss the equation and plot the locus. Write the parametric equations of the
locus, assuming y = a sin 0. What is the locus when r = a + b ?
11. Discuss the equation y² (a - — x) -
− x² ( a + x ) = 0 , and plot the locus.
The curve is called the strophoid .
x2
12. Construct the locus of y = sin 2x + ; of y = e-x + 4x² ; of
1 10
y = • COS X.
х
13. Discuss the equation r² = a² sin 2 0 and plot the locus.
14. Discuss the equation r2 = a2 tan @ and plot the locus.
 CHAPTER VI

LOCI OF FIRST ORDER

82. Linear equations. We have seen (Art. 47) that the equa-
tion of every straight line is of the first degree in x and y ; and
conversely, that every equation of first degree in x and y is the
equation of a straight line. For this reason, an equation of the
first degree in x and y is called a linear equation.
Every linear equation is of the form .
Ax + By + C = 0, (1)
where A, B, and C are constants. These constants can have any
values, except that A and B cannot both be zero, for then the equa-
tion would contain neither variable. If A is zero, (1) is the equation
C
of a line parallel to the X-axis, for then y has the value - - for
B
all values of x. If B is zero, (1 ) is the equation of a line parallel
C
to the Y-axis, for then x has the value for all values of y.
A
Finally, if C is zero, (1) is the equation of a line passing through
the origin, for then the equation is satisfied when x = 0 and y = 0.
For A, B, C different from zero, the slope of the line is given
by the formula
m =-一

and the intercepts a, b on the X and Y-axes by

C
α = - C and b
A B
respectively.
EXERCISES
1. Find the slopes and intercepts of the lines whose equations are the
following :
(a) x + √3 y + 10 = 0. (b) y = x - 6.
(c) 5x - 12 y = 13. (d) 2x - 3y = 4.
98
ARTS. 82, 83] INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES 99

(e) x — α = 0. (f) 4y + 3x = 24.

(g) 5x + 4y = 20. (h) 2x - 4y + 9 = 0.
(i) 2x + 3y = 0. (j) y = 4.
(k) Ax + By + C = 0. (1) (a² 1
— b²)x = (a + b) y + c.
2. If a and b represent the intercepts on the X- and Y-axes respectively,
and m the slope, determine the equations of the lines for which
(1) a = 2, b = — 3 . (2 ) a = −- 1 , m = 4.
(3) b = 3, m = -- 2. (4) m = — 5, a = -2.-
(5) a == 2, and passing through the point (4, - — 3) .
(6) Passing through the points ( — 1 , 2) and (5 , −4) .
B Α
(7) a = 5, m = - Ꮯ

83. Intersection of two lines. The coördinates of the point of

intersection of two lines must satisfy the equation of each line,
since the point lies on each line. To find the coördinates of the
point of intersection it is only necessary, therefore, to solve the
equations simultaneously for x and y. For example, x3 = and
-
y = 4 is the common solution of the two equations x y + 1 = 0
and 4x + y160 ; and these are the equations of two straight
lines which intersect in the point (3, 4).
In general, two straight lines intersect in one and only one
point. But they may be :
(1) Parallel to each other.
(2) Coincident .
In the first case the slopes of the lines are equal and their
equations have no common solution . For example, the equations

2x - 3y = 4 and 2x - 3y = 7 (1)

are the equations of a pair of parallel lines, since the slope of

each is . The equations have no common solution. The equa-
tions of a pair of parallel lines are called incompatible or inconsist-
ent.* Thus equations (1) are incompatible. Obviously 2x - 3y
cannot be 4 and 7 at the same time for any values of x and y.
In the second case the slopes of the lines are also equal, but
their equations have an indefinite number of common solutions,
since any pair of values of x and y that satisfies one equation must
also satisfy the other. The equations, therefore, can differ only

* See Rietz and Crathorne, College Algebra, p. 49.

100 LOCI OF FIRST ORDER [CHAP . VI.

by a constant factor. The equations of a pair of coincident lines

are called dependent. Thus, the equations
2 x - 3y = 4 and 4x - 6y = 8

are dependent and are the equations of a pair of coincident lines.

EXERCISES
1. Find the intersections of the lines represented by the following pairs
of equations. Tell which are inconsistent and which are dependent equations.
(a) 2x + 3y = 12, 4x - y = 5. (b) 3x + 5y = 1 , 6x + 10 y + 7 = 0.
(c) 5x - 2y + 4 = 0 , x − ..4y = — .8. ( d) x + 3y = 15 , 3 x − y = 5.
Draw the lines in each case.
2. Write an equation representing the same straight line as 5x +4y - 20 = 0
in which the sum of the coefficients shall be 22 ; in which the product of the
first and third coefficients shall be equal to the second.
3. Change the equation 3x - 4y + 120 into another representing the
same straight line and having the square of the second coefficient equal to
twice the third minus four times the first ; having the product of all three
coefficients equal to minus three times the last.
4. The equations 5 x - −2y- − 3 = 0 and Ax + By + C = 0 are dependent
and B² + 2 (A + C
') = 24. Find A, B, and C.

84. The pencil of lines. Let u = 0 and v = 0 be the equations of

two straight lines, then the equation
u + kv = 0 (1)
is the equation of a straight line passing through the intersection of
u = 0 and v = 0, whatever value is given to k.
Here u and v are each expressions of the first degree in x and
y and therefore u + kv = O is the equation of some straight line
(Art. 47). Moreover, u + kv = 0 is satisfied by the coördinates
of the point of intersection of u = O and v = 0 and therefore it is
the equation of a straight line passing through the intersection
of u = 0 and v == 0.
If k is allowed to vary, a series of lines is obtained each pass-
ing through the intersection of u = 0 and v = 0. The totality of
lines so obtained is called a pencil of lines (Fig. 62) .
The constant k can be determined so that the line u + kv = 0
shall satisfy any single condition, such as passing through a given
point, having a given slope, etc.
ART. 84] THE PENCIL OF LINES 101

Example. Find the equation of the

line passing through the intersection of
2x + 3y - 40 and x + 2y - 5 = 0
and also through the point (2, 3) .
The line whose equation is required
is one of the pencil A₁ B
2 x + 3y − 4 + k (x + 2 y -− 5) = 0. (2 ) x + ₁y + C₁ = 0

A2x
B+ 2y
Since the line is to pass through the

=C₂
0
+
point (2, 3 ) , these coördinates must

MA
·
satisfy the equation. Hence k = 3.
Substituting this value of k in (2) , we
have the required equation,
x+ 3y - 11 = 0.
This result may be verified by solving
the given equations simultaneously and
then finding the equation of the line
passing through the common point and
the point (2 , 3) in the usual way.* FIG. 62

EXERCISES

1. What is the equation of the line passing through the origin and through
the intersection of the lines x + 3y - 8 = 0 and 4x - 5y = 10 ?
2. The equations of the sides of a triangle are 5x- 6 y = 16, 4x + 5y = 20,
and x + 2y = 0. Find the equations of the lines passing through the ver-
tices and parallel to the opposite sides.
3. Find the equation of the line which passes through the intersection of
the lines 2x - 3y + 1 = 0 and x + 5y + 6 = 0 and is perpendicular to the
first of these lines . Which is parallel to the line 5 x - y + 10 = 0.
4. What is the equation of the line which passes through the intersection
of the lines y = 7x - 4 and y :=--2x + 5 and makes an angle of 60° with the
positive end of the x-axis ?
5. Find the equation of the line which passes through the intersection of
the lines 5 y 2 x - 100 and y + 4 x - − 3 = 0 , and also through the inter-
section of the lines 10 y + x + 21 = 0 and 3 y - 5 x + 1 = 0 .

SUGGESTION. The equations

5y - 2x - 10+ k (y + 4 x − 3) = 0 and 10 y + x + 21 + k ' ( 3 y − 5x + 1 ) = 0
must be dependent (Art. 83) .

* The theorem of this article holds when u and v are expressions of any degree
in x and y. u + kv = 0 is then the equation of a pencil of curves .
102 LOCI OF FIRST ORDER [CHAP. VI.

85. The pair of lines. Let u = 0 and v = 0 be the equations of

two straight lines, then the locus ofthe equation
u⋅v = 0

is the pair oflines u = 0 and v = 0 taken together.

For the equation u · v = O is satisfied only when one of the
factors, u or v, is equal to zero or when both factors are equal to
zero. But the two straight lines pass through all the points
whose coördinates satisfy the equations u = 0 and v = 0, and
through no others. Consequently these lines, taken together ,
form the locus of the equation u • v = 0 (Art. 63) .*

Example. The locus of the equation x2 - y20 is the pair of lines

x + y = 0 and x --
− y = 0.

EXERCISES

1. Draw the pairs of lines whose equations are the following :

(a) x² + xy = 0. (b) 2x² + 5xy — 3 y² = 0. ( c) x2 – 5x + 6 = 0.
(d) 2 y2 — xy + 4x - 9y + 4 == 0. (e) x2 - y2-2 y −1 = 0.
2. Write the equation of the pair of lines each of which passes through
the origin and whose slopes are respectively √3 and - √3.
3. Write the equation of the pair of lines each of which passes through
the point ( 1, 2 ) and whose slopes are respectively 2 and 1.

86. The normal form . We have seen (Art. 57) that the polar
equation of a straight line is

r cos (0 - α) = p,

where p is the length of the perpendicular from the origin on

the line and a is the inclination of this perpendicular to the
X-axis.
Expanding cos (0 -
— a) , the equation becomes
r(cos e cos a + sin 0 sin x) = p.

Since r cos 0 = x and r sin = y, the equation in rectangular

coördinates is
x cos a + y sin a = p . (1)

* The theorem of this article holds when u and v are expressions of any degree
in x and y. The locus of u v = 0 is then called a composite curve.
ARTS . 85-87] REDUCTION OF Ax + By + C = 0 103

This is called the normal form of

the equation of a straight line (Fig.
63).

87. Reduction of Ax + By + C = 0
P(x, y)
to the normal form. The problem
before us consists in reducing the M
given equation Р

Ax + By + C = 0 (1) D
0
to the form
FIG. 63
x cos ay sina - p = 0. (2)
Since (2) is to be the equation of the same line as (1 ) , the two
equations can differ only by a constant factor (Art. 83) . Hence
we must have
cos akA, sin a = kB, and -p = kC, (3)
where k is the constant factor. From the first two of these equa-
tions, by squaring and adding, we get
1
1 = k²(4² + B²) , or k =
± √A² + B2
Therefore
A B C
COS α = sin a= 9 and - p= (4)
± √A²+ B² ± √A2+B2 ± √A2+ B²
In order to determine which sign shall be given to the radical
in any numerical example, we shall assume that p is always a
AY positive number and then, from
(4), the sign of the radical must
be opposite to the sign of C.
For example, to reduce
3x +4y + 10 = 0 to the normal
X
form, we divide both members
P
=2

of the equation by -√9 + 16

== 5 and obtain

-x - y - 2 = 0.
FIG. 64 Therefore

p = 2, cos α = —-%, sin α = —- , and α = 233° 8'

(Fig. 64).
104 LOCI OF FIRST ORDER [CHAP. VI.

EXERCISES

1. Write the equations of the lines for which :

(a) p = 5, α = 60°. (b) p = 5, α = 120°. (c) p = - 5, α = 330°.
(d) p = 0, α = 225°. (e) p = 1, α = 45° . (f) p = 6, α = —- 60°.

2. Reduce the following equations to the normal form and plot the lines
of which they are the equations :
(a) 4x - 3y = 25. (b) x + 4 = 0. (c) x + 2y = - 8.
(d) 5y - 3 = 0. (e) 2x - y = 0. (f) x - 3y + 4 = 0.

3. What system of lines is given by x cos α + y sin α − p = 0 when a

is constant and p varies ? When p is constant and a varies ?
4. Two lines can be drawn through the point (2 , 5) and tangent to the
circle x² + y² -
= 25. Find the equation of each line. Draw the figure.

88. Distance from a line to a point. With the help of the

normal form of the equation of a straight line, it is easy to find
the length of the perpen-
R dicular DP drawn from a
given line AB to a given
M point P(x , y ) (Fig. 65) .
P(x1 , y1 ) Thus, let the equation of
AB, reduced to the normal
form , be
K
α
D x cos a + y sin a -
− p = 0. (1)
X
Through P draw RS paral-
lel to AB, and let OM = Pi
be the length of the per-
FIG. 65
pendicular from 0 to RS.
Then the normal form of the equation of RS is

x cos ay sin α — p₁ = 0. (2)

Since P is on RS, the coördinates x and y must satisfy (2).

Hence,
x₁ cos a + y₁ sin α == P1. (3)

Subtracting p from both members of (3), we have

x₁ cos α + y₁ sin α - p = p₁ — p = OM — OK = DP.

ARTS. 88, 89] DISTANCE FROM A LINE TO A POINT 105

Hence the following rule :

To find the distance from a line to a point, reduce the equation
of the given line to the normal form with the right member equal to
zero; substitute the coördinates of the given point in the left member.
The result is the required distance.
The sign of the result will be negative when p₁ < p ; that is,
when the given point and the origin are on the same side of the
given line. The sign will be posi-
tive in the contrary case. P(2,3)
Example. Find the distance from the Pi
line 3x + 4y + 12 = 0 to the point (2, 3) .
Here the normal form of the given
equation is
3x + 4y + 12 = 0.
- 5

Substituting 2 and 3 for x and y in the FIG. 66

left member, we find the required distance
is 6. Figure 66 illustrates the example. Note that the given point and
the origin are on the same side of the line.

EXERCISES
1. Find the distance of the point ( 3, 5 ) from the line 2x - 3y + 6 = 0 .
2. Find the distance between the parallel lines 7 x - 8y := 15 and
7x8y = 40.
3. The line 5 x + 12 y = 25 touches a circle whose center is the origin .
Find the radius of the circle and write its equation.
4. The line 6x - 8y:= 15 touches a circle whose center is the point
(-3, 4) . Find the radius of the circle and write its equation.
5. Find the equations of the circles inscribed in the following triangles : —
(a) x + 2y - 5 -= 0, 2 x − y − 5 = 0, 2 x + y + 5 = 0 .
(b ) 3x + y -
− 1 = 0, x -− 3y- − 3 = 0 , x + 3 y + 11 = 0.
(c) x + 2 = 0, y − 3 = 0 , x + y = 0 .
(d) x = 0, y = 0, x + y + 3 = 0 .

89. The angle which one line makes with another. When the
equations of two lines are given, the slopes of the lines are known.
The tangent of the angle which one line makes with the
other can then be computed as in Art. 13. For example, we
will find the angle which the line x + 2y −3 = 0 makes with the
 106 LOCI OF FIRST ORDER [CHAP. VI.

line 3x - y + 4 = 0. Here the slope of the first line is m₁ =-

= &
and the slope of the second line is m₂ = 3. Therefore, by formula
(4), Art. 13, we have
tan & - m2 m1 -3 + 1 /
=--7.
1 + m₁m² 1-3

The angle is approximately 98° 8 '. The student should con-

struct the figure to illustrate this example.

EXERCISES
1. Find the angle which the line 3 x -− y + 2 = 0 makes with the line
2x +y - 2 = 0.
2. Find the angle which the line 2x --- 5y + 10 makes with the line
x - 2y + 3 = 0.
3. Find the angles of the triangle formed by the lines x + 3y -
— 4 = 0,
3 x -· 2y + 10, and x - − y + 3 = 0. Draw the figure .
4. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the two
lines 3x - 4y + 2 = 0 and 4x - 3y - 10 . Show that the bisectors are
1 perpendicular to each other.
SUGGESTION. Any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from
the lines forming the angle.
5. Find the equations of the bisectors of the interior angles of the tri-
angles formed by the lines 5 x – 12 y = 0 , 5 x + 12 y + 60 = 0, and 12 x − 5 y
- 60 = 0. Show that the bisectors meet in a point.
6. Generalize the preceding exercise and thus show that the bisectors of
the interior angles of any triangle meet in a point. Choose the coördinate
axes so that the equations of the sides of the triangle are as simple as possible.
7. Show that, for any straight line,
p 1
COS α ==2 , sin α = 2, and tan α = ——'
a b ‫י‬ m
where a and b are respectively the X- and Y-intercepts, m is the slope, p is
the perpendicular from the origin on the line, and a is the inclination of this
perpendicular to the X-axis.
8. Write the equation of the straight line for which :
(1) a = 3, b ==--2 ; (2) a = 5, p = 3 ; (3) m = 3, p = 5.
9. Of the five numbers a, b, m, p, and a, having given any two, the other
three can, in general, be determined. What cases form an exception to this
general rule ? From the given pairs in exercise 8 , determine the other three.
 CHAPTER VII

LOCI OF SECOND ORDER. EQUATIONS IN STANDARD FORM

DIRECTRICES

90. Review. We have found that the circle, the ellipse, the
hyperbola, and the parabola are curves of the second order (Art.
81). The definitions of these curves and also the process of find-
ing the standard forms of their equations should be reviewed
(Chapter IV) .
In this chapter we shall derive some important properties of
these curves, making use of the standard forms of the equations .

EXERCISES

1. If a and b represent the lengths of the semiaxes and e the eccentricity

write the standard equation of the ellipse for which ; ---
(1) a = 3 and b = 2. (4) b = 4 and cae = 3.
(2) b = 3 and e = 1. (5) a = 5 and c == 3 .
(3) a =- 6 and e = 3. (6) c = 4 and e =
2. Find a, b, c, and e from the following equations : -
(1) x2 - 25 y2 - 25. (4) 9 x² + 4 y² = 36.
(2) x² + 25 y² = 25. (5) 2 x2 - · 5 y² = 20 .
(3) 9x2 - 4 y² = 36 . (6) 2x² + 5 y² = 20.
3. Find the lengths of the focal radii of the ellipse x² + 9 y² = 18 , drawn
to the points whose abscissa is 2.
4. Find the lengths of the focal radii of the hyperbola 9 x² - 4 y² = 65,
drawn to the points whose ordinate is 2 .
5. Show that the circle is the limiting form of the ellipse as a and b
approach equality. What is the eccentricity of the circle and where are its
foci ?
6. When the semiaxes of an hyperbola are equal, the hyperbola is called
equilateral . Show that the distance from any point on an equilateral hyper-
bola to the center of the curve is a mean proportional between the focal radii
drawn to the same point.
107
108 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII .

91. Directrices. Let e represent the eccentricity and a the

semitransverse axis of an ellipse or an hyperbola. The lines
drawn perpendicu-
AY
lar to the transverse
axis, one at the dis-
D Di α
tance to the right,
e
α to
and the other
e
F F
the left of the cen-
ter, are called the

- %- directrices . In Figs.
67 and 68, the lines
E E
DE and D₁₁ are
FIG. 67
the directrices .
The focus and directrix on the same side of the center are said
to correspond to each other. Thus, DE corresponds to F and
D₁E₁ to F₁.

92. A fundamental theorem. If the length of the focal radius to

any point on an ellipse or an hyperbola is divided by the distance
of the point from the corre-
sponding directrix, then the ratio
so formed is constant and equal
to the eccentricity of the curve.
We are to prove (Figs. 67
and 68) that
FP - FP
= e, F F1
PD PD₁

where P is any point on either E E

curve. From Art. 50, we have
FP = a + ex and FP:= α-— ex,
and from Fig. 67,
α a. FIG. 68
PD = 2 + x and PD₁ ==
= x.
e e
FP a + ex FP α- ex
810

Hence , = = e and = = e.
PD α PD₁ α
+ x x
e
ARTS. 91-93] CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELLIPSE 109

The theorem is proved for the hyperbola in the same way,

making use of the lengths of the focal radii (Art. 52) and Fig. 68.

93. Construction of an ellipse or an hyperbola. The theorem in

the preceding article furnishes a convenient method for construct-
ing an ellipse or an hyper-
bola when the eccentricity
and the distance from a
focus to the corresponding
directrix are known. For
example, to construct the
hyperbola whose eccentric-
M
ity is and the distance
from one focus to the cor-
responding directrix is 2,
let F be one focus and AB
the corresponding directrix
(Fig. 69), so that the dis-
tance QF is 2. Draw a M'
parallel through F to AB,
and lay off the equal dis-
tances FMand FM' so that*
FM FM' =3
-·
=
QF QF 2
FIG. 69
Draw QM and QM' and a
series of parallels to AB. Let one of these parallels meet QM
and QM ' in L and L', respectively, and QF in D. The triangles
QFM and QDL are similar, and therefore

FM: QF :: DL : QD,

or the ratio DL : QD is equal to the given eccentricity . With

Fas center and DL as radius, draw arcs of a circle cutting LL'
in R and R'. Then R and R' are points on the curve, since
FR : QD = DL : QD = 3 : 2. In this way as many points of the
curve can be located as may be desired .

* Here, and for the most part throughout this chapter, we are not concerned
with directed segments or with directed angles .
110 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

An ellipse can be constructed in a similar way.

By construction, the angle FQM arc tan e and is, therefore,
greater than 45° for the hyperbola and less than 45° for the ellipse
(Arts. 50 and 52) .

94. Two common properties. By definition (Art. 53 ), the length

of the focal radius to any point on a parabola divided by the dis-
tance from the point to the directrix is equal to unity. Compar-
ing this statement of the definition of the parabola with the
theorem in Art. 92, we are led to define the eccentricity of the
parabola as unity. Consequently, the ellipse, hyperbola, and parab-
ola have the following important property :

(A) Ifthe length of the focal radius to any point on one of these
curves is divided by the distance from the point to the corresponding
directrix, then the ratio so formed is constant and equal to the eccen-
tricity of the curve ; this ratio is less than 1 for the ellipse, equal to
1 for the parabola, and greater than 1 for the hyperbola.
The three curves have another important property in common ;
namely,
(B) They are sections of a right circular cone (Part II, Art. 159) .
The circle is also a section of a right circular cone. The four
curves are therefore called conic sections, or more briefly, conics.

NOTE. The conics were originally studied by the Greeks, who used
property (B) as a definition. Property (A) was probably known to Euclid
and his contemporaries (300 B.C. ) , but the earliest mention of it now known
to exist occurs in the " Collections of Pappus " ( 100 A.D. ) .

EXERCISES

1. In an ellipse, given a = 3 and b = 2. Find c and e, locate accurately

the foci and directrices, find the distance from a focus to the corresponding
directrix ; write the standard equation in rectangular coördinates , the polar
equation with the pole at the left-hand focus, and the parametric equations.
2. Find a and b for the hyperbola constructed in Art. 93. Write the
standard equation in rectangular coördinates, the polar equation with the
pole at the left-hand focus, and the parametric equations.
3. Make an accurate construction of the ellipse for which e = } and a =: 6.
Locate the foci and the directrices and write the three standard forms of
its equation as in the preceding exercises.
ARTS . 94, 95] EQUATION OF A TANGENT 111

4. Construct the hyperbola for which a = 4 and b = 5. Locate the foci

and directrices and write the three standard forms of its equation.
5. The length of the focal radius drawn to one extremity of the minor
axis of an ellipse is 5 and the eccentricity is . Construct the curve
and locate the foci and directrices.

TANGENTS

95. Equation of a tangent in terms of the slope. If a straight

line meets a curve in the points P and Q, these points will move
along the curve when the line is either rotated about some point
in the plane or moved parallel to itself. If it is possible to pass
continuously along the curve from P to Q, it will be possible to
move the line in either of the ways mentioned so as to cause P
and Q to coincide in a point R. The line PQ is then tangent to
the curve at R, and R is the point of contact.
To find the coördinates of the points of intersection of a curve
with a straight line, it is necessary to solve the equation of the
curve and the equation of the line simultaneously.
The circle. Let the given curve be the circle

x² + y² = a², (1)

and take the equation of the line in the slope form

y=
= mx + k. ( 2)

Eliminating y between (1) and ( 2),

Ta
ng k+

we see that the x-coördinates of the P

en
t
mx=

points of intersection are the roots

y

of the equation
A

( 1 + m² ) x² + 2 mkx + ( k² -
– a² ) = 0.
O

(A)
The line will move parallel to
itself when k is allowed to vary, and
the points of intersection, P and Q FIG. 70
(Fig. 70) , will coincide when, and
only when, the roots of equation ( A ) are equal ; that is, when

4 (1 + m²) (k² — a²) = 4 m²k².

112 LOCI OF SECOND , ORDER [CHAP. VII .

Solving this equation for k, we have

k = ± a√1 + m².

Hence, when k has either of these values, the roots of (A) are
equal and the points of intersection of the circle with the line
coincide. Therefore, the lines
y = mx + a
a √1 + m² (3)

are tangents to the circle x² + y² = a².

The ellipse. Similarly, solving the equation of the ellipse
x2 y2 = 1
+ (4)
a² b²

and equation (2) simultaneously, we find that the x-coördinates

of the points of intersection are the roots of the equation
(a²m² + b²) x² + 2 a²mkx + a² (k2 − b² ) = 0. (B)

The roots will be equal, and consequently the line a tangent to

the ellipse, when

4a² (a²m² + b²) (k² — b²) = 4 a¹m²k², or k = ± √a²m² + b².

Therefore , the lines
y = mx ± √a²m² + b² (5)

are tangents to the ellipse whose equation is given in (4).

The hyperbola. The x-coördinates of the points of intersection
of the hyperbola
y² = 1
(6)
a² b2 1

with the line y = mx + k are the roots of the equation

(a²m² – b²) x² + 2 a²mkx + a² (k² + b) ² = 0, (C)

and these roots are equal when k has either of the values

k = ± √a²m² — b².
Therefore , the lines
y = mx ± √a²m² — b², (7)

are tangents to the hyperbola whose equation is given in (6).

The parabola. The x-coördinates of the points of intersection
of the parabola (8)
y² = 4 px
ART . 95 ] EQUATION OF A TANGENT 113

with the line y = mx + k are the roots of the equation

m²x² + (2 mk − 4p) x + k² = 0, (D)
and these roots are equal when k has the value P.
m
Therefore, the line y = mx + p
m (9)
is a tangent to the parabola y² = 4 px.
As an example of the use of the foregoing formulas, we shall find the equa-
tions of the tangents to the hyperbola
x² - 4 y² = 36
which have the slope . Here a =· 6, b = 3, and m = § . Substituting in
(7) , we find the required equations are
6y = 5x24.
Again, to find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse
4x² + 9 y² = 36,
which pass through the point ( 2 , 3) , use equation ( 5) . Here a == 3, b = 2,
and we are to find m so that the tangents pass through the given point.
Hence we must have
3 = 2m ± √9 m²2 + 4,
from which we find
m = - 6 ± √61
5
The required equations are therefore
- 6 ± √61
y -3 = (x - 2) .
5

The formulas (A) , (B) , (C) , and ( D) are of frequent use in

what follows.
Note that properties of the hyperbola, expressed by equations
involving the semiaxes, can be derived from the corresponding
properties of the ellipse by changing the sign of b². Thus, equa-
tions (B) and (C) differ only in the sign of b².

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the tangents to the following conics :
(a) y² = 4x, slope = . (α) x² - 4y² = 36, passing through
(b) x² + y² = 16, slope = - the point (3 , 4) .
(c) 9 x² + 16 y² = 144 , slope = -
−1. (e) x² + 4y² = 36 , perpendicular to
6x4y + 9 = 0.
114 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [ CHAP. VII .

2. Find the equations of the common tangents to the following pairs of

conics. Construct the figures.
(a) y² = 5x and 9 x² + 9 y² = 16.
(b) 9 x² + 16 y² -
: 144 and 7 x² - 32 y2 = 224.
(c) x² + y² 49 and 13 x² + 50 y² = 650.
SUGGESTION. Find the equations of tangents to each conic in terms of the
slope and then determine the slope so that the two equations shall be depend-
ent (Art. 83).
3. Prove that two tangents to the parabola y² = 4 px which are perpendic-
ular to each other intersect on the directrix .
SUGGESTION. The slopes of the tangents are negative reciprocals of each
other. Hence their equations are
Pand х
y = mx + y= -
m m рт.
But these lines intersect in a point whose abscissa is —p, whatever the value
of m. Construct a figure illustrating this exercise.
x2 y2
4. Prove that two tangents to the ellipse + = 1 which are perpendic-
a2 b2
ular to each other intersect upon the circle x² + y² = a² + b².
SUGGESTION. The equations of the two tangents are
x Va² + b²m²
y = mx + √a²m² + b² and y = - +
m m
The point of intersection must satisfy both these equations ; hence the equa-
tion of its locus is found by eliminating m from these equations. To do this ,
remove the radicals from each equation by transposition and squaring. Thus,
(y — mx) ² = a²m² + b² and (my +r) ² = a² + b²m².
Add these equations, member to member, and divide by the common factor
1 + m². The circle x² + y² = a² + b² is called the director circle for the
ellipse. Construct a figure illustrating this exercise.
5. The locus of the intersection of a pair of perpendicular tangents to the
hyperbola is called the director circle for the hyperbola. Find its equation
and show that it is a real circle only when a > b ; it reduces to a point for
the equilateral hyperbola, a = b ; and is imaginary for a < b. Construct a
figure illustrating this exercise.
6. If a perpendicular is dropped from either focus of an ellipse ( or an
hyperbola) upon a tangent, show that the locus of its intersection with the
tangent is a circle whose center coincides with the center of the curve and
whose diameter is the transverse axis of the curve.
SUGGESTION. For the ellipse, the equations of the tangent and the perpen-
dicular through the left-hand focus are, respectively,
ART. 96] COÖRDINATES OF POINT OF CONTACT 115

x+
y = mx + √a²m² + b² and y =-
m
Hence, (y -
— mx)² == a²m² + b²,
and (my + x) ² = c² = a² — b².
Adding and dividing by the common factor 1 + m², we have
x² + y² = a².
This circle is called the major auxiliary circle. The equation of the minor
auxiliary circle is x² + y² = b² (cf. Art. 61 ) . Construct a figure illustrat-
ing this exercise.
7. Show that the locus of the intersection of a tangent to y2 = 4px with
the perpendicular from the focus is the Y-axis.
8. Show that the product of the perpendiculars from the foci upon any
tangent to an ellipse is constant and equal to b². State and prove the corre-
sponding property for the hyperbola.

96. Coördinates of the point of contact. Equations (A) , (B),

(C) , and (D) of the preceding article serve to find the coördinates
of the point of contact on a tangent having the given slope m.
Thus, for the ellipse,

(a²m² + b²)x² + 2 a²mkx + a² (k² - b2) = 0 and k² = a²m² + b².

Therefore, k²x² + 2 a²mkx + a¹m² = 0.

The left member of this equation is a perfect square, as it should

be, and gives for the x-coördinate of the point of contact
- a²m
x=
k

Since the point of contact is on the line y = mx + k, we have

-- a2m² — a²m² + k² =
___ b²
y== mx + k = +k =
k k k

Therefore, the points of contact on the tangents having the slope m

- a²m b²)
are
k k where k has the values ± √a²m² + b².

Similarly, for the parabola, making use of equation (D) and

the corresponding value of k, the x-coördinate of the point of con-
tact is given by the equation
m²x² - 2 px + p2 =0,
m²
116 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

from which x = 2. Substituting in y = mx + k, we find that

m²
y =2p Therefore, the point of contact on the tangent having the
m
slope m is (P 2p
(m, 22).
EXERCISES

1. Show that the coördinates of the points of contact of the tangents to the
x2 - b2 = a2m b2 where k has
hyperbola 1 , having the slope m , are 9
a2 y2 k k
the values + √a²m² — b².
2. Show that the coördinates of the points of contact of the tangents to
a²m a²
the circle x2 + y² = a², having the slope m, are 9 where k has
k *),
the values a√m² + 1.
3. Find the coördinates of the points of contact of the tangents to the
conics in exercise 1 , Art. 95.
4. Find the coördinates of the points of contact of the tangents to the
pairs of conics in exercise 2 , Art. 95.

97. Equation of a tangent in terms of the coördinates of the point

of contact.
First method. Let P(x , y ) be the point of contact of a tangent
to the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

Then, by the preceding article,

a²m b2
X₁ = and y₁ =
k k

Eliminating k by division, we have

Yı = - b2 or m = — b²x1
X1 a²m

Since the tangent passes through the point of contact, its

equation is
b2x1
-
y — y₁ = m (x − x₁ ) = - a² (x − x₁) . (1)
y₁
ART. 97] COÖRDINATES OF POINT OF CONTACT 117

Clearing of fractions and remembering that b2x2 + a2y = a²b²,

since the point of contact is on the ellipse, equation (1) reduces to
XX1 Yy1 = 1.
+ (2)
a2 b2

For the parabola, if P(x , y₁ ) is the point of contact of a tangent,

we have seen that y₁ = 2p. Therefore the slope of the tangent
m
is 2º, and its equation is
Yı
y − 3 =m( _a x₁))= ?? ( -
(x − x).
x₁) . (3)
Yı
Clearing of fractions and remember-
= px₁, we have
ing that y₁24 P(x1 , y1
k
YY₁ = 2p(x + x₁ ) . (4)
0 h X
Second method. Let a secant meet Q (x1+ h, Y₁+ k)
a curve in the points P(x₁, y₁) and
Q(x₁ + h, y₁ + k) (Fig. 71), so that FIG. 71
the projections of the segment PQ
upon the X and Y-axes are respectively h and k. The slope of
k
PQ is then The coördinates of P and Q satisfy the equation
h
of the curve. Hence, if the curve is an ellipse as in the figure we
have
a²+1 / = 1 and ( 1 + h) ² +
12²= + (y₁ + k)² = 1.
(5)
b2 a² b2

Subtracting the first equation from the second, member from

member, we obtain the equation

2hx₁ + h² 2 ky₁ + k²
+ == 0,
a² b2
from which we get
k b²(2 x₁ + h)
h (6)
a²(2 y₁ + k)

As the secant rotates about P (cf. Art. 95) , the point Q approaches
P along the curve and in the limit coincides with it, and then the
secant becomes the tangent at P. But the slope of the secant is
constantly equal to the right-hand member of (6). When Q coin-
118 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

cides with P, both h and k are zero, and the right-hand member
of (6) gives the slope of the tangent at P; that is,
b²x1
m =-
a²y₁

The equation of the tangent is then found as in the first method .

EXERCISES
1. Write the equation of the tangent to the ellipse 3x² + 4 y² = 19 at
the point ( 1 , 2) .
x2
2. Show that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola - =1
a2 b2
xX1 Yy1 = 1.
at the point (x1, Y1 ) is
a2 b2
3. Write the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 2 x2 -
— y² = 14 at
the point (3,2) .
4. Find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse 16 x² + 25 y² = 400
which pass through the point (3 , 4) .
5. Write the equation of the tangent to the parabola y² = 6 x at the
point (6 , -6).
6. Find the angle which the ellipse 4x² + y² = 5 makes with the
parabola y2 = 8x at a point of intersection .
SUGGESTION . Find the equation of the tangent to each curve at a point
of intersection and then find the angle which one tangent makes with the
other.
7. Show that the equation of the tangent to the circle x² +y² = a² at the
point (x1, y1 ) is xx1 + yy₁ = a².
8. Show that the length of a tangent to the circle x² + y² = a², included
between the point of contact and the point (x2, y2) , is √x2² + y²² — a².
9. Prove that the circles whose equations are x² + y² - — 8 x + 4y + 7 = 0
and x² + y² 10 x -− 6 y + 21 = 0 intersect at right angles.
SUGGESTION . Show that the square of the distance between the centers is
equal to the sum of the squares of the radii.
10. Using the second method of Art. 97 , find the equations of the tan-
gents to the following curves at the points designated :
(a) y² = x8, at (4, 8) . (b ) y = x²(x -
− 1 ) , at (2 , 4 ) .
(c) ys = x², at (8, 4 ) . (d ) y = ( −1 ) ( − 2 ) , at (3, VỠ ) .
Draw each curve.
ARTS . 98, 99] TANGENT LENGTH, NORMAL LENGTH 119

98. Normals. Given any curve, the line drawn perpendicular

to a tangent at the point of contact is called the normal to the
curve at the point of contact.
Let P(x , y₁ ) be the point of contact and m the slope of the tan-
gent at P, then the equation of the normal is
1 -
y -yi =- (x − x₁). (1)
m

For example, the slope of the tangent to the ellipse

x2 y2
+ =1
a² b2
b2x₁
at the point (x , y ) is (Art. 97) . Hence the equation of
a²y₁
the normal at (x₁, y₁) is
a²y1
- = - x₁) .
(x − (2)
b2x1

99. Tangent length, normal length, subtangent, subnormal. Con-

nected with every point on a curve there is a special triangle
whose sides are respec-
tively the tangent at
P(x1 , y1 )
the point, the normal
at the point, and the
X-axis. In Fig. 72,
PTNis such a triangle,
where PT is the tan-
gent at P, PN is the
normal at P, and TN FIG. 72
is the X-axis. PT is
called the tangent length and PN the normal length. DP is the
ordinate of P, PT is the projection of PT on the X-axis and is
called the subtangent, DN is the projection of PN on the X-axis
and is called the subnormal.
Let the coördinates of P be ₁, y₁ and the inclination of the
tangent be , then DP = y, and the angle DPN = angle DTP.
Therefore ,
PT = y₁ cosec 1,
PN = y, sec 1,
120 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

DT = y, cot ,
DN = | y₁ tan |,
where the bars indicate positive, or absolute, value.

EXERCISES
1. Write the equation of the normal to the circle at the point (x1, y₁ ) .
Note that the normal passes through the center of the circle.
2. Write the equation of the normal to the parabola at point ( x1, y₁ ) .
The equation of the normal to the hyperbola at (xı , yı) .
3. The point ( 3, 2 ) lies on the ellipse x² + 4 y² = 25. Find the tangent
length, the normal length, the subtangent, and the subnormal, at this point.
Construct the figure.
4. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola y² = 8x which is
parallel to the line 2x + 3y = 10.
5. Prove that the normal to the ellipse or the hyperbola at the point
(x1, y1) meets the X-axis at a distance ex₁ from the center.
6. Show that the subnormal to the parabola y2 - 4px is constant and
equal to 2 p.
7. The line 3x + 8 y = 25 is tangent to the ellipse x² + 4 y² = 25. Find
the coördinates of the point of contact and write the equation of the normal
at this point.
8. The line mx - 4y = 1 is tangent to the hyperbola x2 - y2 = 1. Find
9 4
m and compute the subtangent and subnormal for the point of contact.

100. Reflection properties. The three theorems that follow

express what are known as reflection properties.
THEOREM I. The angle formed by the focal radii drawn to any
point of an ellipse is bisected by the normal at that point.
The equation of the normal at the point (x , y₁ ) is given in (2) ,
Art. 98. From this equation we find the intercept on the X-axis
is (Fig. 73)
ON = (a² —— b²) x₁ =
__ c²x₁ ___ a²e²x₁ = e²x₁.
—
a² a² a²
But FO = OF₁ = ae, and therefore
FN ae + e²x₁ and NF₁ := αe - e²x1.
The ratio of FN to NF, is, therefore,
FN = a + ex₁ FP
= (Art. 50).
NF α- ex₁ FP
ART. 100] REFLECTION PROPERTIES 121

Hence, we have shown that the normal at P divides the base of

the triangle PFF, into two segments which are proportional to
the adjacent sides. Therefore the normal bisects the angle FPF₁.
AY

P (x141)
a + exi
r=

F ae N F₁ T X

FIG. 73

A ray of light from either focus of an ellipse is reflected from

the curve to the other focus.
THEOREM II. The angle formed by the focal radii drawn to any
point of an hyperbola is bisected by the tangent at that point.
The equation of the tangent at (x , y₁ ) is
XX1 Yy1 =1.
a² b2

Hence the intercept on the X- r = / ex₁ + a P (x1, y1 )

axis is (Fig. 74),
F TF X
O

OT= a².
X

We can now show that

FT = PF • FIG. 74
TF PF
a² TF₁ = αe a²
For, FT = ae + -;
X1 X1
and (Art. 52) PF ex₁+ a , PF = ex-- a.
122 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII .

Hence the tangent at P divides the base of the triangle PFF, into
two segments which are proportional to the adjacent sides, and
therefore bisects the angle FPF₁.
THEOREM III. Any tangent to the parabola y24 px bisects the
angle formed by the focal radius drawn to the point of contact and a
line through the point of contact parallel to the X-axis.
The equation of the tangent
Y to the parabola at the point
P(x1 ,y1 )
P(x, y₁) (Fig. 75) is (Art. 97)

yy₁ = 2 p(x + x₁) .

Hence, the tangent meets
the X-axis at the point
TE OF D
T = (- 1, 0). Therefore TO
= OD, and, if EG is the
directrix and F the focus,
EO = OF Hence, TF =
FIG. 75 ED. But ED = FP (defi-
nition of the parabola), and,
consequently, TFP is an isosceles triangle. The angles PTF
and FPT are therefore equal. If PG is parallel to the X-axis ,
the angles PTF and TPG are equal. Consequently, the tangent
PT bisects the angle FPG.

EXERCISES
1. Two parabolas have a common axis and a common focus, and extend
in opposite directions. Show that they intersect at right angles.
2. Given the focus and the vertex of a parabola, but not the constructed
curve, show how to draw the two tangents through a given point P.
SUGGESTION. Let Fbe the focus and A the vertex. Draw the line AF
and construct the directrix. With P as center and PF as radius, draw a
circle meeting the directrix in D and D₁ . The perpendicular bisectors of DF
and DIF are the required tangents . The tangents thus constructed meet the
perpendiculars to the directrix at D and D₁ in the points of contact.
3. Show that an ellipse and an hyperbola having the same foci intersect
at right angles.
4. Having given the length of the transverse axis and the distance between
the foci of an ellipse, or an hyperbola, show how to construct the tangents to
the curve from a given point P.
ARTS. 101 , 102] CONJUGATE DIAMETERS 123

SUGGESTION. Let AB be the given transverse axis. Locate the foci on

AB at the points F and F1. With P as center draw a circle through the
nearer focus F1, and with F as center and AB as radius, a second circle
meeting the first in the points D and D1. The perpendicular bisectors of
DF₁ and D₁F₁ are the required tangents. These tangents meet the lines FD
and FD₁ in the points of contact.
5. Why is light emanating from the focus of a parabolic mirror reflected
in parallel rays ? What use is made of this fact ?

DIAMETERS

101. Definition. Any line through the center of a circle, an

ellipse, or an hyperbola is called a diameter of the curve.
Any line perpendicular Y
to the directrix of a parab-
ola is called a diameter P(x1 , y1 )
of the curve. That di-
ameter of the parabola
which passes through the
focus is the axis. Ꭰ

The circle, ellipse, and

hyperbola are called cen-
tral conics ; the parabola
has no center, and is there-
fore called noncentral. FIG. 76

102. Conjugate diameters. If P (x , y ) is any point on a

central conic and PT is the tangent at P, then the diameter
through P and the diameter parallel to PT are called con-
jugate diameters. Thus, PO and
Y Q0 are conjugate diameters (Figs.
76 and 77).
THEOREM . If m and m' are the
P (x1 , y1 )
slopes of a pair of conjugate diameters,
TD x then b2
mm' = F
a²,

according as the conic is an ellipse or

FIG. 77 an hyperbola.
124 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

In either Fig. 76 or Fig. 77, the slope of PO is

m = Y₁
X1
and b2x₁
the slope of QO, = the slope of PT, = m ' = = ·
a²y₁

according as the conic is an ellipse or an hyperbola. Consequently,

b2
mm ' - 干
a²

Since the product of the slopes is independent of the coördinates

of P, it follows, in case of the ellipse, that the tangent at Q is
parallel to the diameter PO.

EXERCISES
1. Given any diameter of an ellipse or an hyperbola, construct its con-
jugate diameter.
3√3
2. The point (' " 1 ) lies on the ellipse 4 x² + 9 y2 -
= 36. Find the equa-
2
tions of the diameter through the point and its conjugate diameter.
x2 y2 Show that the equa-
3. The point (x1 , y₁ ) lies on the ellipse +
a2 b2
tions of the diameter through the point and its conjugate diameter are, re-
spectively,
=0 and X1X + ? 1? =
Yıxx1y – 0.
a2 b2
x2 y2 = 1. Fin the equa-
4. The point ( x1 , y₁ ) lies on the hyperbola d
a2 b2
tions of the diameter through the point and its conjugate diameter.*
x2 y2
5. If a diameter of the ellipse + = 1 meets the curve in the point
a2 b2
(x1 , y1 ) , show that the conjugate diameter meets the curve in the points
ayı ·9- bxi
(-a , bai) and ( b a
6. Prove that the sum of the squares of any two conjugate semidiameters
of an ellipse is equal to the sum of the squares of the semiaxes.
7. Show that conjugate diameters of a circle are always at right angles to
each other.
8. What is the relation between the slopes of conjugate diameters of the
equilateral hyperbola ( b = a) ?
ART. 103] THE LOCUS OF MIDDLE POINTS 125

9. Two chords are drawn from any point of an ellipse or an hyperbola

to the extremities of a diameter. Show that the diameters bisecting these
chords are conjugate diameters.
SUGGESTION. Let the coördinates of the point be x2 and y2, and the coör-
dinates of one extremity of the diameter be x and y₁. The coördinates of
the other extremity are then - x1 and -y1 . Show that the product of the
b2 b2
slopes of the diameters bisecting the chords is - 9 for the ellipse, and +
a2 απ
for the hyperbola.
10. Show that the area of a parallelogram inscribed in the ellipse
y2
+ b2 = 1 whose diagonals are conjugate diameters is 2 ab.
SUGGESTION. Let O be the center of the ellipse, P(x1, y₁) and Q, two adja-
cent vertices of the parallelogram. The coördinates of Q may then be taken
as ayı " bx1
-ba ) (exercise 6) . The area of the parallelogram is four times
the area of the triangle POQ.

11. Prove that the axes of an ellipse or an hyperbola form a pair of con-
jugate diameters.
SUGGESTION. As the slope of one diameter approaches zero, what does
the slope of the conjugate diameter approach ?
12. Can a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse or an hyperbola ever
be at right angles unless they are the axes ? Why ?

103. The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords.

THEOREM. The locus of the middle points of a system ofparallel
chords of any conic is a YA
diameter of the conic.
Let y = mx + k be P
the equation of any y= mx +k
line meeting the conic y=
in the points P₁ and P₂. mx
If the conic is an el-
y=m¹x P
lipse, as in Fig. 78, the
S
x-coördinates of the
points P₁and P₂ are the
roots of equation ( B), FIG. 78
Art. 95, and if X1
x, and X2
x
represent these roots, then the x-coördinate of the middle point
126 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER . [CHAP. VII.

of the chord PP, is given by the equation

=x1
x = X₁ + x2 .
+ xq
2
2 a2mk
But the sum of the roots of (B) is - Hence,
a²m² + b²
a²mk
=
a²m² +b²'

and since the middle point is on the chord,

b2k ·
y' = mx' + k =
a²m² + b²

Therefore, whatever value is given to k, the coördinates of the

middle point, x' and y', satisfy the equation
b2
x. (1)
a²m

But (1) is the equation of a straight line passing through the

center and is therefore a diameter of the curve. The line PO
represents this diameter.
If k = 0, the line PP,2 assumes the position QS, which is also a
diameter of the curve. Since the product of the slopes of PO
b2
and QS is -
a², these diameters are conjugate to each other.
Combining this result with the theorem in the preceding article,
we conclude that all the chords parallel to PO are bisected by QS.
The theorem is proved for the other conics in a similar way,
making use of equations (A) , (C) , and ( D ) of Art. 95.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the diameter of the hyperbola x² - 8 y² = 96
bisecting all the chords parallel to the line 3 x - 8 y = 10.
2. Find the equation of the diameter of the parabola y² = 6 x bisecting all
the chords parallel to the line x + 3y = 8.
3. What is the equation of the chord of the ellipse 9 x² + 36 y² = 324
which is bisected by the point (4 , 2) ?
4. Find the equation of the chord of the ellipse 13 x² + 11 y² - 113 which
passes through the point ( 1, 3) and is bisected by the diameter 2 y = 3 x.
ART. 104] DEFINITIONS 127

5. What is the equation of the chord of the parabola y² = 6 x which is

bisected by the point (4, 3) ?
x2 - y2 -: 1 which
6. Find the equation of the diameter of the hyperbola
a2 b2
bisects all the chords of slope m.
7. Prove that the diagonals of any circumscribing parallelogram to an
ellipse form a pair of conjugate diameters of the curve.
SUGGESTION. Let m and n represent the slopes of a pair of adjacent sides
of the parallelogram. Show that the slopes of the diagonals are
mk1 nk and mk₁ + nk
k₁ - k ki + k

where k² = a2m² + b² and k₁² = a²n² + b². The product of the slopes is
b2
therefore - The diagonals pass through the center of the ellipse and
a2
are therefore diameters.
8. Prove exercise 9 of the preceding article by showing that the diameter
bisecting one chord is parallel to the other.

POLES AND POLAR LINES

104. Definitions. It has been shown that the equation of a

tangent to a conic can be expressed in terms of the coördinates
of the point of contact. For example, we saw in Art. 97 that the
equation of the tangent to the parabola at the point P (x , y ) is
yy₁ = 2 p (x + x₁). (1)

This equation is the equation of a straight line, whatever values

are given to x and y₁, and is the equation of a tangent to the
parabola only when the point P(x , y ) is on the curve.
In general (1) is the equation of a straight line called the
polar line of P (x , y ) with respect to the parabola y² = 4 px.
The point P (x , y ) is called the pole. If the pole is on the curve,
the polar line is tangent to the curve at the pole.
Similarly, the equation of the polar line of any point with
respect to any conic can be written at once. For example, the
equation of the polar line of P(x , y ) with respect to the
ellipse is
XX1 Yy1 = 1.
+ (2)
a² b2

We are led, then, to the following definition :

128 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

The polar line of P(x , y ) with respect to a given conic is that

line whose equation has the same form as the equation of the tangent
to this conic when P (x , y ) is the point of tangency.
As an example, we will write the equation of the polar line of ( 1 , 3) with
respect to the circle x2 + y² = 4. Here the equation of the polar line of any
point (x1, y1 ) is
xX1 + yy14.

Hence, the polar line of ( 1, 3) is

x + 3y = 4.
The student should draw the figure illustrating this example.
As a second example, find the
coördinates of the pole of 5x - 4y
+200 with respect to the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1.
25 16
Here the polar line of any point
O (x1 , y1) is
xX1 + yy1 = 1.
25 16
If this equation and the given equa-
tion are the equations of the same
FIG. 79 straight line, we must have (Art.
83)
x1 = 5k, /
Y1 == 4k, and - 1 = 20 k,
25 16
where k is the common ratio. From these equations, we find that x1 = -- 25
and y₁ = 6. Hence the required pole is the point ( — 25, 16 ) (Fig . 79 ) .

EXERCISES
1. Write the equation of the polar line of each of the following points :
1. (1 , 1 2) with respect to x² + 4 y² = 16.
2. (6,4) with respect to y2 = 4 x.
3. ( 2, 2) with respect to 5 x²- 8 y2 = 24.
4. (2, - 3) with respect to 5 x² + 4 y² = 10.
2. Find the coördinates of the pole of the line 3 x — 2 y = 5 with respect
to the circle x² + y² = 25.
3. What are the coordinates of the pole of 5x + 4y = 7 with respect to
the ellipse x2 + 2 y2 = 10 ?
4. Find the coördinates of the pole of the line xy = 10 with respect to
the parabola y2 = 8 x.
ART. 105] GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF POLES 129

5. What are the coördinates of the pole of the line Ax + By + C = 0

x2 - y2 == 1 ?
with respect to the hyperbola
a2 b2
6. Through the point (x1, y1 ) a line is drawn parallel to the polar line of
x2 y2
the point with respect to the ellipse + = 1. What are the coördinates
of the pole of this parallel ?

105. Geometric properties of poles and polar lines. A point is

outside a conic when two tangents can be drawn from the point to
the conic. A point is
inside a conic when no
tangents can be drawn AY
from it to the conic.
B(x21Y2 )
THEOREM I. If the
point (x , y ) is outside
a conic, its polar line
with respect to the
conic passes through the
points of contact of the
tangents drawn from
the point.
Let the conic be the
ellipse ; the proof is FIG. 80
similar for the other
conics. Let B(x2, y2) and C(x , yз ) be the points of contact of
tangents drawn from A(x , y ) (Fig. 80). The equations of the
tangents at B and C are, respectively,
XX2 YY2 = 1 and
+ 3 + Yy3
3 = 1.
a² b2 a² b2

Since the tangents pass through A, the coördinates of A satisfy

each of the above equations. Hence,
X1X2Y1Y2 = 1 and X1X3 +9193 = 1 .
a2 b2 a2 b2

But these same equations result from substituting the coördinates

of the points B and C in the equation of the polar line of 4 with
respect to the ellipse. Consequently the polar line of A passes
through B and C.
130 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP . VII.

Exercise. Prove Theorem I for each of the other three conics.

THEOREM II. If P and Q are two points in the plane such that
the polar line of P with respect to a given conic passes through Q, then
the polar line of Q passes through P.
Take the parabola y² = 4 px (Fig.
81) for the given conic. A similar
P(xy ) proof establishes the theorem for the
other conics . Let the coördinates
of P be x , y, and the coördinates
x of Q, 22, y2
Y2 The equation of the
polar line of P is, then,

yy₁ = 2 p(x + x₁) .

( 2132 ) Since this line passes through Q, we
FIG. 81 have
Y2Y₁ = 2 p(x2 + X1) .
But this same equation results from substituting the coördinates
of P in the equation of the polar line of Q. Hence, the polar
line of passes through P.
Exercise . Prove Theorem II for each of the other three conics.
THEOREM III. If a line through the pole A meets the polar line
in C and the conic in B and D, then
AB AD
BC ᎠᏟ

Let the coördinates of A ( Fig. 82) be x₁ , y₁ and the coördinates

of C be 2, y2. The coördinates of the point B, dividing the seg-
ment AC in the ratio AB : BC = r, are

x = x1 + rx2 and y = Y₁ + ry2 (Art. 17) .

1+r 1+r

But B lies on the conic. Hence, if the conic is an ellipse as in

the figure,
(x₁ + rx½)² + (Y₁ + ry½)² 1.
a²(1 + r )² ' b²(1 + r)²

Expanding and arranging according to the powers of r, we have

Y22
+ 1/2 - 1) + Y1Y2 + + 22-1)=
= 0.
b2 + 2( a² b2 :-1) - a² b2
ART . 105] GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF POLES 131

We should have been led to the same equation had we taken

AD: DC = r. Hence the roots of this equation are the ratios in
which the curve points divide the segment AC. But, since C is
A(x1 , y1 )

(x2 Y2)

0 D

FIG. 82

on the polar line of A, the coefficient of vanishes. Hence the

roots are equal but opposite in sign ; that is,
1
AB AD
BC DC

Four points A, B, C, and D situated on a straight line and such

AB AD
that constitute a harmonic range. The segment AC
BC DC
is said to be divided harmonically by B and D.
Exercise. Prove Theorem III for the parabola and for the circle.
THEOREM IV. The polar line of a focus of a conic is the corre-
sponding directrix.
We shall establish the theorem for the case of an ellipse, leav-
ing the remaining cases as an exercise for the student. The
coördinates of the right-hand focus of an ellipse are x = ae and
y = 0. Substituting these for x, and y, in the general equation
of the polar line with respect to the ellipse, we have, as the polar
line of the focus,
α
132 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

But this is the equation of the right-hand directrix.

Exercise. Prove that the directrix of a parabola is the polar line of the
focus ; that either directrix of an hyperbola is the polar line of the corre-
sponding focus.
THEOREM V. The line joining a focus of a conic to the intersec-
tion of any two tangents, bisects one ofthe angles formed by the focal
radii drawn to the points of contact of the tangents.
In Fig. 83, let B and D be
D the points of contact of tangents
G
from Q, F being a focus. Draw
the line BD and let it meet the
directrix corresponding to F in
A, and the line QF in C. Draw
the lines BE and DG perpen-
dicular to the directrix. Since
E
F is the pole of the directrix
B

(Theorem IV) and Q is the pole

of the line BD ( Theorem I), it
follows that QF is the polar line
FIG. 83 of A (Theorem II). Therefore
we have the following equations :
AB AD
= (Theorem III, CD = - DC),
BC CD

EB = GD
(Similar triangles) ,
AB AD

BF = DF
EB (Eccentricity, property A, Art. 94).
GD

Equating the product of the right-hand members of these equa-

tions to the product of their left-hand members, we obtain
BF - DF
BC CD

Hence the point C divides the side BD of the triangle BFD in

the ratio BF: DF, and consequently the line QF bisects the
angle BFD.
ART. 106] ASYMPTOTES OF HYPERBOLA 133

EXERCISES

1. Show how Theorem II can be used to construct the pole of any line
with respect to a given conic.
SUGGESTION . Construct the polar line of any two points on the given line.
Where do these intersect ?
2. Two lines are drawn through a point P. The poles of these lines with
respect to any conic are the points R and Q. Show that RQ is the polar line
of P with respect to the same conic.
3. Given any two lines in the plane such that the first passes through the
pole of the second with respect to any conic. Show that the second passes
through the pole of the first.
4. Prove that the intersection of any two tangents to an ellipse or an
hyperbola is equidistant from the four focal radii that can be drawn to the
points of contact.
5. Show that the intersection of any two tangents to a parabola is equi-
distant from the focal radii to the points of contact and the diameters through
the points of contact.
6. In Fig. 75, Art . 100 , let PO meet the directrix in M, and PT meet
the vertical tangent in Q. Show that QF is the polar line of M.

SYSTEMS OF CONICS

106. The asymptotes of the hyperbola. It has already been

noticed that the hyperbola has asymptotes (Art. 67) . This is a
characteristic property of the hyperbola. No other conic has
asymptotes.
Solving the standard form of the equation of an hyperbola for
y, we have
b
y = ± Vx2 -- a².
α

Hence, as x increases indefinitely, y approaches nearer and nearer

bx
to the values ± Therefore
α
bx
y=± (1)
a
are the equations of the asymptotes.
The equations of the asymptotes can be written
x2 312 - 0
, (2)
a2 b2
134 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

since the coördinates of any point on either asymptote will

satisfy equation (2) (cf. Art. 85) .
The equation of a tangent to the hyperbola in terms of the
slope is (Art. 95, Eq. 7)
y = mx + √a²m² — b². (3)
If, in this equation, m is taken as the slope of either asymptote ;
b bx
namely, ± the equation becomes y = ± a • For this reason ,
α
the asymptotes are often spoken of as tangents to the hyperbola, the
points of contact being infinitely distant.
Since an asymptote passes through the center, it is a diameter
of the hyperbola (Art. 101) . The product of the slopes of a pair
b2
of conjugate diameters of the hyperbola is (Art. 102), and
a²
therefore each asymptote is its own conjugate diameter, or in other
words, an asymptote is a self-conjugate diameter of the hyperbola.

107. Conjugate hyperbolas. The two hyperbolas

x2 3/2 = x2 312 =
1 , and 1
a² b2 a² b2

are called conjugate hyperbolas. The transverse and conjugate

axis of the one are respectively the conjugate and transverse axis
of the other. Either hyperbola is conjugate to the other, but it
AY

FIG. 84
ARTS. 107, 108] CONCENTRIC HYPERBOLAS 135

is convenient to speak of the first as the primary, and the second

as the conjugate, hyperbola.
The foci of the conjugate hyperbola are on the Y-axis, and,
since c = √a² + b² is the same for each hyperbola, the four foci lie
on a circle of radius c and center at the origin (Fig. 84) .
The eccentricity of the conjugate hyperbola differs from the
с
eccentricity of the primary hyperbola. The former is and the
latter is C.
α
The asymptotes of the conjugate hyperbola coincide with the
asymptotes of the primary hyperbola. For, from the equation of
the conjugate hyperbola, we have
b
y = ± √x² + a².
α
Hence, as a increases indefinitely, the curve approaches nearer
bx
and nearer to the lines y = ± • But these are the asymptotes
α
of the primary hyperbola.
EXERCISES

1. Show that the foot of the perpendicular from a focus of an hyperbola

on either asymptote is at a distance a from the center and b from the focus.
2. Show that the circle of radius, b, whose center is at a focus of an
hyperbola, is tangent to the asymptotes at the points where they cut the
corresponding directrix.
3. Show that the product of the perpendiculars let fall from any point of
an hyperbola on the asymptotes is constant.
4. Write the equation of the hyperbola conjugate to 9 x². - y² = 9, and
find the lengths of its semiaxes , its eccentricity, the coördinates of its foci,
and the equations of its directrices .
5. If e and e₁ are the eccentricities of two conjugate hyperbolas, show
1 1
that + 1. Also ae = be1.
e2 e12
6. What is the eccentricity of the equilateral hyperbola ? Of the con-
jugate to the equilateral hyperbola ?

108. The system of concentric hyperbolas. The equation.

x² y² -
|

k, (1)
a² b2
136 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII .

where k is a variable parameter, is the equation of a system of

concentric hyperbolas (Fig. 85) . All the hyperbolas contained
in the system have the same asymptotes, as can be shown by
solving (1) for y and then allowing x to increase indefinitely. If
k is a negative number, (1) is the equation of a conjugate hyper-
bola. Ask increases in value, the hyperbola approaches the
asymptotes closer and closer, and coincides with them when k is
AY

FIG. 85

zero (Art. 106) . When k is an increasing positive number, the

hyperbolas are all primary and recede farther and farther from
the asymptotes .
The contour lines about two contiguous mountain peaks form a
rough approximation to such a system of hyperbolas.

109. The system of confocal conics. Conics having the same

foci are called confocal. The equation
x2 y2 =
+ 1, (1)
a² - k b2 k

where k is a variable parameter, is the equation of a system of con-

focal conics (Fig. 86). For, suppose a > b, then for every value of
k< b², (1) is the equation of an ellipse. The distance from center
to focus is the same for all these ellipses , since

c = √(a² -
— k) — (b² — k) = √a² — b².
ART. 109] SYSTEM OF CONFOCAL CONICS 137

As k approaches b², the semiconjugate axis of the ellipse ap-

proaches zero and the semitransverse axis approaches √a² — b²,

AY

FIG. 86

and therefore the ellipse shrinks to the segment of the X-axis

contained between the foci.
If b² < k < a², (1) is the equation of an hyperbola whose semi-
axes are va² – k and √k — - b² . The distance from center to focus
is, in this case,

c = √(a² — k) + (k — b²) = √a² — b²,

and therefore these hyperbolas are confocal with the ellipses .

For any value of k > a² , equation (1) is satisfied for no real
values of x and y. In this case, (1 ) is said to be the equation of
an imaginary ellipse.
Each hyperbola of the system cuts every ellipse at right angles
and vice versa (Exercises , Art. 100) .
If two sets of curves are so related that each curve of either set
intersects all the curves of the other set at right angles, the two
sets of curves are said to be orthogonal to each other. Thus the
hyperbolas and ellipses of the system of confocal conics form two
sets of curves orthogonal to each other. Sets of orthogonal
138 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP. VII.

curves are of great importance in mathematical physics, since

they represent fields of force.

EXERCISES
1. What are the equations of the two conics of the system
x2 y2 =1
+
(9 - k) (4 - k)
4V15 √5 ?
which pass through the point 5
x2 y2
2. Show that the equation + k is the equation of a system of con-
a2 b2
centric ellipses , k being a variable parameter. Discuss the equation for
various values of k.
3. Show that the equation y² = 4 k(x + k) is the equation of a system of
confocal parabolas . Discuss the equation for various values of k.
x2 y2 =
4. What system of conics is given by the equation + 1, k being a
a2 k2
variable parameter ? Show that the r-intercept of a tangent to any one of
these conics is independent of k. How can this fact be utilized to construct
the tangent at any point on one of the conics of the system ?
5. Discuss the system ofcircles given bythe equation x² + y² — a² -
— 2 ky = 0,
k being a variable parameter.
6. Discuss the system of circles given by the equation x² + y² + a² — 2 mx = 0,
m being a variable parameter.
7. Show that the two systems of circles in exercises 5 and 6 form two sets
of circles orthogonal to each other. Draw a figure illustrating this exercise.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse x2 + 4 y² = 16 which
pass through the point (2 , 3) .
2. Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 2 x2 - 3 y² = 18
which pass through the point ( 4 , — √5).
3. Find the coördinates of the points of contact of the tangents in ex-
ercises 1 and 2.
4. For what value of k is y = 2x + k a tangent to the hyperbola
x² - 4 y² = 4 ?
5. For what value of m is y = mx + 2 atangent to the ellipse x2 + 4 y² = 1 ?
ART. 109] SYSTEM OF CONFOCAL CONICS 139

6. What relation connects A, B, and C, if Ax + By + C = 0 is a

tangent to the parabola y² = 4 x ?
7. Are the following points on, inside, or outside the hyperbola
4 x2 - y² = 4 ? (a) ( †, 3 ) , ( b ) (2 , 1 ) , (c ) (3.25 , 3) .
8. The coördinates of one extremity of a diameter of the ellipse
x2 y2 =
+ 1 are x1 a cos 01 and y₁ = b sin 01. Show that the coördinates of
q2 b2
one extremity of the conjugate diameter are given by the equations
X2a - sin 0₁ and y2 = b cos 01.

9. Show that the segments of any line contained between an hyperbola

and its asymptotes are equal in length.
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y² = 4 px which has
equal intercepts .
11. The earth's orbit is an ellipse whose eccentricity is .01677 and whose
major semiaxis is 93 million miles, the sun being at one focus. Find the
greatest and the least distance from the earth to the sun .
12. Find the angle which one diameter of an ellipse makes with its
conjugate diameter.
13. A comet moves in a parabolic orbit with the sun at the focus. If the
comet is 2 million miles from the sun when the line from sun to comet makes
an angle of 60° with the axis of the orbit, find the least distance from sun to
comet.
14. Show that the bisector of the angle formed by lines joining any point
of an equilateral hyperbola to the vertices is parallel to an asymptote.
15. Find the equation of the locus of the mid-points of chords drawn
from one end of the major axis of an ellipse.
16. Show that the ordinate of the intersection of any two tangents to the
parabola y² = 4 px is the arithmetic mean of the ordinates of the points of
contact, and the abscissa is the geometric mean of the abscissas of the points
of contact.
17. Find the equation of the locus of the intersection of two tangents to
the parabola y² = 4 px, if the sum of the slopes of the tangents is constant.
18. Show that the angle formed by any two tangents to the parabola is
half the angle formed by the focal radii to the points of contact.
19. Any two perpendicular lines are drawn from the vertex of a parabola.
Show that the line joining their other points of intersection with the parab-
ola cuts the axis at a fixed point.
20. Show that the tangents to the parabola at the extremities of any
chord intersect on the diameter bisecting the chord.
140 LOCI OF SECOND ORDER [CHAP . VII .

21. Show that the eccentricity of an hyperbola is equal to the secant of

half the angle between the asymptotes.
22. Show that the tangents at the vertices of an hyperbola intersect the
asymptotes at points on the circle about the center and passing through the
foci.
23. Show that the product of the distances from the center of an hyper-
bola to the intersections of any tangent with the asymptotes is constant.
 CHAPTER VIII

LOCI OF THE SECOND ORDER EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD

FORM

110. Translation of the coördinate axes. If the coördinate axes

are translated by means of equations (1) , Art. 77, and then the
primes are dropped , the standard forms of the equations of the
several conics become :
Circle : (x + h) ² + (y + k) ² = r², (1)
(x + h )2 + (y + k)2 == 1 ,
Ellipse : (2)
a2 b2
(x + h) 2 _ (y + k)² = 1 ,
Primary hyperbola : (3)
a² b2
(x + h)2 _ (y + k)² , - 1,
Conjugate hyperbola : (4)
a2 b2
Parabola, X-axis parallel to the axis of the curve :
(y + k)² = 4p(x + h), (5)
Parabola, Y-axis parallel to the axis of the curve :
(x + h )² = 4p(y + k) , (6)
On the other hand, if an equation of the second degree can be
reduced to one or the other of the above forms, the locus is the
corresponding conic . The center of the circle, the ellipse, or the
hyperbola is then the point ( h, - k) , and the vertex of the
parabola is the point ( h, - k) , Figs. 87 and 88.

As an example, take the equation

9 x² + 4y² + 54 x·- 16 y + 61 = 0.
Completing the squares of the terms in x and the terms in y separately, the
equation can be written
9(x + 3)² + 4 (y - 2)² = 36.
Comparing with ( 2 ) , we see that the locus is an ellipse whose center is the
point ( — 3, 2 ) and whose semiaxes are 2 and 3.
141
142 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [CHAP. VIII .

If any one of the equations (1 ) to (6) is expanded and cleared

of fractions, it is seen to be a special case of the equation
ax² + by² + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0, (7)

where a, b, g, f, and c depend upon h and k. We are led, then, to

the following
THEOREM . The equation of a conic referred to coördinate axes
parallel to the axes ofthe curve (the axis and tangent at vertex in case
of the parabola) has the form (7) .

米
FIG. 87 FIG. 88

111. Discussion of the equation ax² + by² + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0.

The question now arises : Is
ax² + by² + 2yx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)

the equation of a conic for any given set of values of the coeffi-
cients ? We shall answer this question by a discussion of the
equation (cf. Art. 46).
General case. Let us first suppose that none of the coefficients
is equal to zero, and we may further suppose without loss of
generality , that a is a positive number . For, if a is a negative
number in any particular case, we can change the signs of all the
terms in the equation . Equation (1) can then be written in the
form 2
g² , f2
-C .
+ bby
a( x + 2)² + + z )²; = α + b
(y + (2)

Denote the right-hand member of (2) by D, then the nature of the

locus will depend upon the signs of b and D. Thus, if b is nega-
tive, the locus is an hyperbola which is primary or conjugate
ART. 111 ] DISCUSSION OF ax² + by² + 2 gx +2 fy + c = 0 143

according as D is positive or negative (cf. Art. 107) . If b and D

are positive, the locus is an ellipse. There is no locus if b is
positive and D is negative, for the sum of two positive numbers
can never be negative. The locus is then said to be imaginary.
If either a or b is zero, the above method fails. But if a is
zero, while b and g are different from zero, (1) can be written

2 == 2 g bc -f2\
x+ (3)
(3 +5)² 2 bg

and if b is zero, while a and ƒ are different from zero, (1) can be
written
2 fl ас - g2\
=- a y + (4)
(2 + 2)²= 2 af

In either case, the locus is a parabola, as we see on comparison

with equations (5) and (6) of the preceding article.
Special cases. If D is zero and b is negative, the left-hand
member of (2) is the product of two linear expressions, and there-
fore the locus of (2) , and consequently the locus of ( 1 ) , is a pair
of intersecting straight lines (cf. Art. 85) . If b is positive, the
g -- f
locus consists of the single point, since this is the only
α b
point whose coördinates will then satisfy (2) .
Finally, if a and g, or b and f, are each equal to zero, equation (1)
contains but one of the variables . For example, if b and ƒ are
each equal to zero, (1) becomes

ax² + 2 gx + c = 0. ( 5)

If the roots of (5) are real and distinct, the locus consists of a
pair of lines parallel to the Y-axis . If the roots of (5) are equal,
the locus consists of a single line parallel to the Y-axis. If the
roots of (5) are imaginary, there is no locus, but we shall say, in
this case, that the locus consists of a pair of imaginary lines . In
these special cases, the locus is said to be degenerate.
We shall find it convenient to say that the locus of (1) is a conic,
but that in certain cases, the conic is imaginary, or degenerates into
a single line, or into a pair of real or imaginary lines, or consists of
a single point.
144 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

As an example of the foregoing analysis, consider the equation

9x216 y² 36 x + 96 y 108 = 0.

Here we find that a is positive, D is zero, and b is negative . Therefore the

locus consists of two intersecting lines. The equations of these lines are
3(x - 2) +4 (y - 3) = 0,
and they intersect in the point (2 , 3) .
As a second example, consider the equation
9 x² + 2 y² - 18 x + 8 y + 17 = 0.

In this case, a is positive, D is zero, and b is positive . Hence the locus con-
sists of a single point. Completing the squares of the terms in x and the
terms in y separately, the equation becomes
9(x − 1 ) ² + 2 (y + 2) ² = 0.
Therefore the point (1 , - 2) is the only point whose coördinates satisfy the
given equation.

A summary of the possible loci of the equation

ax² + by² + 2 gx + 2fy + c = 0

is given in the following table, where D - + - C.

a b

a0, b ÷ 0 a = 0 (or b = 0)

a>0 a >0 a = 0, g 0, b ‡ 0 a = g = 0, b ÷ 0
b >0 b <0 (or b = 0, ƒ 0, a ‡ 0) (or bƒ 0, a 0)
D >0 D>0 A pair of real par-
Ellipse Hyperbola allel lines, a single
(primary) line, or a pair of imag-
inary lines ; according
D=0 D=0 as the roots of by² +
Point Intersecting Parabolas 2fy + c = 0 (or ax2
lines + 2gx + c = 0) are
real and distinct,
D 0 D <0
equal, or imaginary.
Imaginary Hyperbola
(conjugate)

In the following exercises, use is to be made of this table.

ART. 112] EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE 145

EXERCISES
1. Determine the nature of the loci of the following equations. Find the
coordinates of the center and the coördinates of the foci of each ellipse or
hyperbola ; the coördinates of the vertex and the coördinates of the focus of
each parabola. Make a sketch of each curve.
(a) 2x² + 3y² - 6x + 4y = 10. (b) x² + 2 y² - 6x + y = 10.
(c) 4x² - 3 y² -
— 4 x + 8 = 0. (d) x² + 4 x − 2 y = 15.
(e) 3x² - y² +• 6 y = 0. (f) y2 + 2x - 4y = 7.
2. Determine the nature of the loci of the following equations :
(a) x² + y² - 4 x 6 y + 13 = 0. (b) x²- y² - 4x + 6y + 5 = 0.
(c) x2 - 5x + 6 = 0 . (d) y² - 6y + 9 = 0.
(e) y2-6y + 10 = 0. (ƒ) y² -
— by + 8 = 0.

112. The general equation of second degree. The equation

ax² + 2 hxy + by² + 2 gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)

is called the general equation of second degree, because it contains

every term that can appear in an equation of the second degree.
We will now prove the following theorem .
THEOREM. The term in xy can be removed from the general
equation of second degree by rotating the axes through a positive
angle 0, less than 90°.
Replacing x and y in (1) by their values in terms of x and y
';
namely ,
x = x cos 0 - y' sin 0,
y = x' sin 0 + y' cos 0,
(Art. 78 ) , we obtain
a'x'2 + 2h'x'y' + b'y'² + 2 g'x' + 2ƒ'y
' + c = 0, (2)
where
a' = a cos² 0 + 2 h sin 0 cos 0 + b sin² 0, (3)
b' = a sin² 0 - 2h sin 0 cos 0 + b cos² 0, (4)
2 h' = 2 h(cos² 0.- sin² 0) — 2(a — b) sin ◊ cos 0
= 2h cos 20- (a - b) sin 2 0, (5)
2 g = 2 g cos 0 + 2 ƒsin 0, (6)
2f' = 2ƒcos 0 - 2 g sin 0. (7)

If, now, we can choose @ so that h' shall equal zero, the term in
x'y
' will drop out of ( 2) and the general equation will be reduced
to the form
a'x'² + b'y'² + 2 g'x' + 2ƒ'y' + c = 0. (8)
146 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [CHAP. VIII.

Putting h' equal to zero in (5) , we have for the determination of 0,

2 h cos 20- (a - b) sin 200,
from which
= 2h
tan 20-
a-b (9)

Since the tangent of an angle assumes all possible positive and

negative values as the angle increases from 0° to 180°, it follows
that it is always possible to find an angle 0, less than 90°, which
will satisfy equation (9). If the axes are rotated through this
angle, the term in x'y' drops out and the general equation is thus
reduced to the form (8) .
Equation (8) has the same form as that discussed in the pre-
ceding article. Therefore we can say that the locus of the general
equation of second degree is a conic, but that this conic may be
imaginary, or may consist of a single line, or of a pair of real or
imaginary lines, or of a single point.
The values of the coefficients a' and b' can be found easily
from equations (3) , (4) , and (5) . Thus, adding (3) and (4), we
have
a' + b' = a + b, (10)

and subtracting (4) from (3) gives

a' - b' = 2 h sin 20+ (a - b) cos 2 0. (11)

Squaring (5) and (11) and then adding, we obtain

4 h'² + (a'b') ² = 4 h² + (a - b)². (12)

Subtracting (12) from the square of (10) gives

a'b' - h¹² ==ab - h². (13)

When the coördinate axes have been rotated through the angle
given by (9), we have seen that h' becomes zero. Hence equa-
tions (10) and (13) give respectively the sum and product of the
required coefficients. These coefficients are then the roots of the
quadratic equation
- h² = 0 .
- (a + b)λ + ab —
λ² − (14)

The roots of this equation are always real, since the discriminant,
(a + b)² - 4 (abh²) = (a - b)2 + 4 h² , is always positive.
ART. 112] EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE 147

In order to decide which of the roots of (14) to take for a',

eliminate cos 2 0 between (9) and ( 11), thus obtaining

2 h(a' — b ') = [4 h² + ( a - b) ²] sin 2 0. (15)

For < 90°, sin 2 0 is positive. Therefore a' must be so chosen

that a' - b' will have the same sign as h.
The roots of (14) will be both different from zero if ab ― h² 0,
and will be alike in sign, or unlike in sign, according as their
product ab h² is positive, or negative.
The values of the coefficients g ' and f' can be computed from
equations (6) and (7) , but the computation is often tedious, and
can be avoided frequently by a translation of the axes ( Art. 113).
If a given equation of the second degree contains no terms of the
first degree ; that is, if g and ƒ are each equal to zero, then, by
(6) and (7), g ' and f ' are also each equal to zero and the foregoing
analysis serves to determine the nature and the position of the
locus.

For example, consider the equation

x² + 2xy + 2 y2 -
— 4 = 0.

Here tan 20 = 2 h-- 2

= - 2, from which we get = 58° 17' , nearly.
a-b 2
If the axes are rotated through the angle 0, the term in x'y' will drop out.
The coefficients of x'² and y'² are the roots of ( 14) which becomes, in this
case,
λ² - 3λ + 1 = 0.
Y
The roots are 3+√5 and 3- √5 Since
2 2 58°17'
h is positive, a' - b' must be positive, and
therefore we choose X

a' -3 + v5 and b' = 3 - √5

2 2
FIG. 89
The given equation, thus, reduces to
3 +√5 3 - √5 x/2 y/2 = 1.
x/2 + y/2 = 4, or +
2 2
2(3 - √5) 2 (3 + √5)

The locus is , therefore, an ellipse whose semiaxes are √2(3 -

– √5) and
√2(3 + √5) . The major axis coincides with the new Y-axis (Fig. 89) .
148 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [CHAP. VIII.

EXERCISES
1. Determine the nature of the locus of the equation 5 x² +2 xy + 5 y² = 12.
Find the angle through which the coördinate axes must be rotated in order
to remove the term in xy. Plot the curve and both sets of axes. Find the
eccentricity of the curve.
2. What is the locus of each of the following equations ?
(a) 3x² - 2xy + y² — 6 = 0. (b) 3x² - 2xy + y² = −6.
(c) 3x² - 2 xy + y² = 0. (d) 9 x² - 20 xy + 11 y2 -– 50 = 0.
(e) 25 x² - 60 xy + 36 y² -
— 81 = 0.
3. Reduce the following equations to standard form . Draw the figure
for each exercise.
(a) x² + xy + y² -− 1 = 0. (b) x² + 3 xy -− 3 y2 - 4 = 0.
(c) 2x² - 12 xy - 3y² + 14 = 0. (d) 43 x² + 30 xy + 59 y² -
– 68 = 0.
(e) 8 x² -
– 12 xy + 3 y² − 9 = 0.
4. The locus of the equation 4 x2 + 4 xy + y² + k = 0 is two straight
lines for any value of k. Discuss the change in these lines as k varies.
5. Show that 3 x² + 2 hxy + 12 y2 = 3 is the equation of a system of concen-
tric conics, h being a variable parameter. Discuss the change in the locus
as h varies from a great negative number to a great positive number.

113. Removal of the terms of the first degree. If the terms of

the first degree can be removed from the general equation of
second degree, this can be done by translating the axes, as in
Art. 79. Let m and n be the coördinates of the new origin.
The equations for translating the axes are then
x = x + m and y = y' + n (Art. 77) .

Substituting in the general equation , ( 1), Art. 112, and arranging

according to the powers of x' and y' , the resulting equation can
be written
(am + hn + 9)x'|
ax¹² + 2 hx'y' + by¹² + 2
+ ( m + ơn + f) )
m(am + hn + g)
++ n(hm + bn + ƒ) } = 0. (1)
+ (gm +fn + c)

If the terms of first degree can be removed, m and n must sat-

isfy simultaneously the two equations
am + hn + g = 0,
(2)
hm + bn + f = 0.
ARTS. 113, 114] FIRST CASE, ab - h² 0 149

The values of m and n derived from these equations are,

m = hf- bg
ab - h2'
(3)
-
n = hg - af
ab - h2'

We now have three cases to consider (cf. Art. 83) :

1. Equations (2) are consistent and have but one common
solution if, and only if, ab - h2 is not equal to zero. For then
equations (3) give but a single pair of values for m and n.
2. Equations (2) are inconsistent, and therefore have no com-
mon solution, if ab - h2-0= and hf- bg0. For then hg- af÷ 0
and the numerators in (3) do not vanish while the denominator is
equal to zero.
3. Equations (2) are dependent and therefore have an indefi-
nite number of common solutions if ab — - h² = O and hf- bg = 0.
For then hg -
af = 0 and both the numerator and the denomina-
tor of each fraction in (3) vanishes and any pair of values of m and
n that satisfies one of the equations (2) also satisfies the other.
We shall consider the three cases separately, and we assume
that in no case is h equal to zero. For, if h is equal to zero, the
general equation has the form discussed in Art. 111.

114. First case, ab – h² ‡ 0. Central conics. In this case the

terms of first degree can be removed . Setting the values of m
and n from (3) , Art. 113, in (1) and dropping the primes, (1)
becomes
- -
ax² + 2hxy + by² + g(hf— bg) + f(hg — af) + c = 0. (1)
ab - h² ab - h²

The absolute term in this equation is

abc + 2fgh -
— bg² -- aƒ² — ch²
(2)
ab - h2

For simplicity, let A represent the numerator in (2) and C, the

denominator. Equation (1) can then be written

ax² + 2 hxy + by² + = 0. (3)

C
150 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

A can be expressed as a determinant. Thus,

a h g
A= h b f (4)
g f с

C is the cofactor corresponding to the element c, and the

numerators in (3) , Art. 113, are respectively the cofactors corre-
sponding to the elements g and f. The determinant A is called
the discriminant of the general equation of the second degree.
If the axes are now rotated so as to remove the term in xy, (3)
becomes
a'x' + b'y¹² + = 0, (5)

where a' and b' are the roots of ( 14) , Art. 112.
If ab - h² > 0, a' and b' are alike in sign (Art. 112) and (5) can
be written
| a ' | x¹² + | b' \ y'² = c' , (6)

where | a ' and b' are positive numbers and c' is ± The
C'
locus is then an ellipse which is real or imaginary according as c'
is positive or negative .
If ab - h² < 0, a ' and b ' are unlike in sign and then (5) can be
written
| a ' | x¹² — | b ' | y'² = c'. (7)

The locus is then an hyperbola which is primary or conjugate

with respect to the axes X', Y' according as c ' is positive or
negative.
Degenerate conics. If A = 0, then c' is zero, and the locus of
(6) is a single point ; namely, the origin, and the locus of (7) is a
pair of straight lines intersecting at the origin.
Neither a' nor b ' can equal zero , since a ' · b ' = ab - h²0. We
conclude, therefore , that in this first case, the locus of the general
equation of second degree is either an ellipse, real or imaginary ;
an hyperbola ; a pair of real and intersecting lines ; or a single
point. But the locus is never a parabola, a pair of parallel lines,
or a single line.
We may further conclude, from equations (3), (6) , or (7) , that
the locus, whatever it may be, is symmetrical with respect to the
ART. 114] FIRST CASE, ab - h² 0 151

origin, since if x and y satisfy any one of these equations, X1

andy, will also satisfy the equation. Therefore the locus of
the general equation , in this first case, is symmetrical with respect
to the point (m, n). Or, in other words, the point (m, n) is the
center of the locus. Hence the condition ab - h20 characterizes
the central conics.

As an example of the foregoing analysis, let us reduce the equation

8 x² + 4 xy + 5 y² + 8 x - 16 y - 16 = 0

to the standard form and thus determine the nature and position of the
locus.
и h g
Here Cab - h240 - 4 = 36, and A h bf = - . 1296.
=
9fc
Also from (3 ), Art. 113, we have
m = - 1 and n = 2.

Therefore the center of the conic is the point ( 1, 2). Again, from (9),
Art. 112 , tan 2 0 = 1,

from which we find = 26° 34', nearly. Hence we conclude that when the
axes are translated so that the new origin is the point ( 1 , 2 ) , the given
equation will take the form (3) , or
8 x² + 4 xy + 5 y² -
— 36 = 0,
and when the axes are rotated through the
angle 26° 34', the equation will take the
form (5) , where a' and b ' are the roots of
λ2-13λ + 36 = 0;

i.e. 9 and 4. Since h is positive , we

choose a' = 9 and b' = 4. The given equa-
tion then becomes
x2 + y2 == 1.
9 x² + 4y² - 36 = 0 or FIG. 90
4 9

The locus is therefore an ellipse whose semiaxes are 2 and 3. Figure 90

shows the curve and the three sets of axes.
As a second example consider the equation
2 x2xy - 3 y2 - 2x + 18 y - 24 = 0.
Here we find A = 0 and C:=-- 25. The roots of ( 14) , Art. 112, are therefore
unlike in sign, and the locus consists of two intersecting lines . The left-hand
member of the given equation must be the product of two linear factors
152 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

(Art. 85) . Solving the given equation for one

of the variables, considering the other as a known
number, reveals the factors at once . Thus, solv-
ing for x, we have
14.
x = y + 2 ± 5y
4 4
Hence the locus consists of the two lines
FIG. 91 2x - 3y + 6 = 0 and x + y -4 = 0 (Fig. 91 ) .

EXERCISES
1. Reduce the following equations to standard form . Determine the
coördinates of the center and the angle through which the axes must be
rotated in order to remove the term in xy :
(a) 5 x² + 4xy - y2 + 24 x - 6 y -5 = 0. (b) xy + y² + y + 1 = 0.
(c) 4 xy + 4 y2-2x + 3 = 0. (d) x² + xy + y² + 3y = 0 .
(e) x2-2xy + 5y2-8y = 0. (f) x² + 2xy + 9 y² = 0.
(g) 2x2 - 6 xy + 5 y² + 6x - 12 y + 9 = 0.

115. Second case, ab h2 = 0 and hf- bg0. Non-central con-

ics. In this case the terms of first degree cannot be removed,
since equations (2), Art. 113, are inconsistent and have no com-
mon solution. We begin the discussion, therefore, by rotating
the axes so as to remove the term in xy. The angle through
which the axes must be rotated is determined from (9) , Art. 112.
After rotation, the general equation assumes the form (8), Art.
112, where a' and b' are the roots of (14) and g' and f' are deter-
mined from (6) and (7) . But in the case we are discussing,
ab - h² = 0 and equation (14) becomes
λ² — (a + b)λ = 0

whose roots are 0 and a + b. We may assume that a is positive

(Art. 111 ) then b is also positive, since the product ab is positive
( h ). Hence we choose a ' = a + b , or b ' = a + b, according as
h is positive or negative (Art. 112) . The general equation is then
reducible to one or the other of the forms

(a + b)x2 + 2 g'x' + 2f'y' + c = 0, (1)

or (a + b) y/2 + 2 g'x' +2f'y' + c = 0, (2)

according as h is positive or negative.

ART. 115] SECOND CASE, ab - h² = 0 AND hf - bg 0 153

We must now determine g' and f' . From (9), Art. 112, we have
2 tan 0 2h •
tan 20 = =
1- tan20 α b

Solving this quadratic for tan 6, we obtain

α -b (a - b)² +1.
tan 0 ±
2h 4h2

But since h² ab, the expression under the radical is a perfect

b α
square. Therefore, tan = or from which sin ◊ and cos 0,
h h'
and thence g' and f' can be calculated . But, since 0 < 90°, tan 0,
sin 0, and cos are all positive. Hence we have the following
results, where the sign before the radical is positive :

h positive h negative

tan 0 = b α
h h

sin 0 = b α
√b² + h² Va² + h²

h -h
cos 0 =
√b² + h² √a² + h²

hg + bf af- hg
g' == (3)
b² + h² Va² + h²

ƒ' = hf- bg - (hf + ag) (4)

√b² + h² √a² + b²

Since neither hf - bg nor hg - af is zero, we see that if h is

positive, and therefore the equation reducible to the form (1) , ƒ'
cannot equal zero ; and if h is negative, and the equation re-
ducible to the form (2), g' cannot equal zero. Hence, on com-
parison with equations (3) and (4) , Art. 111 , we conclude that
the locus of the general equation, in this case, is necessarily a
parabola.
154 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

As an example, let us reduce the equation

x² - 2 xy + y² - 2y - 1 = 0
to the standard form and thus determine the position of the locus.
Since ab - h2 is here equal to zero and hf is not equal to bg, the locus is a
parabola. Again, since h is negative, we choose the form (2) . Computing
g' and f' from ( 3) and ( 4) , the given equation becomes
2 y/2 - √2x - √2y ' - 1 = 0.
Completing the square of the terms in y' , we have

- 212)
(v' — √2) ²= √² (x² + 5 ).

Comparing with (5 ) , Art. 110, we

see that the vertex of the parab-
ola, referred to the new axes, is
If
the point (-5 4√2 2√2)
the axes are translated so that this
point is the new origin , the equa-
tion reduces to the standard form

y² := √2x,

FIG. 92 where the primes have been

dropped.
The angle through which the axes have been rotated is given by the
equation
tan 0 a = 1.
h

Therefore = 45°. Figure 92 shows the locus and the three sets of axes.

EXERCISES
1. Reduce the following equations to the standard form. Determine the
angle through which it is necessary to rotate the axes in order to remove the
term in xy, and the coördinates of the vertex referred to the original axes :
(a) x² - 2xy + y² - 8x + 16 = 0.
(b) x² - 2xy + y² + 2 x --y - 1 = 0.
(c) 4x² + 4 xy + y² — 4 x = 0.
(d) 9 x² + 12 xy + 4 y2 - 2 y = 0.
(e) x² + 4 xy + 4y² - 6x + 8y + 1 = 0.
ART. 116] THIRD CASE, ab --- h² = 0 AND hf - bg = 0 155

116. Third case, ab – h² = O and hf- bg = 0. Since ab — - h²

is again equal to zero, the general equation is reducible to the
form (1) , or the form (2), of the preceding article, according as h
is positive or negative. But here hf - bg = 0 and af- hg = 0.
Hence, if h is positive, f' = 0 ; and if h is negative, g' = 0.
Consequently equations (1) and (2) of the preceding article be-
come respectively 12
(a + b)x¹² + 2 g'x' + c = 0, (1)
and
(a + b)y'² + 2f'y' + c = 0. · (2)

Each of these equations contains but a single variable. There-

fore, in this case (cf. Art. 111 ) , the locus consists of a pair of
parallel lines ; a single line ; or a pair of imaginary lines, according
as the roots ofthe equation, (1) or (2), are real and distinct ; equal ;
or imaginary.
It is not necessary to calculate the coefficients g ' and f' in
order to determine the nature of the locus of an equation satisfy-
ing the conditions of this third case. For, since a is not zero,
the general equation of the second degree can be written
a²x² + 2 ahxy + aby² + 2 agx + 2 afy + ac = 0, (3)

and since ab = h² and af = hg, (3) becomes

(ax + hy)² + 2g(ax + hy) + ac = 0. (4)

The locus then consists of a pair of parallel lines, a single line,

or a pair of imaginary lines according as g² is greater than, equal
to, or less than ac. For example, the locus of the equation
4x² + 12 xy +9 y² + 4x + 6y + 1 = 0
is a single line, since here g² = ac. The equation of the line is
clearly
2x +3y + 1 = 0.

EXERCISES
1. Determine the nature of the loci of the following equations. Draw
the locus when possible.
(a) x² - 2xy + y² + 2 y - 2x + 1 = 0.
(b) 4x² + 12 xy + 9 y² + 4 x + 6 y + 2 = 0.
(c) x² + 2xy + y² .- 1 = 0.
(d) 9 x² - 12xy + 4 y² + 15 x 10 y + 6 = 0.
156 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

2. If a = 0, in the third case, show that the general equation is neces-

sarily by² + 2fy + c = 0, and therefore the locus is a pair of parallel lines , a
single line, or a pair of imaginary lines according as f² is greater than, equal
to, or less than bc.

117. Recapitulation . The results of the foregoing three arti-

cles can be exhibited in tabular form as follows :
Loci of the general equation of the second degree

ax² + 2 hxy + by² + 2 gx + 2fy + c = 0.

a h g
A = hb f Cab - h2.
\g f с

First case, Second case, Third case,

ab - h² 0 ab—h² = 0, hf— bg ‡ 0 | ab - h² = 0, hf—bg = 0

C>0 C<0
Parallel lines, a
Ellipse, single line, or imag-
A÷0 real or Hyperbola Parabolas inary lines
imag.

A=0 Point Intersecting

lines

EXERCISES
1. Analyze the following equations. What is the locus of each ?
(a) x² +6 xy + y² - 4 x − 12 y + 10 = 0 . ( b ) x² − xy + y² + 3 x = 0 .
(c) 9 x² - 30 xy + 25 y² – 10 x = 0. (d) 2x² - xy + 5x - 2y + 6 = 0.
2. Analyze each of the following equations and draw the corresponding
locus.
(a) x2 - 2xy + y² – − 6 y + 25 = 0. ( b ) x² -— xy + 5 x -
- 10 x - − 2 y + 6 = 0.
(c) 2 x² + xy + y² − 5 x − 10 y + 18 = 0. (d) x² + 3 xy + 2 y² -
- − x — y = 0.
3. The locus of the equation 3 x² - 3 xy - y² + 15 x + 10 y - 24 = 0 is an
hyperbola ; find the equations of its asymptotes.
SUGGESTION. The center of the curve is found to be the point ( 0 , 5) .
The standard form of the equation is 3 x² - 7 y22. Hence the equations of
the asymptotes, referred to the axes of the curve, are 3x² - 7 y² = 0
ARTS. 117 , 118] TANGENTS 157

(Art. 106) . When the coördinate axes are transformed back to the original
position, the equations of the asymptotes become
3x² - 3x(y - 5) -— (y — 5)² = 0,
or y — 5 = ( -− 3 ± √21 ) 2.

4. For what value of k is the locus of 2 + 2 xy + 2 y² + x + k = 0 a pair

of straight lines ? Are these lines real or imaginary ?
5. If the locus of the general equation of second degree in х x and y is a
central conic, show that the equation can be written in the form
a(x − m )² + 2 h (x — m) (y — n ) + b (y − n)² ==
---
where m and n are the coördinates of the center, and A and C have the
meanings assigned in Art. 117.
6. Making use of the preceding exercise, show that the equations of the
asymptotes of any hyperbola are
a(x − m)² + 2 h ( x -
− m ) (y -
− n ) + b (y — n) ² = 0 .
Apply this method to find the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
x² +6 xy + y² - 4 x - 12 y + 10 = 0.
7. Find the coördinates of the vertex, the coördinates of the focus, and
the equation of the directrix of the parabola
x² - 4 xy + 4 y² -
— 4 x — 2y + 8 = 0.

TANGENTS AND DIAMETERS

118. Tangents . It is often convenient to write the equation

of a tangent to a conic at a given point without first having to re-
duce the equation to the standard form. Suppose the equation
has the general form
ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0. (1)

Let P (x , y ) and P2(x2, y2) be any two points on the curve. Then
we must have
2
ax₁² + 2 hx₁y₁ + by₁² + 2 gx, +2ƒ¥₁ + c = 0, (2)
and
ax² + 2hx₂y₂ + by₂² + 2 gx2 + 2fy₂ + c = 0. (3)

Subtracting (3) from (2) , we obtain

a(x²x²) + 2h(x₁₁ -— x₂y₂) + b (y₁² — y₂²) +2 g(x₁ -

— X₂)
+ 2f(y₁ - Y2) = 0. (4)
158 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP . VIII.

Dividing (4) by x - x, we have

C22 + Y₂) (Y1 — - Y2
— Y½ =
ɑ(∞₁ + x₂) +2 h X¹¥1 —X½½ + b ( Y₁ + ?2) (Y1 — Y2) + 2g + 2ƒ¼ - −0 .
X1 - X2 X1 = C2 . X1 X2 (5)

Now Y1-2 is the slope of the secant PP. Let this slope be
X1 - X2
X1Y1 X2Y2 can be written
represented by m. The term
X1 X2
-
X₁₁₁Y2
X11X1Y2 + X1Y2X2Y2
X1 - X2
and is therefore equal to ma₁ + Y2• Hence (5) becomes

a(x1 + x₂) + 2h(mx₁ + y2) + b (y₁ + y₂) m + 2g + 2fm = 0. (6)

Solving for m, we obtain

m = − ª(x + x2) + 2 hy₂ + 2 g.
(7)
2 hx₁ + b(y₁ + Y2) + 2ƒ

Equations (2) to (7 ) hold as long as P₁ and P, are on the curve.

When P₂ approaches P, along the curve, the secant approaches
the position of the tangent at P₁, and in the limit coincides with
it (Art. 97, second method) . Hence, making x = x₁ and y₂ = y₁ in
(7) , we have the slope of the tangent at P₁ ; that is,

m = - ax₁1 + hy₁1 + g (8)

hx₁1 + by₁1 + f

The equation of the tangent at P, is, therefore,

g
y -y1 ==- ax₁ + hy₁ +9 (x − x₁ ) .
hx₁ + by₁ +ƒ

Clearing of fractions and reducing by means of equation (2) , we

have
аxx + h (x¸y + у₁x) + bÿÿ + g(x + x) + ƒ(y₁ + y) + c = 0. (9)

This equation is easily remembered , since if the subscripts are

removed, it returns to the original form (1).
A convenient way of writing (9) is the following :
x(ax₁ + hy + g)
+ y (hx₁ + by₁ +ƒ) (10)
+ (gx₁ + fy₁ + c) = 0.
ARTS. 118, 119] DIAMETERS 159

Either (9) or (10) is the equation of a straight line whether the

point P₁ is on the conic or not. If P is not on the conic, then
(9) or (10) is, by definition (Art. 104) , the equation of the polar
line of P₁ with respect to the conic whose equation is (1).

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the tangents to the following, at the points
indicated.
(a) x² + 4 y² + 5 x = 0, at the points whose ordinate is 1.
(b) xy = 4, at the point whose abscissa is 2.
(c) x² + xy + 4 = 0, at the point whose abscissa is 2.
(d) y² + 2 xy -
— 3 = 0, at the point whose ordinate is - 1 .
(e) x² - 3 xy - 4 y² + 9 = 0, at the points whose ordinate is 2.
2. Find the equation of the polar line of the point ( 1 , 2) with respect to
the conic x² - 3 xy + y² = 4. Draw the figure to illustrate the problem .
3. In exercise 7 , Art. 117 , show that the directrix is the polar line of the
focus with respect to the given parabola.

119. Diameters. In case of a central conic, we have found

that the coördinates of the center are the values of m and n
which satisfy equations (2), Art. 113. This amounts to saying.
that the center of the conic is the point of intersection of the
lines whose equations are

ax + hy + g = 0,
(1)
hx + by + f = 0.

Hence these two lines are diameters of the conic (Art. 101 ) .
The equation of any diameter is , therefore ( Art. 84),
(ax + hy + g) + k (hx + by +ƒ) = 0 (2)

where k is a variable parameter.

Let P(x1, y1) be any point on the conic. When the diameter
(2) passes through P, k has the value

ax₁ + hy + g
hx₁ + by₁ +f

But this is the slope of the tangent at P, (8) , Art. 118, and hence,
also the slope of the diameter conjugate to ( 2) , Art. 102. There-
160 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII.

fore, the parameter k is the slope of the diameter conjugate to (2).

The slope of (2) is
a + hk
h + bk
a + hk
Hence, k and - are the slopes of a pair of conjugate
h + bk
diameters of the conic whose equation has the general form (1 ) of
the preceding article.
The two diameters will be perpendicular to each other, and
therefore the axes (Art. 102, exercises 12 and 13), when the
product of their slopes is -1 ; that is, when ak + hk² = 1, or
h + bk
hk² + (a - b) k − h = 0. (3)

If k₁ and k₂ are the roots of (3) , the equations of the axes are
(ax + hy + g ) + k₁ ( hx + by + f) = 0,
(4)
(ax + hy + g ) + ką(hx + by + f) = 0.

The roots of (3) are always real, since the discriminant,

4 h² + (a - b)²,
is necessarily positive.
We have seen (Art. 106) that an asymptote of an hyperbola is
a self-conjugate diameter. But if the slope of any diameter of a
conic is equal to the slope of its conjugate diameter, we must have
a + hk
k
h + bk'
or bk2 + 2 hk + a = 0. (5)

If ' and k" are the roots of (5) , the equations of the asymptotes
are
(ax + hy + g) + k' (hx + by + f) = 0,
and (6)
(ax + hy + g ) + k" (hx + by + f) = 0.

The roots of (5) are real and unequal only if ab - h² < 0 ; that is,
only if the conic is an hyperbola or a pair of intersecting lines
(Art. 117).

As an example, consider the equation

2x² + 4 xy - y² + 4x - 2y + 3 = 0.
Here equation (3) is 2k2 + 3k 2 = 0,
ART . 119] DIAMETERS 161

whose roots are and -

— 2. Hence, from (4) , the equations of the axes are
2x + y + 1 = 0,
and x- 2y - 2 = 0.

Equation (5) becomes in this case

k2-4k - 2 = 0,

whose roots are 2 ± √6 . Hence the equations of the asymptotes are

(2 x + 2y + 2) + (2 ± √6 ) ( 2 x − y − 1) = 0.

The student should draw a figure illustrating this example.

The diameters of a parabola are perpendicular to the directrix

(Art. 101) and therefore perpendicular to the tangent to the curve
at the vertex. We have seen (Art. 115) that the equation of a
parabola is reducible to one or the other of two forms by a rotation
of the axes through an angle < 90°. But if h is positive, the
new X-axis is parallel to the tangent at the vertex (Eq. 1,
Art. 115) ; and if h is negative, the new X-axis is parallel to the
axis of the curve (Eq. 2, Art. 115). Hence, from the values of
tan in these two cases, we conclude that the slope of a diameter
h α
to the parabola is - or - according as h is positive or negative.
b h
h h
But --- a. Consequently , - is the slope of any diameter.
b h b
The slope of the tangent to the parabola at the point P(x, y) is,
(8) , Art. 118, ax + hy + 9 .
m=
hx + by +f

This tangent is perpendicular to the diameters of the curve if

mh
== 1 , or in other words, if the coördinates of the point of con-
b
tact satisfy the equation

(ax + hy + g) h = 1. (7)
(hx + by +f)b

Clearing of fractions and remembering that h² = ab, (7) becomes

(a + b) (hx + by) + hg + fb = 0. (8)

162 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [CHAP. VIII.

Now (8) is the equation of the axis of the parabola. For it is a

h *
diameter of the curve since it has the slope - *
b
As an example, consider the equation
x² -
— 2 xy + y² — 2y - 1 = 0 . ( cf. Art. 115. )
From (8) , we get the equation of the axis,
2 (x − y ) + 1 = 0.
If we solve the equation of the curve and the equation of the axis simulta-
neously, we get the coördinates of the vertex. In this example , the vertex is
the point ( -7, - ) . The equation of the tangent at the vertex is, therefore,
y + z = − (x + z) , or x + y + ½ = 0.
As a second example, consider the equation
9 x² + 24 xy + 16 y² -
— 52 x + 14 y 6 = 0.
Here we find the equation of the axis is
3x + 4y - 2 = 0.
Solving simultaneously with the given equation, we find that the vertex is the
point ( .08, .44 ). The equation of the tangent at the vertex is, therefore,
(y -
— .44) = (x − .08 )
which reduces to 4 x - 3y + 1 = 0.
The student should construct a figure to illustrate this example.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the axes of the ellipse
x² - 2xy + 4 y² + 2 x + 10 y + 10 = 0.
2. Find the equations of the axes and the equations of the asymptotes of
the hyperbola x² - 7 xy + y² + 12 x + 3 y + 171 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the axis , of the tangent at the vertex, and of the
directrix of the parabola
x² - 2 xy + y² --
— 10 x -
− 6 y + 25 = 0.
4. In the general equation of a conic, show that the line gx + fy + c = 0
is the polar line of the origin with respect to the conic .

* That the tangent at the vertex is the only tangent perpendicular to the diameter
through its point of contact follows from Art . 96. We there saw that the coördi-
nates of the point of contact are 2 and 2P , where m is the slope of the tangent.
m2 m
Hence, as m increases indefinitely, the point of contact approaches the origin.
ARTS . 120, 121] THE SYSTEM OF CIRCLES 163

SYSTEMS OF CONICS

120. The pencil of conics. If U and V denote expressions ofthe

second degree in x and y and k is any constant, then U + kV = 0 is
the equation of a conic passing through the points common to U= 0
and V = 0.
For U + kV = 0 is of second degree in x and y and is, therefore,
the equation of a conic. This conic passes through the points
common to U = 0 and V = 0, since its equation is satisfied by the
coördinates of these points . When k is allowed to vary, we obtain
a series of conics, each passing through the common points.
This series, or system, of conics is called a pencil of conics.
The parameter k can be chosen so that the conic U+ kV = 0
shall satisfy some additional condition, for example, that it shall
pass through a given point in the plane.

121. The system of circles with a common radical axis. Suppose

that U = 0 and V = 0 are the equations of two circles ; that is,

U= x² + y² + Ax + By + C = 0,
(1)
and V = x² + y² + A₁x + B₁у + С₁ = 0,
then
(x² + y² + Ax + By + C
' ) + k(x² + y² + А¸x + B₁y + С₁) = 0 (2)

is in general the equation of a circle passing through the common

points of the two given circles . But if k = -1, the terms of sec-
ond degree drop out, and (2) becomes

(A — A₁) x + (B − B₁)y + ( С — С₁ ) = 0, (3)

which is offirst degree in x and y, and therefore the equation of a

straight line. This line is called the radical axis of the system of
circles . U + kV = 0. The radical axis is a real line, whether the
circles intersect in real points or not. If the circles intersect in
real points, the radical axis is the common chord.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the conic which passes through the points common
to the conics x2. 3xy + y² - 6x = 0 and 4 x² - y² + 3 = 0 , and also through
the point (3, - 2) .
164 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII .

2. Find the equation of the radical axis of each of the following pairs of
circles :
(a) (x − 2) ² + (y -− 3) ² – 10 = 0 , (x + 3 ) ² + (y + 2) ² − 6 = 0.
(b ) x² + y² -
— 4 y = 0, (x − 3 ) ² + y² - 9 = 0.
(c) (x + 3) ² + y² - 2y - 80, x² + y² - 2 y = 0.
(d) x² + (y - − a ) ² = c², (x -
− 2 ) ² + y² = d² .
3. Three circles, taken in pairs, have three radical axes. Show that these
radical axes intersect in one and the same point . This point is called the
radical center of the three circles.
4. Find the coördinates of the radical center of the three circles
(x -− 3) ² + y² = 16, x² + y² = 9, and x² + (y - − 2)² = 25. Construct the figure
illustrating this exercise.
5. Show that the length of a tangent from the point (x1 , y1 ) to the point
of contact on the circle x² + y² + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is
√x₁² + yı² + Dx1 + Ey₁ + F.
SUGGESTION . The triangle whose vertices are the center of the circle, the
point of contact, and the point (x1, y1 ) is right-angled at the point of
contact.
6. Prove that the locus of a point, the lengths of tangents from which
to two fixed circles are equal, is the radical axis of the two circles.
7. Show that the radical axis of two circles is perpendicular to the line
joining the centers of the circles.

122. The parabolas in the pencil U + kV = 0. If the constant

k is chosen so that the terms of second degree in U + kV = 0 form
a perfect square, the corresponding conic is in general a parabola.
But it may be a pair of parallel lines, a pair of imaginary lines,
or a single line (Arts. 115 and 116) . Since the condition for the
parabola is of second degree in the coefficients of x², xy, and y²,
there are in general two parabolas in every pencil of conics.
For example, consider the pencil of conics determined by the
circle
U= x² + y² - 16x - 8y + 44 -= 0,
and the hyperbola V² - y2-8x + 12 = 0.
Here the equation
(x² +y² - 16x - 8y + 44) + k(x² - y² - 8x + 12) = 0
can be the equation of a parabola only if k = ± 1 . Therefore
the pencil contains the two parabolas
x² - 12x - 4y + 280 and y2-4x - 4y + 16 = 0.
ARTS . 122 , 123] STRAIGHT LINES IN U + kV = 0 165

Fig. 93 illustrates the ex-

ample. The circle and hy-
perbola have but two real
points in common and the
two parabolas pass through
.
these points.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the
parabolas which pass through
the points common to the circle
x² + y².—x 1 90 and the hy-
perbola xy - 1 = 0.
2. Find the equations of the
two parabolas which pass FIG. 93
through the points where the
= cuts the coördinate axes. (The equation
ellipse x² 1 3 xy + 4 y2 - x - 20
of the coördinate axes is xy = 0.) Construct the figure illustrating this ex-
ercise.

123. Straight lines in the pencil U+ kV = 0. When k is chosen

so that the discriminant of U + kV = 0 vanishes, the correspond-
ing conic is in general a pair of lines (Art. 114).

For example, consider the pencil of conics determined by the ellipses

U = 2x² + xy + 6 y² + x -
− 6 = 0 and V = 3x² + 5 xy + 10 y² + x - 10 = 0.
Here the pencil U + kV = 0 is
(2 + 3 k) x² + ( 1 + 5 k) xy + ( 6 + 10 k) y² + ( 1 + k) x —
− (6 + 10 k) = 0.
Forming the discriminant,
1 + 5k 1+k
(2 + 3k) 2 2
1+ 5k
A= (6 + 10 k) 0
2
1+k
2 0 - (6 + 10 k)
we find that it reduces to
-
- 12 ( 6 + 10 k) ( k + 1 ) (2k + 1 ).
Hence, if k is 1 , -1, or , the discriminant is zero and the correspond-
ing conic consists of a pair of lines. If k = - , U + kV = 0 becomes
x²-10 xy + 2 x = 0,
166 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [CHAP. VIII.

which is the equation of the pair of lines

x = 0 and x - 10y + 2 = 0.
These are the lines BC and AD in Fig. 94. If k - 1, U + kV = 0 be-
comes x² + 4 xy + 4 y2 - 4 = 0,
which is the equation of the pair of parallel lines
x +2y - 2 = 0 and x + 2y + 2 = 0,

FIG. 94

or BD and AC in the figure. If k === , U+ kV = 0 becomes

x² - 3 xy + 2 y² + x 2 = 0,
or (x - 2y + 2) (x − y − 1 ) = 0,
which is the equation of the pair of lines AB and CD.
The coördinates of the points A, B, C, and D are now easily found. They
represent the common solutions of the equations U = 0 and V = 0.

EXERCISES
1. Find the equations of the straight lines which join in pairs the points
common to the following pair of conics :
(a) x² + y² - 25 = 0, 5 x² + 14y + 3x-- 110 = 0.
(b) 4x² + 9 y 1 360, x² + 4y = 0.
(c) x² + 2xy + 7y2 - 24 = 0, 2x2xy - y2-8 = 0.
2. Find the coördinates of the points common to each pair of conics in
exercise 1 .
ART. 124] PENCIL OF CONICS 167

124. The pencil of conics through four given points. In the pre-
ceding article we have seen how the coördinates of the points
common to two conics U = 0 and V = - 0 may be found. On the
other hand, if we are given the
coördinates of four points, we can
determine the pencil of conics
which has these points in com-
mon.

For example, let the four given

points be A( 1, 0) , B(2, 1 ) , C( 1 , 2) ,
and D( 0, 1 ) ( Fig. 95) . The equation
of the pair of lines AB and CD is
then
(x - y - 1 ) (x − y + 1 ) = 0,
and the equation of the pair AC and
BD is FIG. 95
(x- 1) (y - 1 ) = 0 .
Therefore the equation of the pencil of conics having the four given points in
common is
(xy - 1) (x - y + 1 ) + k (x − 1 ) ( y — 1 ) = 0.
Clearly, the parameter k can be determined so that the corresponding conic
shall pass through any fifth point in the plane. Thus, if we wish the conic
of the pencil which passes through the origin, we must determine k so that
the above equation shall be satisfied by the coördinates of the origin . But
the equation is satisfied for x = 0 and y = 0 if k is 1 . Therefore the ellipse
x² - xy + y² - x - y = 0
belongs to the pencil and also passes through the origin.

EXERCISES

1. Find the equations of the conics which pass through the following sets
of points :
(a) ( 0, 0) , ( 1 , 0) , ( 2, 1 ) , ( 1 , 3) , and ( -1 , - 4) .
( b ) ( 1 , 1 ) , ( 3 , 2) , ( 0, 4) , ( — 4, 0) , and ( -2, - 2) .

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
1. Show that the line x — 2 y = 0 touches the circle
x² + y² - 4x + 8y = 0.
2. The line y = 3x9 is tangent to the circle
x² + y² + 2x + 4y - 5 = 0.
Find the coördinates of the point of contact.
168 EQUATIONS NOT IN STANDARD FORM [ CHAP. VIII .

3. Prove that the distances of two points from the center of a circle are
proportional to the distances of each from the polar line of the other.
4. Find the equations of the circles which pass through the intersections of
= and x² + y² + x + 2y = 14
x² + y29
and touch the X-axis.
5. Find the coördinates of two points whose polar lines with respect to the
circles x² + y² - 2 x − 30 and x² + y² + 2 x - 170 coincide.
6. Find the coördinates of the radical center of the three circles
x² + y² − 4 x — 8 y − 5 = 0 , x² + y² − 8 x -
− 10 y + 25 = 0,
and x² + y² + 8x + 11 y − 10 = 0 .
7. Reduce the following equations to a standard form :
(a) (4y - 3x)² + 4 (4x + 3 y) = 0.
(b) 4x2 -· 24 xy + 11 y2 -— 16x - 2y89 = 0.
(c) 5 x² - 4 xy + 8 y² - 22 x 16 y - 10 - = 0.
(d) 9x2-12xy + 4y² = 10 (2x + 3y + 5).
(e) 3x² - 2xy + 2 y2 - 16 x 8y + 8 = 0.
(f) 6 x² + 24 xy - y² + 50 y - 55 = 0.
(g) x2.→ 2xy + y² -— 5 x - y - 2 = 0.
(h) 4x² + 4 xy + y² + 4x - 3y + 4 = 0.
(i) 25 x² - 20 xy + 4 y² + 5 x 2y - 6 = 0.
(j) x² - 6 xy + 9 y² -− 2 x + 6 y + 1 = 0 .
(k) x² - 2xy - y² = 20 .
(1) xy + 3x - 5y + 5 = 0.
(m) x² + 2xy + y² + 1 = 0.
( n) (5y + 12 x )? = 102 x.
(0) x² - xy - 2 y² -— x--
− 4 y − 2 = 0.
8. What curve must be used as a pattern for cutting elbows of stovepipes
from sheet iron ?
 CHAPTER IX

LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER AND OTHER LOCI

125. Certain loci of higher order, as well as certain transcen-

dental loci, are of importance either because they are useful in
mechanics or because of their historical interest. The more im-
portant of these loci are considered in the following articles .

ALGEBRAIC LOCI
126. The Cissoid of Diocles. Let C be the center of a circle of
radius a, and OCA, any diameter of it. Through O draw any
chord OR and produce it until it meets the tangent at A in the
point Q. If P is so chosen that PQ is equal to OR, then the
locus of P is a curve called the Cissoid of Diocles.
To find the equation of the cissoid, let O be the origin, OCA
the X-axis, and the tangent at O the Y-axis. Let e denote the
angle AOQ. Then OQ = 2 a sec 0 and OR = 2 a cos 0. Hence,
OP = OQ - PQ = OQ- OR = 2 a (sec 0 - cos 0). (1)

But y.
OP = √x² + y² and arc tan .
x

Therefore sec 0 = √x² + y²

x
X
and cos =
√x² + y²

Substituting in (1) and reducing, we get the equation sought,

203 •
y2 -
2a—X

Either from the definition, or the equation, the curve is seen

to have the form indicated in the figure .
169
170 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP . IX.

EXERCISES

1. Show that the line 2 a -

− x = 0 is an asymptote to the cissoid.
2. Using the method of Art. 118, show that the tangent to the cissoid at
the point (x1, y1 ) is 2 (2 α — x1 ) Y₁y — ( 3 x1² + yı²) x + 2 ayı² = 0.

3. In Fig. 96 let CM be taken twice the length of CB. Draw MA and

let it meet the cissoid in the point F whose ordinate is FE. Prove that
FE³ 2. OE³. If CM is n times CB, show
M that FE³ n⋅ OE³.

NOTE. The cissoid was invented by Dio-

cles for the purpose of duplicating the cube.
B
Thus, in Fig. 96, when CM is twice CB,
and OE is the edge of a given cube, FE is
P the edge of a cube of twice the volume.
The duplication of the cube is one of the
CE famous problems of antiquity. Diocles lived
about 150 B.C.

127. The Conchoid of Nicomedes.

Let XX' be any straight line and O
any point not on XX'. Through
FIG. 96 O draw a series of straight lines
forming a pencil, and on each of
these lines lay off a constant length a on each side of XX'.
The locus of the points so determined is called the conchoid of
Nicomedes.
To find the equation of the conchoid, let XX' be the X-axis and
the perpendicular through O, the Y-axis. The point of intersec-
tion A is the origin. Let OA = b, and P, any point on the con-
choid. Construct the right triangle POD, PO and PD meeting
XX' in F and E, respectively. From similar triangles, we have

EP: FE :: DP : OD.

Now, EP = y, DP = y + b, and OD = x. By construction, PF = α,

a,
and hence FE = √a² - y². It is clear that these relations hold
also for the point P', where P'F = FP = a . Substituting in (1)
and reducing, we have the equation sought ; namely,

x²y² = (y + b)²(a² — y²).

ARTS. 127, 128] THE WITCH OF AGNESI 171

EXERCISES

1. Construct conchoids for which a > b , a = b and a < b. Note the differ-
ence in form.
2. Show that the X-axis is an asymptote of the conchoid.
3. In Fig. 97 , let AB be twice the length of OF. Draw the perpendicu-
lar XX at F and let it meet the conchoid at K. Draw OK and take
KR = OF. Show that
KR =RF - OF, and con-
B K
sequently the angle KOB
is one third the angle
POB. Show how this R
construction enables one Ε΄ Α E
to trisect any given angle . X
NOTE. The conchoid D D
was invented by Nicome- P
des for the purpose of tri-
secting a given angle.
This is another famous FIG. 97
problem of antiquity.
Neither the duplication of the cube nor the trisection of an angle can be
effected by means of the circle and straight line alone, hence the ancients
were forced to the invention of other curves for these purposes. Nicomedes
was a contemporary of Diocles.

128. The Witch of Agnesi . Let C be the center of a circle

whose radius is a ; and OB any diameter. Draw the tangents at
Y O and B; and let
B N OR be any chord
through which,
C R produced , meets
the tangent at B in
N. Through R
draw the parallel
FIG. 98
to OD, the X-axis,
and through N, the parallel to OB, the Y-axis. The locus of
the point P, where these parallels meet, is called the witch of
Agnesi.
172 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

EXERCISES

1. Show that the equation of the witch , referred to the lines OX and OY
8 as •
as coördinate axes, is y =
x² + 4 a²
SUGGESTION . Use the similar triangles NRP and NOD to find the re-
lation between the coördinates of P.
2. Show that the X-axis is an asymptote of the witch.
NOTE. Donna Maria Agnesi, who invented the witch, was born at Milan,
1718, and died there, 1799. She was appointed Professor of Mathematics
at the University of Bologna, 1750.

129. The Limaçon of Pascal. Let C be the center of a circle

whose radius is a ; and OD, any diameter. Through O draw a
series of lines, and on each of these lay off a distance b on each
side of the circle. The locus of the points thus determined is
called the limaçon .
To find the equation of the limaçon, let O be the pole and OD
the polar axis. The length of the chord within the circle is
2 a cos 0. Hence the radii of the points Pand P' on this chord
are given by the equation
r = 2 a cos 0 ± b,

which in rectangular coördinates reduces to

(x² + y² - 2 ax)² = b² (x² + y²) .

EXERCISES
1. Construct the limaçons for
P which b > 2 a, b = 2 a, and b < 2 a.
M Note the difference in form . When
b = 2 a, the limaçon is called the car-
dioid from its heart-shaped form.
BX 2. When b = a, the limaçon fur-
nishes a neat curve for trisecting a
given angle. In Fig. 99, let PCB be
the given angle. Show that PM = =
MC := CO and, therefore, the angle
POB is the angle PCB.
NOTE. Pascal ( 1623-1662) was a
celebrated French mathematician
FIG. 99 and philosopher .
ARTS. 129, 130] THE CYCLOID 173

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
1. Show that the locus of the intersection of a tangent to the parabola
y2 =-- 8 ax and a line drawn through the origin perpendicular to this tangent
is the cissoid.
SUGGESTION. The equation of a tangent in terms of the slope is (Art. 95,
2a
Eq. 9) y = mx - m and the equation of the line through the origin per-
X
pendicular to this tangent is y = — m · The locus of the intersection of these
two lines is found by eliminating m from the two equations.
2. A tangent is drawn to the parabola y² = 4 px at a point T. The per-
pendicular to this tangent through the origin meets the ordinate of T, pro-
duced, at P. Find the equation of the locus of P as T moves along the
curve . The locus is called the semicubical parabola.
3. The two parabolas y² = 2 ax and x2 = ay meet at the origin and also
at another point P. Find the coördinates of P. If a is the edge of a given
cube, show how the construction of the two parabolas solves the problem of
the duplication of the cube.
4. Show that the conchoid is the locus of the points of intersection of the
line y -x with the circle (x — - bk ) ² + y² = a², k being a variable
k
parameter .
5. A tangent is drawn to the equilateral hyperbola x² - y² = a² at the
point T. The perpendicular to this tangent through the origin meets the
tangent in the point P. Show that the locus of P, as T moves along the
curve, is the lemniscate ( Art. 54) .
6. Find the locus of the intersection of the two straight lines
x + ky + a( k² - — 3 ) = 0 and y = kx,
k being a variable parameter. The locus is called the trisectrix of Maclaurin.
Discuss its equation and draw the locus.

TRANSCENDENTAL LOCI

130. The cycloid. The locus of a point in the circumference

of a circle which rolls (without sliding) along a fixed straight line
is called the cycloid . The circle is called the generating circle.
To find the equation of the cycloid , take the line on which the
circle rolls as the X-axis, the radius of the rolling circle equal to
a, and one of the positions in which the tracing point is on this
line as the origin O. Let C be the center of the generating circle
when the tracing point has the position P. Join P and C, and
174 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

draw CT perpendicular to the X-axis. Let 0 represent the angle

PCT. Now OT = arc PT- = a0. Hence,
x = OD = OT - — PE = a0 - a sin 0,
(1)
y = DPTC – EC = a - a cos 0.

Equations (1 ) are the parametric equations of the cycloid,

being the parameter.
When varies from 0 to 2 , P traces out one arch of the curve.
The entire curve consists of this arch and repetitions of it to the
right and left corresponding to values of outside the limits 0, 2 π.

EXERCISES
1. In Fig. 100, OB is the span of one arch of the cycloid and F is its
middle point. Show that the area of the triangle OAB is twice the area of
the generating circle.
2. When the point T bisects OF, show that the area of the triangle OPA
is half the area of the square inscribed in the generating circle.
Y H

D F B

FIG. 100

3. Prove that the tangent to the cycloid at P passes through H, the upper
extremity of the diameter of the generating circle which is perpendicular to
the base OB.
SUGGESTION. At any instant of the motion of the generating circle, T
(its lowest point) is at rest, and the motion of every point of the generating
circle is for the moment the same as if it described a circle about T. Hence
the normal to the cycloid at P must pass through T.
π
4. If 0 = 2 , write the equation of the tangent to the cycloid .

NOTE. The cycloid was much studied by the most eminent mathema-
ticians of Europe during the first half of the 17th century. In particular
Galileo and Pascal discovered many of its properties . Its area was found to
be three times the area of the generating circle by Roberval in 1634. The
method of drawing tangents (exercise 3) was discovered by Descartes .
ART. 131] THE HYPOCYCLOID 175

131. The Hypocycloid: This locus is the curve traced by a

fixed point on the circumference of a circle which rolls internally
along the circumference of a fixed circle.
To derive the parametric equations of the hypocycloid, let the
radii of the fixed and rolling circles be a and b respectively.
Let A be one of the
positions in which
the tracing point lies
on the fixed circle. B
Take the center of
the fixed circle O as
origin, and the line N
OA as X-axis. Let
MH
C be the center of
the rolling circle
E
when the tracing
point has arrived at
the position P(x, y),
the angle through
which the line of .FIG. 101
centers OCB has
turned, and the angle through which the radius CP of the rolling.
circle has rotated since Pleft the position A. The coördinates of P
are the coördinates of C plus the projections of CP upon the X-
and Y-axes, respectively. Hence (Fig . 101 ) , we have
x= OM = OH + NP = OC cos 0 + CP cos + = (a - b) cos + b coso,

y = MP = HC - NC = (a - b) sin -b sin .

But arc PBarc AB, and therefore we have

-
b(0 + )= a0, or = a- b 0.
b

Hence, the required equations are

―
x = (a — b) cos 0 + b cos• [a=bo] ,

a b
y = (a - b) sin 0 -
– 6 sin
[응아
176 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

132. Special Hypocycloids. If a = 2b, the equations of the

hypocycloid become
x = 2b cos 0,
y = 0.

Hence, in this case, the hypocycloid consists of that portion of

the X-axis which is included within the fixed circle.
If a = 4b, the equations become
α
x = - (3 cos 0+ cos 3 0),
4
α (1)
-
y = (3 sisin 0 — sin 3 0).

But, from trigonometry ,

cos 30 = 4 cos³ 0 - 3 cos 0,
sin 303 sin 0 - 4 sin³ 0.

Substituting these values in (1), we get

x = a cos³ 0,
y = a sin³ 0,
from which
K B cos = 9
(
20
P sin 0 =
a

Squaring, adding, and

clearing of fractions ,
we have

x} + y³ = a³.

The tracing point on

FIG. 102 the rolling circle re-

verses its direction of
motion at each of the positions in which it is in contact with the
fixed circle. These points are called cusps. Thus, in Fig. 101 ,
the points A, D, E, are cusps.
If a = 4b, there are four cusps, since the rolling circle makes
ARTS . 132, 133] THE EPICYCLOID 177

exactly four complete revolutions in returning to its original posi-

tion. Hence, the locus is called the four-cusped hypocycloid. It
is an algebraic curve, since its equation , x + y = a³, is algebraic.
The equation is readily rationalized, and it then has the form
(x² + y² -
— a²)³ — 27 a²x²y² = 0,

from which it is seen that the curve is of 6th order. The form
of the curve appears in Fig. 102 .

EXERCISES

1. Show that the tangent and normal at any point P of an hypocycloid

pass through the extremities of that diameter of the rolling circle which
passes through the center of the fixed circle ( in Fig. 101 , the tangent and
normal at P pass through F and B respectively ) .
2. Prove that the length of the tangent at any point of the four-cusped
hypocycloid, which is included between the coördinate axes, is equal to the
radius of the fixed circle.
Let P ( Fig. 102 ) be any point of the curve, and C, the center of the roll-
ing circle when the tracing point has the position P. The tangent at P is
then PF, meeting the axes in K and L. We are to show that KL is equal
to the radius of the fixed circle . Since arc AB = arc PB and the radius of
the fixed circle is four times the radius of the rolling circle, it follows that
the angle BCP is four times the angle BOA ; that is, angle BCP = 4 0.
Hence, angle BFP = 20 ; and OFL is an isosceles triangle, OF = FL.
Also OFK is an isosceles triangle and OF = FK. Therefore LK = 2 . OF= a.
NOTE. When a straight line, or curve, moves according to a given law,
it is generally continuously tangent to another curve called the envelope .
Thus, the four-cusped hypocycloid is the envelope of a line of constant
length which moves so that its extremities are always on the coördinate
axes. This property enables one to construct the four-cusped hypocycloid by
merely drawing a series of lines of constant length whose extremities all lie
on the coördinate axes. The student should make the construction .

133. The Epicycloid. The locus is the curve traced by a fixed

point on a circle which rolls externally on the circumference of a
fixed circle.
The parametric equations of the epicycloid are found in exactly
the same way as were the equations of the hypocycloid (Art . 131).
They may be written from the equations of the hypocycloid by
changing the sign of b. The equations are
178 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

a b
x = (a + b) cos 0 - b cos
[~+5%]

+b
y = (a + b) sin -b sin
" [~ +60]

AY

FIG. 103

134. The Cardioid. When the rolling circle is equal to the

fixed circle ; that is, when ab, the equations of the epicycloid
become
x == 2 a cos 0- a cos 2 0,
y = 2 a sin 0 a sin 2 0.

To show that this curve is the cardioid ( Art. 129, exercise 1 ) ,

let C
' be the center of the rolling circle when the tracing point has the
position P. Draw PA and let it meet the fixed circle again at Q.
Now, since arc PF - arc AF and FC = FO, the angle FCP =
angle FOA = 0 ; FP = FA and PQ is parallel to OC. Again,
since OA = OQ and angle OAQ = 0, angle OQA = 0 and QOCP
is a parallelogram. Therefore, QP = OC = 2 a, and the point P
can be located by laying off the distance 2 a from Q along the
chord of the fixed circle through A. This agrees with the defini-
tion of the limaçon for which b = 2a. Hence, the special epicy-
cloid for which the rolling circle is equal to the fixed circle is the
ART. 134] THE CARDIOID 179

same as the special limaçon for which the distance laid off along the
chords ofthe fixed circle is twice the radius of the fixed circle.
AY

FIG. 104

The tangent to the cardioid at P passes through T, and the

normal through F. Hence, the circle whose center is F and
whose radius is FP touches the cardioid at P. But this circle
passes through A, since FP= FA. Therefore, all the circles hav-
ing their centers on the fixed circle and passing through A, touch the
cardioid. Or, in other words, the cardioid is the envelope of this
system of circles. This property enables one to construct the
cardioid by drawing a number of circles of the system.
While the epicycloids are in general transcendental curves, the
cardioid, as we have seen, is an algebraic curve.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
1. A circle of radius a rolls along a fixed straight line ; a point on a
fixed radius of the circle at a distance b from the center describes a curve
180 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP . IX .

called the trochoid . Show that the parametric equations of the trochoid are
x = a0b sin 0,
y = ab cos 0.
Plot the trochoids for which b < a and b > a.
2. Show that the polar equation of the cardioid ( Fig. 104) is
r = 2 a( 1 - cos 0) ,
A being the pole and OA the polar axis.
3. Write the parametric equations of the hypocycloid for which a = 3 b.
This curve is called the three-cusped hypocycloid.
4. A thread is wound around a circular disk and then unwound, kept
always stretched . Any point in the thread describes a curve called the
involute of the circle. If a is the ra-
dius of the circle , A the position where
the tracing point leaves the circle, O
(the center of the circle) the origin ,
T and OA the X-axis, show that the
ав parametric equations of the locus are
x = a cos @ + a0 sin 0,
ya sin 0 - al cos 0.
N A M 5. A ladder stands upright
against a perpendicular wall and then
slides down, the upper end continually
resting against the wall. What is
FIG. 105 the envelope of the moving ladder ?
What is the locus of its middle point ?
m
What are the loci of the points dividing the ladder in the ratio ?
n
6. A projectile leaves the muzzle of a gun with a velocity of v feet per
second, the barrel of the gun being elevated at an angle & from the horizontal.
Neglecting the resistance of the atmosphere, show that the path of the pro-
jectile is a parabola whose parametric equations are
x = vt cos p,
gt2
y = vt sin 2'

the parameter t denoting time measured in seconds, and g, the force ofgravity.
Take the position of the gun as origin and the horizontal line OL as X-axis.
Now, at the end of t seconds, the projectile would be at Q ( OQ = vt) were it
gt2
not for gravity which pulls it down a distance QP - 2 • Hence,
ART. 134] THE CARDIOID 181

x = OD = vt cos
gt2
y = DP = DQ – PQ = vt sin ø 2
Eliminating t from these equations,
gx2
y = x tan p - 2 v2 cos2 p.

Hence, the locus is a parabola.

7. The distance OL ( Fig. 105 ) from the gun to the point where the pro-
jectile strikes the horizontal line is called the range. Derive a formula for
computing the range when the
velocity v and the angle of ele-
vation are given. Show that
the greatest range is obtained
when - 45°. If the velocity
v is 1000 ft. per second and the
range is 5 miles, what must be
the angle of elevation ?
8. Two men compete in
putting the shot. Compute the
effect of any difference in height
of the men, other things being
equal. D
血 L
9. A form is to be con-
structed for a parabolic arch of FIG. 106
cement work. The height of
the arch is h and the span 2 7 ; find the equation of the arch.
10. Find the equation of the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from
the center upon the tangent to the ellipse
218

y2 = 1.
+
b2

11. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is given in position and length.

Find the equation of the locus of the center of the circle inscribed in the
triangle.
12. Find the locus of the center of a circle which touches two given
circles. Discuss the problem for the various positions which the given circles
may have.
13. Through a given point (x1 , 1 ) two lines are drawn which meet the
coördinate axes in the points A, B and A1 , B1 , respectively. Find the locus
of the point of intersection of the lines AB₁ and A₁B.
182 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

Pairs of corresponding values of two variable quantities are

often found by experiment ; the graph or locus determined by
these pairs (Art. 40) exhibits the change in function due to a
change in variable within the limits of observation. It is often
of importance to determine the equation of this graph or locus ;
or, to speak more accurately, to find an equation whose locus.
coincides as closely as possible with the locus formed from the
observed pairs of values . An equation found in this way is called
empirical, because it depends upon experiment or observation.
An empirical equation is the mathematical statement of an em-
pirical law.
The complete solution of the problem of finding an empirical
equation from a given set of observations often leads to very
intricate analysis, but it is not difficult to test a set of observa-
tions to see if it satisfies any one of a number of typical equations .
These typical equations embody the simple laws of natural science.

135. Typical Equations.

1. y = mx + k ; straight lines.
2. y = Cx" ; parabolic curves (Fig. 107).
3. (y - k) = C(x - h) " ; parabolic curves, origin not at the
vertex .
α
4. y = 2; hyperbolic curves (Fig . 107) .
α
5. (y — k) = hyperbolic curves, origin not at the
center. (x − h)n³

6. y = ab*
(y - k) = ab } ; exponential curves ( Fig. 109) .
a
7. y = (Fig. 110).
+ x2
8. y = a + bx + cx² + dx³ + ... + kon

136. Loci of typical equations. A study of the foregoing equa-

tions and the general characteristics of the corresponding loci is
of fundamental importance.
ARTS . 135, 136] LOCI OF TYPICAL EQUATIONS 183

Figure 107 shows a number of curves belonging to the family

y = Cx". This is an especially important family of curves, since
many of the simple laws of natural science are embodied in the

-=1
-=x
n
n
-=2
n

n=0

n=
n= %
N n=
3
=
n
2

=
=n 1
n

n =?
n= °/2

7x
n= 3
%
n=
3

n=x
u
n
1=

n= n = -x
-=1
n

n
y = x

FIG. 107

equation y = Cx". The curves are drawn for C = 1 ; the general

form of the curves will be the same for any other value of C.
If n is a positive number (type 2 , Art. 135) , the curves are
called parabolic. If n is 3 or , the curve is the cubical parabola.
If n is or , the curve is the semicubical parabola. If n is 2 or
, the curve is the ordinary parabola . If n is a negative number,
the curves are called hyperbolic. If n is -1, the curve is the
ordinary hyperbola.
184 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

A study of the figure reveals the following properties :

I. All curves of the system, whatever the value of n, pass through
the point A = (1, 1) .
II. All the parabolic curves of the system (n > 0) pass through the
origin, follow the diagonals ofthe square ABCD more or less closely,
and pass out ofthe square through A and one other vertex.

III. If n is a positive number represented by (a and b prime to

each other), then
(1) when a is even and b is odd, the curves pass through

B = (- 1, 1) ;

(2) when a is odd and b is odd, the curves pass through

C = (- 1, -1) ; and

(3) when a is odd and b is even, the curves pass through

D = (1, -
− 1).

IV. The parabolic curves of the system fill the square ABCD and
the infinite regions of the plane which corner on this square ; i.e. the
shaded regions in Fig. 108.
V. When n is a positive
even integer, the curves touch
the X-axis more and more
closely the larger n is taken ;
i.e. the curvature at the ori-
gin becomes less and less as
D the value of n is increased .
When n is a positive odd
integer, the curves touch
the X-axis at the origin,
but the curvature changes
FIG. 108 from concave downward on
the left of the Y-axis to
concave upward on the right. Each curve has a point of inflexion
at the origin.
When n is fractional, with neither numerator nor denominator
equal to unity, each curve has a cusp at the origin .
ART. 136. ] LOCI OF TYPICAL EQUATIONS 185

VI. The hyperbolic curves of the system (n < 0) fill the regions of
the plane outside the square ABCD and the infinite regions corner-
ing on this square ; i.e. the un-
shaded regions in Fig. 108. The
axes are asymptotes to each hy-
perbola ofthe system .
Types 3 and 5 (Art. 135 ) do
not differ in form from types 2
and 4.

2=
b
b=
3
Type 6 is illustrated in Fig.
109. Each curve of the system
passes through the point (0, 1)
b=0
(a is assumed to be unity in b=x
drawing these curves), the
X
curvature depending upon the
value of b. The curves illus- y= ba
trate phenomena that follow the
"compound interest law."
FIG. 109
Type 7 is shown in Fig.
110. If a² = b³, the curve is the witch (Fig. 98) . This curve
is of special importance in representing phenomena where the ob-
served value (the function) gradually decreases, from a maximum
AY

0 a
y=b+x2 ; a =4, b = 1

FIG. 110
186 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

at x = 0, as the variable increases in value. Other curves ap

plicable to phenomena of this character are the probability curve,
AY

e 2.71828 +

FIG. 111
k 2a
y e -k²², Fig. 111 , and the curve y = Fig. 112. If
√π e² + e
a = 1 , the latter is the hyperbolic secant curve.
Y
too

3
2a
y=-
ex+e

FIG. 112

137. Selection of type curve and determination of constants.

Frequently the law which experimental data must follow is
known beforehand, and then it is only necessary to determine
the constants in the equation . For example, in experiments on
falling bodies, the law is known to be of the form y Ca², where
y represents the distance fallen during the time x. In this case,
ARTS . 137 , 138] TEST BY LINEAR EQUATIONS 187

one pair of values of x and y will determine the value of the con-
stant C.
Experimentally determined values of any function are never
absolutely exact, so that plotted points, determined from experi-
ment, never all lie exactly on the curve representing the known
law. The values of the constants, determined as above, are there-
fore more or less approximate. The aim is to find such values
for the constants as will give the best average curve to represent
the observed values of the function.
In case the law is not known, the curve which best represents
the observed values of the function must be selected by trial.
The procedure is as follows :
(a) Plot the observed values carefully ;
(b) From the known forms of curves discussed in Art. 136,
or elsewhere, select that one which resembles the plotted curve
most closely ;
(c) Determine the constants in the equation of the selected
curve so that it will fit the observed values most closely.
To fulfill the requirements (b) and ( c) satisfactorily requires
good judgment and a good eye as well as some knowledge of the
forms of various types of curves . The results obtained are often
quite as serviceable as though more intricate analysis had been
employed to find them.

138. Test by means of linear equations. After a trial curve has

been selected , it is often rather difficult to determine whether
this curve actually represents the observed values of the function
with sufficient accuracy for the purposes of the problem or not.
The following device is of great assistance in determining whether
to retain or reject the trial curve. The typical equations in
Art. 136 can be transformed into linear equations as follows :
2. y = Cx" can be written log y = log C + n log x.
3. ( y-
(y — k)
k) = C (x - h)" can be written log (y - k) = log C +
—
n log (x − h).
Types 4 and 5 are included in the above.
6. y = ab can be written log y = log a + x log b.
α 1 b x²
7. y = can be written - = - +
b + x²² У a α
188 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

If the observed values satisfy sufficiently accurately an equa-

tion of the form y = Ca", say, then the logarithms of the observed
values must satisfy the equation log y = log C + n log x. Hence,
the points plotted from the logarithms of the observed values
must lie closely upon a straight line. If they do not lie upon a
91876

2 567891 2 3 567891
FIG. 113

straight line, or nearly so, the required equation is not of the

form y = Cx".
Similarly, if the observed values are to satisfy an equation of
the type y = ab", then the values of log y and x must satisfy the
equation log y = log a + x log b.
Again, if the observed values are to satisfy an equation of the
ART. 139] EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 189

type 7, the values of 1 and 2 must satisfy the equation

y
1 b x2
== +
y α a

Instead of looking up the logarithms of the numbers in a

given table, logarithmic paper may be used. The horizontal and
vertical scales on this paper represent the logarithms of numbers.
Figure 113 shows a sheet of this paper on which has been plotted
the table in Example II , Art. 139. Because the plotted points
lie very closely upon a straight line, we may assume the equa-
tion y = Con

139. Examples and exercises. The foregoing statements will

be better understood from the following illustrative examples and
exercises .
Example I. Find an equation which is satisfied by the following pairs of
values of x and y :
x=1 2 3 4 5 6
y = 3 1.5 1.22 1.125 1.08 1.06
Plotting the given pairs of values, we have the curve in Fig. 114. We
now note that this curve resembles one of the hyperbolic curves belonging to

FIG. 114

the system y = Cx", but with this difference ; instead of approaching the
X-axis as an asymptote, it apparently approaches the line y = 1 as an asymp-
tote. We therefore assume, as a trial equation, y - 1 = Cxn. If the given
190 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX.

values of x and y satisfy this equation , then the values of log ( y — 1 ) and
log x must satisfy the equation
log (y - 1 ) = log C + n log x,
or the equation of a straight line. From the given values of x and y, we
obtain ,
log x = 0 .301 .477 .602 .70 .80
log (y - 1) = .301 -..301 -- .658 - .903 -. 1.10 - 1.22

Plotting these values, we obtain Fig. 115. We see that the straight line
passing through the first and next the last of these points very nearly passes
through the others. The slope of
this line is 2 and the intercept
on the Y-axis is .301 = log 2.
Hence, log (y − 1 ) = log 2 – 2
log x, or
2
47 y=1+
x2

By actual substitution, this

equation is seen to be very closely
satisfied by the given pairs of
values of x and y.
Logarithmic paper may be used
in this example, as explained in
the preceding article.
Example II. For water flow-
ing in pipes, the loss of pressure
due to friction is approximately
proportional to the square of the
velocity . If y is the loss of pres-
sure per 1000 feet and x is the
velocity in feet per second, then
(approximately ) y:= ax². Find
the value of the constant a so
that the following experimental
data will fit the given equation
FIG. 115 closely :
x = 1.9 2.8 3.6 4.3 4.8 6.1 7.2 8.2 9.1
y= 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30

Example III. Show that the observed data in the preceding example will
more closely satisfy an equation of the type y = ax". See Fig. 113.
Example IV. The following observations were made of wind pressure on
inclined surfaces.
ART. 139] EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES 191

Inclination from vertical : 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°.

Pressure (pounds per square foot) : 5.5, 5.3, 4.4, 3.5, 2.1.
Determine the curve representing the pressure as a function of the angle.
SUGGESTION. Assume the equation k y = ax". Plot the observed
values. Estimate k = 6. Plot the values of the logarithms of 6 - y and x,
and fit a straight line to the plotted points.

100-

30-

210 240 270300-330 60 390 420 X

FIG. 116

Example V. In a certain investigation upon the strains in railway bridges

due to the passage of trains, the following data were found :
x = 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
y = 100 95 84 72 58 45 40 30 25 22 18 16 15 12 10
192 LOCI OF HIGHER ORDER [CHAP. IX .

Find an empirical equation which these observations will satisfy with close
approximation.
SUGGESTION . Plot the given pairs of values carefully. Note that the
curve obtained seems to approach the X-axis as an asymptote . Since the
function begins with a maximum value at x = 0 and steadily decreases in
value as x increases, choose type 7 as a trial equation . Plot the values of
1 and x2 and fit a straight line to the plotted points .
y
Figure 116 shows the points plotted from the given pairs of values of x and y
α in which a == 2,000,000 and
and also the locus of the equation y =
b + x²
b = 20,000 . The scales are indicated on the figure.
Example VI. In a series of experiments on the adiabatic expansion for
air, the following data were obtained , where v stands for volume and p for
the corresponding pressure.
v= 3 4 5.2 6.0 7.3 8.5 10.0
p107.3 71.5 49.5 40.5 30.8 24.9 19.8

Find the empirical equation connecting p and v.

SUGGESTION. Since the curve obtained from the given pairs of values of
p and v resembles one of the hyperbolas of the system y = Cx", plot the values
of log p and log v and fit a straight line to the plotted points . The equation
sought is pul.4 = 497.7.
EXERCISES

1. If represents the length of a steel bar and t represents temperature,

find the equation connecting 7 and t from the following observations :
7 = 1 1.0004 1.0008 1.0012 1.0016 1.0024 1.0040
t=0 20 40 60 80 120 200

2. Find the equation connecting Q and h from the following set of obser-
vations :
h == .583 .667 .750 .834 .876 .958
Q = 7.000 7.600 7.940 8.420 8.680 9.040
3. Show that the following set of corresponding values satisfies an equa-
tion of the form y = ab*. Find the values of a and b.
x = 2.000 3.20 4.70 8.5 10.3 12.6
y = 7.086 12.64 125.07 163.0 388.4 1178.0
4. The following set of observations represents the deflection d of a beam
of length L. Find the equation connecting d and L.
L = 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
d = .17 .043 .085 .145 .220 .342 .512 .713
ART. 140] TYPE y = a + bx + cx² + dx³ + ... + kxn 193

5. Find the equation connecting u and v from the following set of corre-
sponding values :
u = .5 1.1 1.70 2.30 5.10 6.40
v = 13.6 4.0 2.37 1.84 1.33 1.28

140. Type y = a + bx + cx² + dx³ + ... + kan. When a given

set of corresponding values will not satisfy, in a satisfactory
manner, any of the type-equations 1 to 7 (Art . 137) , the general
equation
y = a + bx + cx² + dx² +·... + kxn

may be assumed. By substituting pairs of corresponding values

in this equation, the values of the constants a, b, c, ... k can be
determined and may often be so adjusted that the locus of the
resulting equation will represent the function to a fair degree of
approximation within the limits of observation.

EXERCISES

1. Show that the following set of corresponding values satisfy an equation

of the form y = a + bx + cx². Find the values of a, b, c :
x = 8 23 39 53 63
y = 10 19 27 33 36

2. Find an equation of the form y = a + bx + cx² which will be satisfied

by the corresponding values of angle and wind pressure in Example IV,
Art. 139. Why is the equation found in this way not as satisfactory as the
equation found in Example IV ?
 PART II

SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER X

SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES

141. Rectangular and oblique coördinates. As has been said, it

requires one number to locate a point on a line and two numbers
to locate a point in a plane (Art. 4) . To locate a point in space
it requires three numbers,
called the coördinates of the
point. These coördinates. F
may be chosen in several
different ways ; any par- P
2
ticular way of choosing
them gives rise to a system
of coördinates. Thus (Fig. x
117), let OX, OY, and OZ ม
be three linear scales hav- E
ing a common origin O and
not lying in the same plane.
They determine in pairs.
XY
three planes XOY, YOZ, FIG. 117
and XOZ, called the coör-
dinate planes. If through any point in space, as P, three planes
are drawn parallel to the coördinate planes, they intersect the
linear scales in the points D, E, and F. The distances x == OD,
y = OE, and z = OF are the Cartesian coördinates of the point P.
The linear scales OX, OY, and OZ are called the X-, Y-, and Z-
axes, respectively. The coördinate planes XOY, XOZ, and YOZ
are called the XY-, XZ-, and YZ-planes, respectively. The sys-
195
196 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. X.

tem of coördinates thus set up is called the Cartesian system of

coördinates.
When the axes, OX, OY, and OZ are mutually perpendicular,
the system of coördinates is called rectangular or orthogonal. If
the axes are not mutually perpendicular, the system is called
oblique. From the definition of the coördinates of a point, and
the definition of a linear scale, it follows that, in the Cartesian
system of coördinates, to each point in space there corresponds
one set of values of x, y, z ; and to each set of values of x, y, z
there corresponds one point in space.

EXERCISES
(In the following exercises, take the axes to be mutually perpendicular.
Cross-section paper may be used.)
1. Plot to scale the following points, the coördinates being always written
in the order (x, y, z) :
-- 3 ) , ( — 4, 2, 8) , ( 0 , 0 , 2) , ( 1, - 3, 0).
(1 , 1 , 1 ) , ( 2, 0, 3) , ( — 4, — 1 , −
2. Find the distance between the points ( 1, - 2, 3) and ( — 1 , 2 , - − 2) .
3. Where are the points located for which x = 0 ? y = 0 ? z = 0 ? What
are the equations of the coördinate planes ? Where are the points located
for which x = a ; y = b ; z = c ? What are the equations of the planes
parallel to the coördinate planes ?
4. Where are the points located for which x = 0 and y = 0 ? for which
xa and y = b ? for which xy? for which x = y = z ?
5. The points ( 2, 2 , 3) , (2, 4 , 3 ) , (4 , 2, 3) , and (3 , 3, 2) are four of the
vertices of a parallelopipedon . Find the coördinates of the remaining four
vertices. Is there more than one solution to this problem ?

142. Spherical coördinates. Let OX, OY, OZ (Fig. 118) be a

set of rectangular axes, and P any point in space. The distance
OP = r, the angle ZOP = 0, and the angle which the plane ZOP
makes with the fixed plane XOZ = are the spherical coördinates
of the point P. They are written in the order (r, 0, $) .
If the point P is on the surface of the earth , then ✪ is the co-
latitude and is the longitude of P. If P is on the celestial
sphere, then is the co-declination and the right ascension of P.
If Z is the zenith , then is the zenith distance and is the
azimuth of P.
ARTS. 142, 143] CYLINDRICAL COÖRDINATES 197

143. Cylindrical coördinates. In Fig. 118, let OD = r' , the

angle XOD = 4, and DP = z ; (r', o, z) are the cylindrical coördi-
nates of P. Again, let a,
B, y denote the angles which Ꮓ
OP= ' r makes with the X-,
P
Y-, and Z-axes, respec-
tively ; then (r, a, B, y) are
the polar coördinates of P.
Spherical coördinates and
cylindrical coördinates are E X
modifications of polar co-
ordinates in space. Each
is in common use and each Y
has its advantages. Spher-
ical coördinates are espe-
cially useful in astronomy
and in geodetic surveying . FIG. 118

EXERCISES

1. Using Fig. 118, show that the rectangular coördinates of P and the
spherical coördinates of P are connected by the following formulas :
xr sin cos p,
y = r sin 0 sin ø,
z = r cos 0.
Conversely, show that
r² = x² + y² + 2²,

tan2 0 = x² + y²
z2
tan = Y.
х
2. What are the formulas connecting the rectangular coördinates of P
with the cylindrical coördinates of P?
3. Will a given set of integral or fractional values of r, 0, ø or of r' , ø, z
locate one and only one point in space ? Does a given point in space have
more than one set of polar coördinates ?
4. Locate the points whose spherical coördinates are : (3, 30° , 60°) ,
π
2,, ) , (1, 45°, 45°) . Find the rectangular coördinates of these points.
198 SYSTEMS OF COÖRDINATES [CHAP. X.

5. Find the spherical coördinates and also the cylindrical coördinates of

the following points : ( 2 , 3, 4 ) , ( 3 , 3, -
− 2) , ( — 1, − 2, 1 ) .
6. Where are the points located for which const. ? for which
const. ? for which const. ? for which = const. ?
7. Where are the points located for which = const. and const. ? for
which : const. and r = const. ? for which r const. and const. ? for
which r' : const. and z = const . ?
 CHAPTER XI

DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE

144. Projections upon the coördinate axes. As in plane geome-

try, we shall call a segment of a straight line to which a direction
has been attached, a directed line-segment, or simply, a directed
segment. If PP is a
directed segment, then
P₁ is called the initial
point, and P, the termi-
F2
nal point.
P₂
If planes are drawn
through the initial and
terminal points of a di-
rected segment and per- D2
7x
pendicular to each ofthe
coördinate axes in turn,
P
these planes will deter-
E
mine upon each axis a
segment called the pro- FIG. 119
jection of the given di-
rected segment upon that axis. In Fig. 119, let P₁ = (x1, у1, Z1)
and P (X , Y2, 22) ; then we have

projection of PP, upon the X-axis = X2 X1·.

x2 — x₁
projection of PP, upon the Y-axis = Y₂ — Y₁·
projection of PP,2 upon the Z-axis = Z₂ -
— 21.

145. Length of segment. A segment PP, is the diagonal of a

rectangular parallelopiped whose edges are the projections of the
segment upon the coördinate axes. Hence, we have

P₁P₂ = √(x2 − x1) ² + (Y2 -

— Y1) ² + (22 — 21)².
199
200 DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE [CHAP. XI.

EXERCISES
1. Find the lengths of the following segments and their projections upon
the coördinate axes.
(a) ( 1 , 2 , 3) , ( − 2 , 1 , 1 ) ; ( b ) ( 0, 0, 0) , ( 2 , 0 , 1 ) ; (c) (3, − 2 , 0) , (2, 3, 1) ;
(d) ( 0 , 4 , 1 ) , ( — 2, - − 1 , − 2 ) ; ( e ) ( 0 , 3, 0 ) , (3 , - − 1 , 0) .
2. A straight line five units in length has one extremity at the origin and
is equally inclined to the coördinate axes. Find its projections upon the axes.
- 1 ) and
3. The initial point of a directed segment is at the point ( 3, 2, —
its projections upon the X- , Y-, and Z-axes are respectively 4, 6, and 2.
Find the coördinates of the terminal point and construct the figure.
4. If the terminal point of a directed segment is ( − 1 , 3 , 5) and its pro-
jections upon the X-, Y-, and Z-axes are respectively - 2, 3, and - 6, what
are the coördinates of the initial point and the length of the directed segment ?

146. Direction angles and direction cosines of a directed segment.

The angles which a directed segment makes with the positive
directions of the coördinate axes are called the direction angles of
the segment. The cosines of the direction angles are called the
direction cosines of the segment .
Through P, draw lines paral-
lel to the axes ; i.e. the lines
PX, PY, P₁Z' (Fig. 120) .
The direction angles of PP₂
are then , α = X'P₁P2

B = Y'P₁P2
P y = Z'P₁P₂
X If is the length of P₁P2,
tr. then the direction cosines are
P -x' given by the equations :
β
COS α = X -X1

cos B = 12 - y₁,

FIG. 120 COS = 22-21

147. Relation connecting the direction cosines of a segment.

THEOREM. The sum ofthe squares of the direction cosines of any
segment is equal to unity.
ARTS. 146, 147] RELATION CONNECTING COSINES 201

For let / be the length of any segment. Then (Art. 145) , we have
1² = (X2 — X1)² + (Y₂ -
— Y1)² + (%₂ — 21)².

Dividing by 12, we obtain

- X1 2 22 -21
1/2
1 —(3 )" + ( " " )" + (~~) ;

or cos² a + cos² ß + cos² y = 1.

EXERCISES
1. Find the length and the direction cosines of each of the following
segments :
P₁ = (4, 3, 2) , P₂ = ( - 2, 1 , −5) ; P₁ = (4, 7, −2) , P₂ = (3, 5, −4) ;
P₁ (3,8, 6) , P₂ = (6, -- 4, 6).
2. Find the lengths and the direction cosines of each side of the triangle
whose vertices are the points (3, 2, 0) , ( — 2, 5 , 7) , and ( 1 , — 3 , -
— 5) , the
sides being taken in the order given.
3. Given the direction cosines of the segment P₁P2 ; what are the direc-
tion cosines of the segment P2P₁ ? What is the direction of a segment when
cos α = 0 ? when cos ẞ = 0 ? when cos y = 0 ? when cos α = cos ß = 0 ? when
cos α = cos y = 0 ? when cos ẞ = cos y = 0?
4. A segment is five units long and its initial point is ( −2, 1 , -
− 3) . If
cos α = and cos ẞ = 1, find the coördinates of the terminal point and the
projections upon the axes. There are two solutions, find each of them and
construct the figure.
5. Show that the direction cosines of each of the lines joining the points
(4, - 8, 6) and ( -2 , 4 , - 3) to the point ( 12, - 24 , 18) are the same. How
are the points situated ?
6. Find the direction angles of the segment drawn from the origin to
the point (8, 6, 0) . From the origin to the point (2 , −1 , − 2) .
7. Show by means of direction cosines that the three points (3, — 2, 7) ,
(6, 4, --- 2) , and (5 , 2, 1 ) lie on a straight line.
8. If two of the direction angles of a segment are and 4', what is the
third ?
9. Show that the numbers 3, 4, and - 2 are proportional to the di-
rection cosines of the segment joining the origin to the point (3 , — 4, -
— 2) .
10. Show that any three real numbers a, b , and c are proportional to the
direction cosines of the segment joining the origin to the point ( a, b, c) .
202 DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE [CHAP . XI .

148. Projection of a segment upon any line. Let PP be any

segment, and AB any line in space. Through the extremities of
the segment draw
planes perpendicu-
lar to AB. These
A planes determine a
B
segment CD upon
AB which is called
P the projection of
FIG. 121 PP₂2 upon AB.
Through P, draw
a line parallel to AB, meeting the planes in the points P and Q.
Let represent the angle PPQ ; then
CD = PQ = P₁P₂ cos 0.
149. Projection of a broken line. A series of segments so ar-
ranged that the terminal point of each is the initial point of the
next following and the terminal point of the last is the initial
point of the first, constitutes a closed line, or polygon, in space .
The sum of the projections of the sides of a closed line upon any
line in space is clearly equal to zero. It follows from the fore-
going property that :
THEOREM . The sum of the projections of a series of segments
joining the point A to the point B, upon any straight line in space, is
equal to the projection of
the segment AB upon that Ꮓ P₁
line.
For, the succession of P P3

segments AP19 PP2

P2P3 ... BA forms a
closed line, and hence the
sum of the projections of
.its sides upon any line is
equal to zero ; i.e. the
B
sum of the projections of FIG. 122
the sides of the broken
line joining A to B is equal to the projection of the straight line
joining A to B.
ARTS . 148-151 ] PERPENDICULAR SEGMENTS 203

150. The angle between two segments. When two segments

do not intersect, the angle between them is defined to be the
angle between two intersecting segments drawn parallel to , and
agreeing in direction with, the given Ꮓ
segments.
To find the angle between two
given segments in terms of their
direction angles, let , and l be the
โป
lengths, and a₁, B1, Y1 ; α2, B2, Y2, their
respective direction angles. From
the origin draw two segments, OP 71 D
and OQ, having lengths and direc-
tion angles equal respectively to the
lengths and direction angles of the
given segments (Fig. 123) . By defi-
nition, 0 = POQ is the angle to be
found. Let the coördinates of P be FIG. 123

x = OD, y = DE, and z = EP. Now,

by the preceding article, the projection of the broken line ODEP
upon OQ is equal to the projection of OP upon OQ. That is,

l cos 0 = x cos α½ + y cos ẞ₂ + z cos Y2.

X
Dividing through by 1, and remembering that = cos a₁, etc. , we
have
cos e = cos α₁ cos ɑ2 + cos ẞ1 cos ẞ2 + cos Y₁ COS Y2•

We will assume that the angle between the given segments is the
smallest positive angle satisfying this equation ; that is
0 < 0≤π.

151. Perpendicular segments. Parallel segments.

(a) Two segments are perpendicular to each other if

cos α₁ cos α₂ + cos

• ẞ₁ cos ẞ₂ + COS Y₁ COS Y₂ == 0.

For then cos 00 and therefore = 90°.

(b) Two segments are parallel and extend in the same direction if
their direction angles are equal, each to each.
204 DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE [CHAP. XI.

For then the expression cos α, cos α₂ + cos ẞ₁ cos ẞ₂ +cos y₁ COS Y½
becomes cos a₁ + cos² B₁ + cos² = 1 (Art. 147) . Therefore , in
this case, cos = 1 , and 0 = 0°.
(c) Two segments are parallel and in opposite directions if their
angles differ by 180°, each from each.
For then COS α2,
COS α₁ =
cos B₁ == cos Ba
COS Y COS Y2.
Hence the expression cos a cos a₂ + cos B₁ cos B₂ + cos Y1 COS Y2 be-
―
comes (cos² α₁ + cos² ß₁ + cos² 71) :=-
- 1. Therefore cos 0 = -1,
and 0 = 180°.

EXERCISES

1. Find the angle between two segments whose direction cosines are as
follows :
(a) 4, 4, -
- and , -- 4, 4 ; (b) } , 3, and 4, 4, 4 ; ( c) } , - }, }
and 13, 13 , 13 .
2. Show that the lines whose direction cosines are 4, 9, 4 ; - 4, 8, -
and ,, are mutually perpendicular.
3. Show that the points having the coördinates ( -6, 3 , 2) , ( 3 , — 2, 4) ,
(5, 7, 3) , and ( — 13 , 17 , — 1 ) are the vertices of a trapezoid.
4. Show that the points ( 7, 3, 4) , ( 1 , 0, 6 ) , and (4, 5, - — 2) are the ver-
tices of a right triangle .
5. Show that the points (7 , 2 , 4) , ( 4, — 4, 2) , (9 , − 1 , 10) , and (6, -
— 7, 8)
are the vertices of a square.
6. Prove that if the direction angles of two segments are supplementary,
each to each, the segments are parallel and in opposite directions.
7. Find the length of the projection of the segment P₁ = (3, 2, - 6) ,
P₂ = ( −3, 5, -— 4 ) upon the line drawn from ( 1 , 2, 3) to (3, 3, 1) .
8. Find the length of the projection of the segment P₁ = (6 , 3, 2 ) ,
P₂ (4, 2, 0) upon the line drawn from (7, - 6, 0) to (- 5, - 2, 3) .

152. Point dividing a given segment in a given ratio. Let P be

P₁P = r, a given
a point on the segment PP,2 situated so that
PP₂
PP = r
number. Then, by composition , • Through P draw
PP₂ r + 1
planes perpendicular to the coördinate axes. These planes divide
ART. 152] POINT DIVIDING A GIVEN SEGMENT 205

Ꮓ the projections upon the axes in exactly the

same ratio as P divides the segment ; that is

P₁P = D₁D E, E FF = r
F = 1 =
PP DD E₁₂ F₁F₂2 r + 1

Now
OD = OD₁ + D₁D r
= OD₁ + D,D₂r + 1°
P₂ But
OD = x, OD₁ := X19

and
P D₁D₂ = X2 - X₁.
F
Di D D₂ Substituting, we
have

E X= X1 + (X2 -
−X1 )
r +1
E = X₁ + rx2.
E r+1

FIG. 124 Similarly, we obtain

r = Y₁ + ry2
y = Y₁ + (Y₂- Y₁)
+1 r+ 1
r
2 = 21+ (22 - %1) = %1 + rz2 .
r +1 r+ 1

EXERCISES
1. Find the coördinates of the point dividing the segment joining the
following points in the given ratio r.
(a) (3, 4 , 2 ) , (7 , — 6, 4) , r = 2. (b ) ( 7 , 3, 9) , ( 2, 1 , 2) , r = 4.
2. Show that the coördinates of the point bisecting the segment
x1 + x2 31 + 32 * + 22
(X1, Y1 , 21 ) , (X2, Y2, Z2) are " 9
2 2 2

3. Find the coördinates of the points which trisect the segment ( 1, - 2, 4 ) ,

(−3, 4, 5) .
4. Show that the medians of the triangle whose vertices are the points
(1 , 1 , 0 ) , (2, -
— 1 , 1 ) , and ( 3, 2, 1 ) meet in the point (2 , 3, 0) .
206 DIRECTED SEGMENTS IN SPACE [CHAP . XI.

5. Show that the medians of any triangle meet in a point.

SUGGESTION. Let the coördinates of the vertices be (x1 , Y1 , 1 ) , (X2, Y2, 22) ,
and (x3, Ys, 23) . The medians meet in the point
X1 + x2 + X3 9 Y1 + Y2 + Y3¸9 21 +22 + 23 .
3 3 3
This point is the center of gravity of the triangle .
6. Show that the lines joining the middle points of opposite edges of a
tetrahedron pass through the same point and are bisected by that point.
7. Show that the lines joining the vertices of any tetrahedron to the
point of intersection of the medians of the opposite face meet in a point
which is three fourths of the distance from each vertex to the opposite face.
This point is called the center of gravity of the tetrahedron.
8. Find the ratio in which the point (2, 1, 5) divides the segment
(4, 13, 3) , (3, 6, 4) ; the point (2, - - 2 , - 6) divides the segment
(4, - 5, - 12) , ( — 2 , 4, 6) ; the point ( 2, 1 , 4 ) divides the seg-
ment - 3, 4, 2 ) , (7 , -- 2, 6).
 CHAPTER XII

LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS

153. Surfaces and curves. In space there are two kinds of

loci to be considered. If a point moves according to a given law,
it will, in general, describe a surface. Thus , if a point moves so
as to be always at a given distance from a fixed point, it will
describe a sphere whose center is the fixed point and whose radius
is the given distance.
If a point moves so as to satisfy simultaneously two independ-
ent laws, it will, in general, describe a line, straight or curved.
Thus, if a point moves so as to be at a fixed distance from the
point A and at the same time at a fixed distance from the point
B, it will describe the circle of intersection of the two spheres
whose centers are at A and B and whose radii are the given fixed
distances.

154. Equations of loci . When the law governing the motion

of a point is expressed in terms of the coördinates of the point,
the resulting equation is called the equation of the surface de-
scribed by the point. The surface is called the locus of the
equation.
Similarly, when a moving point is governed by two independ-
ent laws and these laws are expressed in terms of the coördi-
nates of the moving point, the resulting equations are called the
equations of the curve described by the point. The curve is called
the locus of the equations.
As in plane geometry , two fundamental problems arise : First,
given the law (or laws) governing the motion of a point, to find
the equation (or equations) of the locus ; and second, given the
equation (or equations ) , to find the properties of the locus. These
problems will be illustrated in the succeeding pages.
207
208 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. XII.

155. The sphere. Let C = (a, b, c)

be the center of a sphere whose
radius is r, and P = (x, y, z) , any
point on the sphere. The length
of CP is then,

x r = √(x -
− a) ² + (y − b)² + (≈ − c)².
Hence, the equation of the sphere
is
FIG. 125 − a) ² + (y -
(x - — b) ² + (≈ − c) ² = r² .
(1)
When the binominal squares are expanded, the equation has
the form
x² + y² + z² + Ax + By + Cz + D =
: 0, (2)

where A, B, C, and D are constants depending upon the coör-

dinates of the center and the radius.
Conversely, an equation of the form (2) represents a sphere.
For it can be written in the form
A\2 B\2 2 A2 B2 C2
x+ + (y + +12+ = + + D,
2 4

and hence represents a sphere whose center is - B

2
A2 B2 C¹2 -
and whose radius is + + D.
4 4 4

The sphere is real , so long as the expression under the radical

is positive ; it will be a null-sphere, or a point, when the expres-
sion under the radical is zero ; and it will be an imaginary sphere
when the expression under the radical is negative.

EXERCISES
1. Write the equation of a sphere whose center is (5, - 2, 3 ) and whose
radius is 1 ; also of a sphere whose center is ( 2 , -3, - 6) and which passes
through the origin . What is the equation of a sphere whose center is on the
Z-axis, has the radius a, and passes through the origin ?
2. Which of the following spheres are real, which are null-spheres, and
which are imaginary spheres ? Find the center and radius of the real spheres.
ARTS . 155, 156 ] SURFACES OF REVOLUTION 209

(a) x² + y² + z² − 2 x + 6 y − 8z + 22 = 0.
(b) x² + y² + z² + 10x 4y + 2z + 5 = 0.
(c) x² + y² + z² + 4 x + 4 y + 6 z + 1 = 0.
(d) x² + y² + z² + 6 x =: 0.
(e) x² + y² + z² + 4 x + y + 5 z + 21 = 0.

3. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the four points
(0, 0, 0) , (2, 8, 0) , ( 5 , 0 , 15) , ( — 3, 8, 1) .

SUGGESTION. Substitute the coördinates of the given points in equation

(2) and solve the resulting equations for the unknown coefficients A, B,
C, D.

4. Find the equation of the sphere passing through the four points
(2, 5, 14) , ( 2 , 10, 11 ) , (2, 5, - 14 ) , ( 2, -- 10, -
— 11 ) .
5. Find the equation of each of the two spheres whose center is at the
origin and which touch the sphere
x² + y² + z² — 8x - 6y + 24 z + 48 = 0.

156. Surfaces of revolution. When a curve in the XZ-plane is

rotated about the X-axis, it describes a surface of revolution.
Every point on the curve, as Q,
Ꮓ
describes a circle whose plane is TM
perpendicular to the X-axis and
whose radius is the ordinate DQ. P
Let the coördinates of Q be
OD and DQz', and the
equation of the curve MQR be X >X
f(x, z) = 0. Now

z' = DQ = DP = √z² + y².

Hence, we have the following

conclusion :
FIG. 126
To find the equation of the sur-
face described by MQR, replace z' in the equation f(x, z') = 0 by its
value √z² + y².

By a similar consideration we may find the equation of a sur-

face of revolution obtained by rotating a given curve about either
of the other axes.
210 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. XII .

EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the ellipsoid obtained by rotating the ellipse
x2 2/2
+ = 1 about the X-axis. The ellipsoid of revolution is called the pro-
a2 b2
late spheroid when a > b, and the oblate spheroid when a < b . Explain,
by familiar examples, the difference in form .
2. Find the equation of the paraboloid of revolution by rotating the
parabola 2/2 = 4 px about the X-axis.
x2 - z/2 = 2/2
3. If the hyperbola 1 and its conjugate = - 1 are ro-
a2 b2 a2 b2
tated about the X-axis, how will the two surfaces obtained differ ? Find
their equations. The first is called an hyperboloid of two sheets and the
second, an hyperboloid of one sheet.
4. Show that if a curve in the XY-plane, whose equation is f(x, y) = 0 ,
is rotated about the X-axis, the equation of the resulting surface is found by
replacing y by √y² + z² ; and if the curve is rotated about the Y-axis, the
equation of the resulting surface is obtained by replacing x by √x² + z².
5. What is the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the parabola
y2 = 4 px about the X-axis ? about the Y-axis ? How do the two surfaces
differ ?

157. Cylinders. If a straight line moves so as to be always

parallel to one of the coördinate axes and, at the same time,
Z intersects a curve lying in the plane of
the other two axes, it describes a cyl-
inder whose equation is the same as the
equation of the curve. For, suppose the
moving line is always parallel to the Z-
axis and meets a curve in the XY- plane ;
X
then the x- and y-coördinates of any
R
point on this line will be the same as the
x- and y-coördinates of the point where
VY
FIG. 127 the line meets the curve, and will conse-
quently satisfy the equation of the
curve whatever be the value of z. Moreover, the x- and y-co-
ordinates of a point not on the cylinder cannot satisfy the equa-
tion of the curve. Therefore the equation of the curve, re-
garded as the equation of a locus in space, represents a cylinder
parallel to the Z-axis. Similarly we may obtain the equation
ARTS. 157-159] PLANE SECTIONS OF RIGHT CONE 211

of a cylinder parallel to any other axis. Hence, we have the

conclusion :

Any equation in two of the three variables x, y, z represents a

cylinder parallel to one of the coördinate axes.

EXERCISES
1. The following equations represent loci in space. Interpret them and
draw the figures. (a) y2 = 1 ; ( b ) z² = 4px ; ( c ) z + 3y = 6.
+
a2 t2
2. A point moves so as to satisfy simultaneously the two equations
х + Y = 1 and y + 2 = 1. Plot its locus in space.
2 3 4 5
3. A point moves so as to satisfy simultaneously the two equations
х Z
x² + y² = 4 and + - 1. Plot its locus in space.
3 2
4. Show that a point can move so as to satisfy simultaneously the three
equations 3x + 2y = 6 , 5y + 4 z = 20, and 8z -- 15 x - 10.

158. The right circular cone. When the straight line z = mx

is revolved about the X-axis, it generates a right circular cone
whose vertex is at the origin and whose axis is the X-axis . Every
generator of the cone makes an angle with the axis whose tangent
is m. By Art. 156, the equation of this cone is
y² + z² = m²x².

159. Plane sections of a right circular cone. Let APB (Fig. 128)
be the curve common to the cone and any plane, as AFPB. In-
scribe a sphere in the cone touching the cutting plane at F, and
the cone along the small circle LES. The cutting plane and the
plane of the circle meet in the line DD . Through P, any point
of the curve APB, draw the generator of the cone VP, meeting
the small circle in E. From P drop the perpendicular PK upon
the plane LES, and draw PR perpendicular to DD₁ . The angle
PRK a is the angle between the cutting plane and the plane
LES and is therefore constant for all positions of P. The angle
PEK = B is also constant for all positions of P. The lines PF
and PE are equal in length, since they are tangents to the sphere
from an external point. Hence,
PF PE PK PK sin a
- = + = ;
ᏢᎡ PR ᏢᎡ PE sin B
212 LOCI AND THEIR EQUATIONS [CHAP. XII .

R K
E
-D1

FIG. 128

and the curve APB is therefore a conic having one focus at F,

the corresponding directrix being DD, (Art. 94, property A).
The conic will be an ellipse when a < ß, a parabola when
=
aẞ; i.e. when the cutting plane is parallel to one of the
generators of the cone, and an hyperbola when a > B. In the
figure, α
a is less than ẞ and the section of the cone is therefore an
ellipse.
EXERCISES
1. The equation of a right circular cone in spherical coördinates is 0 =const.
By means of the relations, Art. 143, exercise 1 , transform this equation to
rectangular coördinates.
2. Rotate the straight line x + = 1 about the Z-axis and thus obtain the
2 3
equation of a right circular cone whose vertex is at the point (0, 0, 3).
3. From Fig. 128, show how to locate the second focus of the section of
the cone and its corresponding directrix.
4. The cone in example 2 is cut by a plane parallel to the Y-axis and
meeting the XZ-plane in the line x + 2 = 1. Find the coördinates of the
3 2
foci of the ellipse which this plane cuts from the cone.
x2 y2 — 22 -
5. The equation + O represents a right circular cone . Write
a2 a2 b2
the equation of the straight line which describes this cone and tell about
which axis it is revolved.
 CHAPTER XIII

THE PLANE AND THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE

160. The normal form of the equation of a plane. Let p denote

the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane, and
a, B, y, the direction angles of this perpendicular. If L is the foot
of the perpendicular, then any point, as P, will be in the plane if
the angle OLP is a right angle ; i.e. if the projection of the segment
OP upon OL is equal to p. But the projection of OP upon OL
is equal to the projection of the
broken line ODEP upon OL
(Art. 149). Let the coördinates
of P be OD = x, DE = y, and
EP = z ; then

x cos a + y cos ẞ + ≈ cos y = p (1)

is the equation sought.

It is called the normal
form of the equation be-
cause it is expressed in
terms of the perpendic-
ular from the origin. E
It follows that the
equation of a plane is of
first degree in the vari-
ables.
FIG. 129
We shall now show
that, conversely, every equation of the first degree in the variables
x, y, z, is the equation of a plane.
For, let
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (2)

be any equation of the first degree in x, y, and z. Now if the

coördinates of a point P satisfy this equation, they will still sat-
213
214 THE PLANE [ CHAP. XIII .

isfy it after each of the coefficients A, B, C, D is multiplied by

any constant k. The constant k can be chosen so that the equa-
tion kAx + kBy + kCz = -kD will coincide with equation (1) ,
term for term ; that is, so that
kA = cos α,
kB = cos ẞ,
kC =
= ccs Y,
kD = -p .

Squaring and adding the first three of these equations, we have

k²(A² + B² + C2) = 1 ; (Art. 147)
1
and therefore k = In order that p may be
± √ò + B² + C²
positive, the sign of the radical must be opposite to the sign of D.
With this value of k, equation (2) agrees in form with equation
(1) But ( 1 ) is the equation of a plane ; therefore (2) is the equa-
tion of a plane for which
A
COS α =
± √A² + B² + C²
B
cos B =
± √ò + B² + C²²

cos y C
± √A² + B² + C²²´
D
p
± √A² + B² + C²
The distances from the origin to the points where a plane
meets the coördinate axes are called the intercepts. The lines in
which a plane meets the coördinate planes are called the traces.

EXERCISES

1. Construct the planes and find their equations , for which (a) α = 4
π 2π 3п π
B= , v = 5 , p = 4 ; (b ) a= 3 " B = 4 9 Y = p = 6 ; (c) cos a : cos B : cos y

= 6 : ·2 : 3, p = 8 ; ( d) cos a : cos ẞ : cos y = — 2 : 1 : - 2, p = 5 .

2. Find the equation of the plane such that the foot of the perpendicular
from the origin to the plane is the point ( a) (3, −2, 6 ) ; (b) (2, − 5, 1 ) ;
(c) (3, 4 , -2) .
ARTS . 161-162] EQUATION OF A PLANE 215

3. Reduce the following equations to normal form and find α, ß, Y, and p.

(a) 6x - 3y + 2z - 7 = 0. (b) x - √2 y + z + 8 = 0 .
(c) x -4 y - 22 --- 3 = 0. (d) x 2y - 3 = 0.
4. Find the intercepts and equations of the traces of the following planes .
(a) 2x + 5y- 3 z −4 = 0. (b) x − y −z + 10 = 0. (c) 3x ---- y + z = 0.
5. Find the area of the triangle which the coördinate planes cut from the
plane 2x + 2y + z − 12 = 0.

161. Intercept form of equation . Let the x , y , and z-intercepts

of a plane be a, b, and c respectively ; then ( Fig. 126 ) the plane
passes through the three points A = ( a , 0, 0) , B = (0, b, 0), and
C = (0, 0, c) . Since the equation of the plane is of the form
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,

this equation must be satisfied by the coördinates of the points

A, B, and C. Hence,
Aa + D = 0,
Bb + D = 0,
Cc + D = 0,
D D Ꭰ
from which A = " B: and C:= D. Substituting and
a b с
reducing, the required equation is
х + ข + 2 = 1.
a b с

162. Equation of a plane through three given points. If a plane

is required to pass through three fixed points, the coördinates of
these points must satisfy the general equation
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,

and there are thus three equations from which to determine three
of the unknown coefficients A, B, C, D in terms of the fourth .
Substituting the three coefficients thus determined in the general
equation gives the equation of the plane through the three given
points.
EXERCISES

1. Write the equation of each of the planes having the following inter-
cepts and find the length of the perpendicular from the origin upon each :
− 2, 5. (d) — 5, 2, -− 3.
-- 2, 3. (c) 4, -
(a) 3, 1 , 2. (b ) — 1 , −
216 THE PLANE [CHAP. XIII .

2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points ( 1, 0, 2) ,

(0, 3, 4) , and ( — 1 , 5 , 0 ) . Find the intercepts and the perpendicular from
the origin .

3. Why will not the three points ( 1 , 1 , 2) , (3 , - - 3, 4)

− 1 , 3) , and ( 5, –
determine a plane ? What are the direction cosines of the segments which
join the first point to each of the other two ?
4. From each of the points ( 2 , 3, 0) , ( -2, · 3, 4) , and (0, 6, 0) drop
perpendiculars to the XZ-plane . What are the coordinates of the feet of
these perpendiculars ? What is the area of the triangle formed in the XZ-
plane ? Drop perpendiculars to each of the other coördinate planes and
compute the areas of the triangles formed in each. These triangles are
called the projections of the space triangle upon the coördinate planes.

163. Determinant form of the equation . If a plane is required

to pass through three given points ( 1, 1 , 1 ) , (X2, Y2, Z2), and
(X , Y , Z ), the general equation.

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (1)

must be satisfied by the coördinates of these points. Hence the

following equations hold,

Ax₁ + By + Cz₁ + D = 0, (2)

Ax + By + Cz₂ + D = 0, (3)
Ax3 + B + Cz₂ + D = 0. (4)

But in order that the four equations (1) to (4) may be satisfied
by other than zero values of A, B, C, and D, it is necessary and
sufficient that the determinant of their coefficients shall vanish ;
that is, we must have

y 2 1
8
8

X1 Yi Z1 1
= 0.
=
X2 Y2 Z2
X3 ჭვ 23 1

This equation is of the first degree in the variables x, y, z ; and

it is clearly satisfied by the coördinates of the given points.
Therefore it is the equation of the plane passing through these
points.
ARTS. 163 , 164] PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE 217

EXERCISES

1. Using the determinant form, find the equation of the plane which
passes through the points ( 2, 3, 0) , - 2 , - 3, 4) , and (0, 6, 0) .
2. In the same way, find the equation of the plane passing through the
points ( 1, 1, - 1 ) , ( — 2 , — 2, 2) , and ( 1 , -
− 1 , 2) .
3. Show that the direction cosines of the normal to a plane passing
through three given points are proportional to the cofactors corresponding
to x, y, and z in the determinant form of its equation .
4. Show that the cofactors corresponding to x, y, and z are proportional
to the areas of the projections of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, Y1, 21) ,
(X2, y2, 22) , and (xз, yз, 23 ), upon the coördinate planes.

164. Perpendicular distance from a plane to a point . Given the

equation of the plane ABC and the coördinates of the point

P₁

E
X

FIG. 130

P (x , y , z ) , it is required to find the length of the perpendic-

ular DP₁, where D is a point in the plane ABC and P₁ lies outside
of this plane. If the equation of the plane is not in the normal
218 THE PLANE [CHAP . XIII.

form , reduce it to that form (Art. 160) so that the equation is

x cos a + y cos ẞ + zcos y -p = 0, (1)
where the direction angles and the perpendicular are known.
Let d be the length of the required perpendicular, so that the
projection of OP₁ upon ON is equal to p + d. But this projection
is equal to the projection of the broken line OEFP, upon ON.
Hence,
p + d = x₁ cos a + y₁ cos ẞ + %₁ cos y,
or d = x1 cos a + Y1 cos B.+ 21 COS Y — p .

The length of the perpendicular is therefore equal to the result

of substituting the coördinates of the given point in the left
member of (1 ) . The result of the substitution will be negative if
the point lies on the same side of the plane as the origin ; and
positive if the point and the origin are on opposite sides of the
plane.
EXERCISES

1. Find the distance from the plane 6x - 3y + 2 z −100 to the point

(4, 2, 10). From the plane 4x + 3 y + 12 z + 6 == 0 to the point (9 , -— 1 , 0) .
State if the point and the origin are on the same side, or on opposite sides, of
the plane .
2. Find the length of the altitude of the tetrahedron from the vertex
(2 , 0, 1 ) to the plane of the vertices (0 , 5, -— 4 ) , (0 , 3, 1 ) , and (2 , − 7 , 1 ) .
3. The x- and y-intercepts of a plane are 3 and 4 , respectively, and the
plane touches a sphere whose center is at the origin and whose radius is
2. Find the equation of the plane,
4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertex is the point (5 , 5 , 6 )
and whose base is the triangle cut from the plane x + 2y + 5 z −10 = 0
by the coördinate planes .
5. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are ( 3, 4 , 0) ,
(4, -1 , 0) , ( 1 , 2, 0) , and (6 , - 1 , 4) . Of the tetrahedron whose vertices
are (3, 0, 0) , (0, 1 , 0) , (0, 0 , 5 ) , (5 , — 2 , 4) .
6. Find the locus of points which are equally distant from the two planes
x - 2y + 3z - 4 = 0 and 2 x + 3y − z - − 5 = 0.
7. What is the equation of the locus of a point which is equally distant
from the origin and from the plane x + y + z −1 = 0 ?

165. Angle between two planes. The angle between two planes
is equivalent to the angle between the perpendiculars to these
ARTS . 165 , 166] PENCIL OF PLANES 219

planes. Let the equations of two planes be

: 0.
A₁x + By + C₁% + D₁ = 0 and A2x + B₂y + C₂% + D₂ =

The direction cosines of the perpendiculars to these planes are

given in Art. 160. Hence, Art. 150, we have

¿½ + В₁B₂ + C₁C2

cos 0:= ,
± √A₁² + B₁² + C₁² · ± √ A²² + B²² + C²²

the signs of the radicals being chosen as in Art. 160.

It follows from this formula that : two planes will be perpen-
dicular if, and only if,
A₁₂ + B₁B₂ + C, C₂ = 0.

For only then can cos 0 be equal to zero, and consequently = 90°.
Two planes will be parallel if, and only if,
A₁ = B₁ = C₁ •
A B₂ C₂

For only then will the perpendiculars to the planes be parallel to

each other.

EXERCISES
-z = 2
1. The three planes x + y + z − 2 = 0 , x − y − 2 z = 4, and 2 x + y −
meet in a point forming a trihedral angle. Find the vertex of the angle and
the three dihedral angles .
2. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the points
(0, 3, 0) and (4, 0, 0) and is perpendicular to the plane 4 x - 6 x − z — 12 = 0 .
3. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point
( 1 , 2, 4) and is perpendicular to each of the planes 2x - 3y − z + 2 = 0
and x - y + 2z - 4 = 0.
4. Find the equation of the plane that is perpendicular to the segment
joining (3, 4, -- 1) to ( -3, 6, 1 ) at its middle point.
5. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point
(3, -3, 0) and is parallel to the plane 3 x --
− y + z − 6 = 0.

166. Pencil of planes with a common axis. The system of

planes passing through the line of intersection of two given
planes
A₁x + B₁y + C₁z + D₁ = 0 and A₂x + By + С₂² + D₂ = 0
220 THE PLANE [CHAP. XIII .

is called a pencil of planes with a common axis, or a coaxial pencil.

The pencil is represented by the equation
Д₁x + B₁у + С₁z + D₁ + k ( A½x + B₂y + C₂² + D₂) = 0, (1)
where k is an arbitrary constant. For, it is clear that every
point whose coördinates satisfy both the given equations will
be a point lying on the locus of (1 ) ; and, since ( 1 ) is of first
degree in the variables, it is the equation of a plane. There-
fore ( 1 ) is the equation of a plane passing through the line of
intersection of the given planes, whatever value is given to k.

167. Pencil of planes with a common vertex. The system of

planes passing through the point P₁ = (x , y , z ) is called a pencil
of planes with a common vertex, the point P, being the vertex . It
is represented by the equation

A(x - x ) + B (y - y₁ ) + C (z - z₁) = 0,
where A, B, and C are arbitrary constants. For this equation is
the equation of a plane , whatever be the values of A, B, and C,
and it is clearly satisfied by the coördinates of P₁. Therefore it
represents a plane passing through P₁.

EXERCISES

1. A plane passes through the point (3, 2, - 1) and is parallel to the

plane 7 x y + z − 14 = 0. Find its equation.
2. Determine k so that the plane x + ky - 2z - 9 = 0 shall pass through
the point ( 1 , 4, - 3 ) . So that it shall be parallel to the plane 3 x - 4 y + 2 z
--
- 5 = 0. So that it shall be perpendicular to the plane 5 x - − 3 y − z − 2 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the intersection
of the planes 2 x − 3 y − z − 6 = 0 and x + y + z = 5, and ( a ) passes through
the point (3, 2, 1 ) ; ( b ) is perpendicular to the plane x - y − z + 2 = 0 .
4. Find the equations of the planes which pass through the intersection
of the planes x - − y − 3 z -− 40 and x + y + 5 z − 6 = 0 , and are perpen-
dicular respectively to each of the coördinate planes.
5. Find the equations of the planes which are parallel to the plane
6 х 5 y 3 z - 20 and which touch a sphere of radius 3 whose center is
at the origin .
6. Find the equation of the plane which is parallel to the plane
5x - 3y - 72-80 and such that the point (5 , 1 , 2 ) lies midway
between the two planes .
ARTS. 167 , 168] EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE 221

7. Find the equation of a plane through the point ( 2 , — 3, 0 ) and having

the same trace upon the XZ-plane as the plane x - 3y + 7z - 2 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the plane parallel to the plane
2x + y + 2 z + 5 = 0 ,
and forming a tetrahedron of unit volume with the coördinate planes.
9. Find the equation of the plane parallel to the plane
5x + 3y + z - 7 = 0
such that the sum of its intercepts is 23 .
10. Find the equation of the plane having the trace x + 3y − 2 = 0, and
forming a tetrahedron of volume with the coördinate planes.

168. The equations of a straight line in space. If P₁ = (x1 , y1, 21)

and P₂ = (X2, y2, Z2) are any two points in space, then the coör-
dinates of the point dividing the segment P₁P₂ in the ratio
PP
= r, are (Art. 152),
PP₂
x = X1 + 1X2"
+1
y = Y1 + ry₂
(1)
r +1

2 = Z1 + rz2.
r+ 1

When r is allowed to vary, these equations give the coördinates

of a variable point on the line PP, and are, therefore, the para-
metric equations of the line PP2, r being the parameter.
From equations (1) , or from the figure, Art. 152 , it follows
easily that
X - X1 y - yi = 2-21 .
=
(2)
X2 - X1 2 – 1 22-21

These equations are called the two-point form of the equations of

the line PP2
Since the direction cosines of PP, are proportional to the pro-
jections upon the coördinate axes (Art. 146) , we have, from
equations (2 ) , X - X1 = 2-71 .
= (3)
COS α cos B COS Y

These equations are called the symmetric form of the equations of

the line PP₂
222 THE PLANE [CHAP. XIII.

As an example, the equations of the straight line through the

points (3, — 2 , 1) and (4, 5, -
— 6) are, in the parametric form ,
3 +4r -2 + 5r 1-6r
x= " y= " 2=
r+1 r +1 r+ 1

In the two-point form, they are

x ----3 y +2 2
1 7 7
1 7 7
The direction cosines are cos α = cos B = cos y =
99 99 /99

EXERCISES

1. Find the equations of the lines joining the following pairs of points :
(a) (0, 0, -
− 2 ) to ( 3 , -
— 1, 0). (b) ( − 1 , 3, 2 ) to (2, — 2, 4) .
(c) (2, - 3, 1 ) to ( 2, -
− 3, − 1).
2. In the preceding exercise, find the coördinates of the points where
each line meets the coördinate planes.
3. Find the direction cosines of each of the lines in exercise 1 .
4. Find the equations of the line through the point ( — 1 , 2, -− 3 ) if
(a) a = 60°, B = 60°, Y = 45°.
(b) α =: 120°, B = 60°, Y = 135°.
√3
(c) cos α = cos B = cos y = 0.
2
Show that the given values are possible in each case and plot the line.
5. Find the equations of the line through the origin and equally inclined
to the axes.

169. The projecting planes of a line. The planes drawn through

a given line and perpendicular to each of the coördinate planes in
turn, are called the projecting planes of the line.
The equation of a projecting plane can contain only two of
the three variables x, y, z (Art. 157) . Hence the equations of the
projecting planes can be found from equation (2) or (3) of the
preceding article, by neglecting one of the ratios involved. Thus,
for example, the equation of the projecting plane perpendicular to
the XY-plane is
X-
xxy = - 1.
X2 - X1
ARTS . 169, 170] INTERSECTION OF TWO PLANES 223

For this equation represents a plane parallel to the Z-axis, and it

is satisfied by the coördinates of the points P,1 and P. Similarly,
the equations of the other projecting
planes can be found .
The equation of any plane through
the given line is ,
X - X1 -- y - Yık x X1 - 2--21
X2 - X1 2–1 -
X2 X1 22-21

For, this equation is linear in x, y,

z and is therefore the equation of P
a plane ; moreover it is satisfied X
by the coördinates of P and P₂
irrespective of the value of the
parameter k.

170. The intersection of two FIG. 131

planes. If a line is given as the
intersection of two planes, its equations are the equations of the
two planes considered as simultaneous equations. Thus, the equa-
tions

Д₁x + В₁y + С₁² + D₁ = 0 and A₂ + By + C½% + D₂ = 0 (1)

are the equations of the line of intersection of the two planes
whose equations are those just written. The direction cosines of
the perpendiculars to these planes are respectively proportional to
A1, B1, C1 and A2, B , Ca ; and, since the line of intersection is at
right angles to both these perpendiculars, its direction cosines
must satisfy the two equations
A₁ cos a + B₁ cos ẞ + C₁ cos y = 0,
A₂ cos α + B₂ cos B + C₂ cos y = 0. (Art. 151)
Hence , we have

cos a: cos B: cos y = (B, C₂- B₂C₁) : ( A, C₁- A₁С½ ) : (А‚½— AB₁) .
Therefore the equations of the line of intersection are
X - X1 y - y1 - 2-21
=
B₁₂- B₂C₁ A₂С₁ -
— A₁C₂ Á₁В₂ — AВ₁'
where (x , y , z ) is any point on the line.
224 THE PLANE [CHAP. XIII .

To find a point on the line, put one of the variables equal to

zero in equations (1 ) and solve the resulting equations for the
other two.

For example, consider the two planes

2x + 4y + 2z - 8 = 0,
and 5x + 6y + z - 16 = 0.
The direction cosines of their line of intersection must satisfy the two equa-
tions
2 cos a 4 cos B + 2 cos y = 0,
and 5 cos a + 6 cos ẞ + cos y = 0.
Hence, cos a : cos B : cos y = - 8 : 8 : 8 : =--1 : 1 : ___- 1.

To find the coördinates of a point on the line , put z = 0 in the equations of

the planes and solve the resulting equations for x and y. In this way we find
that the point (2 , 1 , 0) lies on the line. Therefore the equations of the line
are
х - 2 =y -1 = 2
1 1 --

EXERCISES

1. What are the equations of the projecting planes of the line

х 2=y -3 =2?
6 3
What is the equation of the plane passing through this line and through the
origin ? Through this line and through the point ( 1 , - 2, 5) ?
2. What are the equations of the line through the point ( 2, 5 , 7) if
√5 √3
COS α = , cos B = " and cos y =0 ? If cos α = , cos B = 0, and cos y = —
3
If cos α = 0, cos B = , and cos y = 2-
3
3. Find the equations of the projecting planes of the line
2x - 3y + z6 = 0, x + y -- 3z - 1 = 0
by eliminating x, y, and z in turn from these equations .
4. Find the direction cosines of the line
2x + 3y - 2 z 130, 3x + 6 y - 3 z 24 ==
= 0.
5. Find the coördinates of the points in which the line
2x + 2y - 3z - 20, 4 x - y ----- z 6 = 0
meets the coördinate planes .
ARTS. 170 , 171 ] INTERSECTION OF LINE WITH PLANE 225

6. Reduce the equations x + 2y + 6 z - − 5 = 0, 3 x -- 2 y -- 10 z — 7 = 0

to the symmetric form .
Eliminating in turn x and y from the given equations, we find the equa-
tions of two of the projecting planes to be
2y + 7z - 20 and xz — 3 = 0.

From the first, z = 2 (y -— 1 ) ; and from the second, z = x − 3. Hence

7
we have,
x= 3 =y 1 =
---- -7 2

from which the symmetric form follows at once.

7. In the same way, reduce the equations
2x + 2y - 3z - 20, 4 x y z ―6 0,
to the symmetric form .
8. Reduce the equations x = mz + a and y = nz + b to the symmetric
form .
9. Find the direction cosines of the following lines :
(a) 4x - 5y + 3z3, 4x - 5y + z + 9 = 0.
(b) 2 x + z + 5 = 0 , x + 3 z - 5 = 0.
(c) x - y - 2 z = 0, 6 x - − 3 y -− 4 z +9 = 0.
10. What are the equations of the line through the point (2, 0, -- 2) and
perpendicular to the lines
x 3 Y = 2 + 1 and х y +1 - z + 2
3 -1 2

11. What are the equations of a line through the point (2, 3 , 4 ) if
cos α = cos ẞ = 0?

171. Intersection of a line with a plane. The coördinates of

the point of intersection of a line with a plane must satisfy the
equations of the line and also the equation of the plane. Hence,
to find these coördinates, solve the three equations simultaneously
for x, y, and z.
When the equations of the line are not given, but the coördi-
nates of two points on the line are known, a more expeditious
method is to write the equations of the line in parametric form
(Art. 168, (1) ), substitute these values of x, y, and z in the equa-
tion of the plane, and solve for r, thus determining the ratio in
which the required point divides the segment joining the given
points. For example, to find the coördinates of the point in
226 THE PLANE [CHAP. XIII .

which the line joining the points (1 , -2, 0) and (3, 4, 5) meets
the plane xy + 4z + 2 = 0, write the parametric equations of
the line ; viz. :
1 +3 r
x=
"+1 '
-2-4r
y=
r+1
5r
and 2= ;
r+1

and substitute these values of x, y, and z in the equation of the

5
plane. In this way we find r = — 29 Hence the point of inter-
section is (14, 14 , — 24) .
The line whose direction angles are a, B, and y will be parallel
to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 if, and only if,
A cos a + B cos B + C cos y = 0.

For only then will the line be at right angles to every perpen-
dicular to the plane .
The line will be perpendicular to the plane if, and only if,
A B = C •
=
COS α cos B COS Y

For only then will the line be parallel to every perpendicular to

the plane.

EXERCISES

1. Find the coördinates of the point in which the line x + 4y + 2 z = 0 ,

y 3 z - 70 meets the plane 3x - 2y + z + 4 = 0 ; the coördinates of
x-- 2 y - 1 2 - 3
the point in which the line = = meets the plane x + y
3 2 4
-
+ z 2 = 0 ; the coördinates of the point in which the line joining the
points (2, - 3, 1 ) , ( 2, -
− 2 , 4 ) meets the plane x y z 5 = 0.
- 4
2. Show that the line +3 = y = is parallel to the plane
2 - 7

4x + 2y + 2 z == 9.
22

x = is perpendicular to the plane

3. Show that the line
3 7
3x + 2y +7 z = 8.
ART. 171 ] INTERSECTION OF LINE WITH PLANE 227

4. Show that the two straight lines x ― 2 = 2y - 6 = 3z and 4x - 11

= 4 y - 133 z meet in a point. Find the coördinates of this point and
show that the two lines lie in the plane 2 x - 6 y + 3 z + 14 = 0.
5. Find the equations of the line passing through ( 1 , - 6 , 2 ) and per-
pendicular to the plane 2 x y + 6z = 0.
6. Find the equations of the line passing through the point ( — 2 , 3, 2)
which is parallel to each of the planes 3 x - y + z = 0 and x — 2 = 0.
7. Show that the six planes, each containing an edge of a tetrahedron •
and bisecting the opposite edge, meet in a point.
8. Prove that the six planes , each passing through the middle point of
one edge of a tetrahedron and perpendicular to the opposite edge, meet in a
point.
9. What is the equation of a plane passing through the point ( 1, 3, −2)
and perpendicular to the line
х 3=ข 4= 2 ?
2 -1

10. Find the equation of the plane determined by the parallel lines
x + 1 = y - 2 - 2 and x - 3 = Y +4 = 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
11. Find the equations of the line tangent to the sphere x² + y² + z² = 9
− 2 ) and parallel to the plane x + 3y -
at the point (2, — 1 , - – 5 z - 1 = 0.
12. What are the equations of the line passing through the point (x1 , y1, 21)
and perpendicular to the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ?
13. What is the equation of the plane passing through the point
(x1, 1 , 1) and perpendicular to the line
X - X2 = Y - Y2 = 2 22 ?
a b с
 CHAPTER XIV

EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI

172. Second fundamental problem. The two fundamental

problems of solid analytic geometry were stated in Art. 154.
The first of these has been illustrated in the preceding articles by
finding the equations of certain well-known loci, such as the
sphere, the right circular cone, the plane, the straight line. In
this chapter we shall consider the second fundamental problem ;
that is, given an equation in the three variables x, y, z, to find the
form and properties of the locus.

173. Construction of a surface from its equation . The following

rules serve as a guide in sketching, or constructing, a surface
from its equation.
(1) Symmetry. If the equation contains only even powers of
one of the variables, the surface is symmetrical with respect to
the coördinate plane from which that variable is measured . For
example, if the equation contains only even powers of z, and the
point (a, b, c) is on the surface, then the point ( a, b, — c) will
also be on the surface. The XY-plane is then a plane of
symmetry.
If the equation contains only even powers of two of the vari-
ables, the surface is symmetrical with respect to the coördinate
axis along which the third variable is measured. For example,
if the equation contains only even powers of y and z, the surface
is symmetrical with respect to the XZ-plane and also with respect
to the XY-plane, and hence with respect to their intersection , or
the X-axis. The X-axis is then a line of symmetry.
If an equation contains only even powers of all three of the
variables, the surface is symmetrical with respect to each of the
coördinate planes and therefore with respect to their intersection ,
or the origin. The origin is then a point of symmetry.
228
ARTS. 172-174] THE QUADRIC SURFACES 229

(2) Intercepts. The length of the segments from the origin to

the points where a surface meets the coördinate axes are called
its intercepts. These are found by putting two of the variables
equal to zero and solving the resulting equation for the third
variable.
(3) Traces. The sections of a surface made by the coördinate
planes are called the traces of the surface. The equations of the
traces are found by putting each variable in turn equal to zero.
(4) Plane sections parallel to the coördinate planes. The equa-
tion of a surface and the equation zk, a constant, are together
the equations of the curve of intersection of the surface with a
plane parallel to the XY-plane. A series of sections parallel to
the XY-plane can be found by allowing k to vary. Similarly,
sections parallel to the other coördinate planes can be found.
To construct a surface, it is customary to plot the traces upon
the coördinate planes and a series of sections parallel to at least
one of the coördinate planes .

174. The quadric surfaces, or conicoids. The locus of an equa-

tion of the second degree in x, y, z is called a quadric surface, or
conicoid. It can be shown that any equation of the second degree
in x, y, z is reducible by a proper transformation of the coördi-
nate axes to one or the other of the two forms

Ax² + By² + Cz² = D, (1)

Ax² + By² = 2 cz. (2)

If the coefficients in (1) are all different from zero, the surface
is called a central quadric, the origin being the center. By the
preceding article we see that the surface is symmetrical with
respect to each of the coördinate planes, with respect to each of
the coördinate axes, and with respect to the origin.
If the coefficients in (2) are all different from zero, the surface
is called a noncentral quadric. The surface is clearly symmetrical
with respect to the XZ- and YZ-planes and with respect to the
Z-axis, but it is not symmetrical with respect to the XY-plane
nor with respect to the X- and Y-axes.
If one or more of the coefficients in either (1 ) or (2) are zero,
the surface is called a degenerate quadric.
230 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV.

175. The ellipsoid. If all the coefficients in (1 ) of the preced-

ing article are positive, the equation can be written in the form
x2 y² , z2
+ + = 1, (1)
a² b2
and the surface is called an ellipsoid (Fig. 132).

Vo

FIG. 132

The intercepts on the X-, Y-, Z-axes are respectively ± a, b,

c. The numbers a, b, c are the lengths of the semiaxes.
The traces on the coördinate planes are all ellipses, represented
in the figure by ABCD, BEDF, and AECF. The equations of
these traces are respectively
x2 y2 22 x2
+ = 1, y2 + =1, and + 1.
a2 b2 b2 a²
Equation (1) can be written in the form
x² y2
+ = 1,
a² 1. - b2 / 1 -
C2

from which we see that any section of the ellipsoid parallel to

the XY-plane is an ellipse whose semiaxes are
22 -- 22
a 1 --- -2
c2 and b√√1 c2
ARTS. 175 , 176] HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET 231

Hence, the section will be a real ellipse only when z is confined to

the range
− c≤ z≤c,

and reduces to a point if z is either -cor + c.

Similarly, the sections parallel to the YZ-plane will be real
only when a is confined to the range - a≤x≤a, and the sections
parallel to the XZ-plane will be real only when y is confined to
the range - by≤b. The surface is therefore wholly inclosed
within the parallelopiped whose edges are 2 a, 2 b, and 2 c.
If two of the numbers a, b, c are equal to each other, the sur-
face is an ellipsoid of revolution (Art. 156 ; Ex. 1 ) ; and if all
three are equal to the same number, it is a sphere (Art. 155).

EXERCISES

1. Construct the following ellipsoids :

(a) 4x² + 9 y² + 16 z² = 144 ; ( b ) x² + 16 y² + z² = 64 ; (c) 16x² + y²+ 16 z² = 64.
2. Show that
2 )2² + (y - 1 )2 (z -5 )² = 1
(x --2)
4 9 + 16

is the equation of an ellipsoid whose center is ( 2 , 1, 5 ) .

3. In general,
(x - 1)2 (y --— m)² , (z -
— n)² = 1
+ +
a² b2 c2

is the equation of an ellipsoid whose center is the point ( 1 , m, n) .

4. Show that x2 + 2 y² + 2 z² − 2 x + 4y - 8z + 10 - O is the equation of
an ellipsoid whose center is the point ( 1 , -
− 1 , 2 ) and whose semiaxes are 1 ,
√2 and √2 Is this surface an ellipsoid of revolution ?
2 2

176. The hyperboloid of one sheet. If two of the coefficients,

A, B, C in (1) , Art. 174, are positive and one is negative, D being
positive, the surface is called an hyperboloid of one sheet. Suppose
C is the negative coefficient, the equation may then be written in
the form
x2 y2 - 1,
+
a2 b2 c²

from which we see that the intercepts on the X- and Y-axes are
232 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV.

respectively a and ± b ; and that the surface does not meet the
Z-axis.
The trace on the XY-plane is the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1,
a² b2

while the traces on the other two coördinate planes are the
hyperbolas
x2 - 22 y² z2 = 1.
= 1 , and
a² c2 b2 c2

Any section parallel to the XY- plane is the ellipse

x² y2
1,
22 22
a²
(1 +5)+ (1+5 )
c2

which is clearly real for any value of z and increases indefinitely

in size as z increases or diminishes indefinitely.
The sections parallel to the YZ-plane form a system of con-
centric hyperbolas (Art.
Ꮓ
108), given by the equa-
tion
2
y2 22 = 1 2
b2 c2 a²

If xa, the transverse

axis of the correspond-
ing hyperbola is paral-
lel to the Y-axis, and
X
if xa, the transverse
axis of the hyperbola is
parallel to the Z-axis.
If xa, the section of
the surface is the two
straight lines

У
2 + 2= 0.
FIG. 133 C

Similarly, the sections parallel to the XZ-plane form a system of

concentric hyperbolas. The form of the surface is shown in Fig. 133.
ART. 177] HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS 233

EXERCISES

1. Construct the following hyperboloids :

(a) 4 x² + 9 y² -
— 16 z² = 144 ; (b ) x² + y² -
— z² = 25 ; ( c) x² + 16 y² — z² = 64.
2. Show that
218

x2 - y2 , z2 = 1 and -
+ + y2 + 22 = 1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2

are the equations of hyperboloids of one sheet ; the first surrounding the
Y-axis, and the second, the X-axis.
3. Show that
(x − 1 ) 2 + ( y - 3)2 (2 2)2 =1
4 9 1

is the equation of an hyperboloid of one sheet whose center is the point

(1, 3, 2).
4. Show that - -
(x − 1) ² +
+ (y — m) ² _ ( z — n) ² – 1
a2 b2 c2

is the equation of an hyperboloid of one sheet whose center is the point

(l, m, n).
5. Show that 3x² + 4 y2-22 -
— 8 y = O is the equation of an hyperboloid
of one sheet. Find the coördinates of its center.
6. Construct the surface whose equation is
x² - y² + 2 z² — 6 x + 2y + 4 z + 9 = 0.

7. What are the equations of the planes parallel to the coördinate planes
which cut the surface 9 x² — y² + 9 z² = 36 in pairs of straight lines ?

177. The hyperboloid of two sheets. If two of the coefficients

A, B, C in (1), Art. 174, are negative and one is positive, D being
positive, the surface is called an hyperboloid of two sheets. Sup-
pose B and C are negative, the equation can then be written in
the form
x2_y2_22- =1 ,
a2 b2 c2

from which we see that the surface does not meet either the
Y-axis or the Z-axis and consequently has no trace upon the
YZ-plane. The traces upon the other coördinate planes are
hyperbolas.
234 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV .

The sections of the surface parallel to the YZ-plane form a

system of concentric ellipses given by the equation
y² 22 x2
+ = - 1,
b2 c2 a²

from which we see that

the section will be a real
ellipse only when x is con-
fined to the range

-axa.
FIG. 134
The hyperboloid of two
sheets is a surface of revolution if b = c. The form of the sur-
face is shown in Fig. 134.

EXERCISES

1. Construct the hyperboloids 4 x2 - 9 y2-16 z2-1 and x² -4 y2—4 z² = 1 .

Which is a surface of revolution ?
2. Show that
x2 y2 22 = 1 and - x2 y2
+ + 1
a2 b2 a2 y2 c2
are equations of hyperboloids of two sheets ; the first surrounding the Y-axis,
and the second, the Z-axis.
3. Show that x2-2 y2 4 z22x8y - 80 and y2 - x2-222 +
6x - 2y - 4 z + 6 = 0 are equations of hyperboloids of two sheets. Find the
coördinates of the center of each.

178. The elliptic paraboloid. If the coefficients A and B in

(2), Art. 174, have the same sign, the surface is called an elliptic
paraboloid. The equation can be written in the form
x2 y2 2 cz,
+
a2 b2

where c may be either positive or negative.

The trace on the XY-plane is a point, namely, the origin ; while
the traces on the other coördinate planes are the parabolas
|

x2
= 2 cz and y2 = 2 cz .
a2 b2
ARTS. 178, 179] HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID 235

The sections of the surface parallel to the XY-plane form a

system of concentric ellipses given by the equation
x2 y2 = c
+ 2 z,
a2 b2

from which we see that the section will be real only when c and z
have the same sign. Hence the surface lies above or below the
XY-plane according as c is positive or negative. The form of
the surface is shown in Fig. 135,
where c is supposed to be posi-
tive.

179. The hyperbolic parabo-

loid. If the coefficients A and
B in (2), Art. 174, are opposite
in sign, the surface is called a
hyperbolic paraboloid . Its equa-
tion can be written in the form
x2 - y2 2 cz.
=
a2 b2 X<
The trace on the XY-plane is
here a pair of straight lines

± == 0
α b FIG. 135

intersecting at the origin, and the sections parallel to the XY-

plane form a system of concentric hyperbolas which recede from
the trace on the XY- plane as z increases or diminishes. The
transverse axis of one of these hyperbolas is parallel to the X-axis
if c and z have the same sign , and parallel to the Y-axis if c and
z have opposite signs.
The surface is saddle-shaped . A mountain pass between
two solitary peaks resembles roughly a hyperbolic paraboloid
(Fig. 136).
EXERCISES

1. Construct the following surfaces :

(a) x² + y² = 8 z. (b) y² + z² = 4 x.
(c) x² - 4 z² = 16 y. (d) y² -— x² = 10 z.
236 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV.

2. Reduce each of the equations x2 + 2 y2 -

− 6x + 4y + 3 z + 11 = 0 and
z² -
— 3 y² -
− 4 x + 2z6y + 1 = 0 to a standard form and determine the type
of paraboloid of which each is the equation.
3. A point moves so that it is equidistant from two nonintersecting
straight lines. Show that its locus is a hyperbolic paraboloid.

FIG. 136

4. Discuss the equations z = xy and z = x² + xy + y². What are the loci

of these equations ?

180. The quadric cone. If the constant term D in (1) , Art. 174,
is zero and the coefficients A, B, C are not all of the same sign,
the locus of the equation is a quadric cone. Suppose that C is
negative, and A. and B are positive ; the equation can then
be written in the form
x2 + y2_z2 - 0,
(1)
a2 b2

from which we see that the sections parallel to the XY-plane form
a system of concentric ellipses which increase in size indefinitely
from a point (when z = 0) as z increases or decreases indefinitely.
Again, if P = (x1, y₁ , Z₁ ) is any point whose coördinates satisfy
(1) , we can prove that the line joining the origin to P lies entirely
upon the surface. For the coördinates of any point on this line
are clearly
x = rx₁, y = ry1, z = rz19
ARTS . 180-182 PAIRS OF PLANES 237

where is any number. But these coördinates satisfy (1 ) by

virtue of the hypothesis that the coördinates of P satisfy (1) .
Therefore the cone may be
generated by a line which
rotates around the origin and
intersects an ellipse whose
axes are parallel to the X-
and Y-axes, Fig. 137.

181. Cylinders. If either

(1) or (2), Art. 174, contains
but two of the variables ,
the corresponding locus is a
cylinder (Art. 157) . The
cylinders are therefore de-
generate quadrics.

182. Pairs of planes. If

an equation of the second
degree is written with its
right member equal to zero, FIG. 137
and its left member is then
the product of two expressions of the first degree in the variables,
the corresponding locus is a pair of planes. For the equation is
satisfied by the coördinates of any point which render either fac-
tor equal to zero. Thus ,
x² y2
=0
a² b2

is the equation of the pair of planes

X y= х y = 0.
+ O and
α b а

EXERCISES
1. Construct the cones whose equations are
(a) 9 x² - 36 y² + 4 z² = 0, and ( b ) 16 x2 - 4 y² - z² = 0.
2. If in ( 1 ) , Art. 174, D = 0 and A, B, and C are all of the same sign,
what is the locus of the equation ?
3. Show that x2 + 4 y2 .― 22 - − 2 x + 8 y + 5 = 0 is the equation of a cone
whose vertex is the point ( 1 , — 1, 0) .
238 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV .

4. In general ,
(x -
− 1)² + ( y = m )² + (z − n )² = 0
a2 b c2

is the equation of a cone whose vertex is the point ( 1, m, n ).

5. Construct the cone whose equation is
x² + y² - 2 z + 2y + 4z −1 = 0.

6. Discuss the equations

(a) 4 y² -— 25 = 0 ; ( b ) 2 y² + 5 z² = 0 ; (c) y² — x² - 4 y + 6x - 5 = 0.
What is the locus of each equation ?
7. Show that the left member of
x² - y² + z² + 2 xz - 5 x − y − 5 z + 6 = 0
is divisible by x + y + z -
− 2. What is the locus of the given equation ?

183. Ruled surfaces. If a straight line moves according to a

given law, it describes, or generates, a ruled surface. Thus, if a
line moves so as to be constantly parallel to one of the coördinate
axes, it describes a cylinder parallel to that axis. Again, if a
line rotates about a fixed point and intersects a fixed curve, it
generates a cone whose vertex is the fixed point. Cones and
cylinders are ruled surfaces.
If the equations of a straight line contain a parameter k, then
when k is allowed to vary, the line will move and thus describe a
ruled surface . For example, let the equations of the line be
kx + y + z − k = 0 and x - ky + kz + 1 = 0.

From the first of these equations we obtain

? +z
k= (1)
1 - x'

and from the second , +x

k =1 (2)
y -

Therefore the coördinates of all the points that lie on the line
must satisfy the equation
y + z =1 + x
(3)
1- X y
or x² + y² — z² = 1, (4)
ARTS. 183, 184] EQUATION OF GENERATOR 239

whatever the value of k. Conversely, any point whose coördi-

nates satisfy (4) must lie on the given line for some value of k.
For (4) is equivalent to (3) and the value of k is determined from
either (1 ) or (2) . The locus of (4) is an hyperboloid of one
sheet. Therefore the given line generates this surface when k
varies.
EXERCISES
1. Find the equation of the ruled surface generated by the line whose equa-
tions are
2
x + y = kz, x - y = 2
k
2. Find the equation of the ruled surface generated by the line
x 2= x y 2 -
41+1/1+ k 1, 2 + 1 + m 1,
k
(a) when 2, (b) when k + m = 1, (c) when km = 3, and ( d) when the
m
perpendiculars from the origin upon the two planes are in the ratio 1 : 2.

184. Equation of generator. It frequently happens that the

equation of a surface indicates at once that it is a ruled sur-
face. For example, the equation (x + y) ² + (x + y) z - 3 = 0 can
be written
(x + y) (x + y + z) = 3 .
3
Hence the straight line x + y = x +y + zk lies wholly on
k'
the surface, whatever value is given to k. This line is a generator
for any value of k.
EXERCISES

1. Show that the hyperboloid of one sheet is a ruled surface.

SUGGESTION . The equation of the surface can be written
y
( + ) ( --) = (1-2) ( 1 + 2).

Hence the system of straight lines (3 + 3) = kx ( 1 + 2 ) , ( 3 − 3 ) = 1 ( 1–2)

lies wholly on the surface.
2. Show that a second system of straight lines lies wholly on the hyper-
boloid of one sheet.
3. Show that the hyperbolic paraboloid is a ruled surface, having two
systems of straight lines lying upon it.
240 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV .

4. Show that the three other nondegenerate conicoids are not ruled
surfaces.
x2 y2 - z2
5. Show, by the method of this section , that the cone + = 0 is
a2 b2
a ruled surface.
6. Prove that y2-4 yz + 4 z² + xy - − 2 xz 5 is a ruled surface . Are
there two systems of lines lying upon it ? What is the form of the surface ?
How do the generators lie with respect to each other ?

185. Tangent lines and planes. When two of the points in

which a straight line meets a surface coincide at a point P, the
line is called a tangent line to the surface and P is called its
point of contact.
In general, all the tangent lines at P lie in a plane called the
tangent plane. Pis the point of contact of the plane.
To find the equation of the tangent plane at a given point on a
x2 y² 22
surface , consider the ellipsoid+ + = 1.
a2 b2 c²
Let P = ( 1, 1, 1) and P₂ = ( 2, 12, 2) be any two points in
space. The equations of the line PP, are, in parametric form
(Art. 168) , 21 + 122 .
x = X₁ + rx2 y = Y₁ + ry2 2 = (1)
r +1 r+1 r+1

To find the coördinates of the points in which this line pierces the
ellipsoid, substitute the values of x, y, and z in the equation of the
surface and solve for r. These values of r, when placed in equa-
tions (1), give the coördinates sought.
The equation for r is readily found to be
2 2422
2.2 +32 -1 ) +2 :
X1X2 + Y
/1Y2 + 2122
+
a² b2 a² b2 c2 1)
2
X1 21,2 212 = 0.
+ + + (2)
a² b2 c2

Now suppose the point P₁1 = (x , y₁, z₁ ) lies on the ellipsoid. The
absolute term in (2 ) is then zero, and one of the roots is r₁ = 0, as
it should be. The other root is

XX2Y1 /2 2122
+ +
a² b2 c² -1)
T2
x22 Y22 222
+ + 1
a² b2 c²
ART. 185] TANGENT LINES 241

In order that this root should be zero also, and therefore the
two points of intersection coincide at P₁, it is necessary and suffi-
cient that the numerator should vanish . Hence, when the point
P₂ lies on the plane
212 -
xxx + Y1Y + 1 = 0, (3)
a² b2 c2

the line PP,2 will touch the surface at P₁ ; and therefore (3) is
the equation of the tangent plane at P₁.
When P₁ does not lie on the surface, equation (3) represents a
plane called the polar plane of P₁ with respect to the ellipsoid.
A line perpendicular to the tangent plane at the point of con-
tact is called the normal to the surface at this point.

EXERCISES
x2 + y2 + 22 = 1.
1. Showthat the point ( 1, 2 , 2) 3 lies on the ellipsoid
4 9 16
Find the equation of the tangent plane at this point, and the equations of
the normal.
2. Derive the equation of a tangent plane to the hyperboloid of one
sheet.
3. Derive the equation of a tangent plane to the hyperbolic paraboloid.
4. Derive the equation of a tangent plane to the quadric cone and show
that any tangent plane passes through the vertex.
5. Show, by means of equation ( 2) , Art. 185 , that when P₂ lies on the
polar plane of P1, the segment PiP is divided externally and internally in
the same ratio by the points where the line PiP2 meets the surface.
6. Show that the length of a tangent line to a sphere from the point
(x1, y1 , 1 ) is equal to the square root of the result of substituting x1 , 1 , 21
for x, y, z in the left member of the equation of the sphere, the right member
being zero.
7. Show that the locus of points from which tangents of equal length
may be drawn to two spheres is a plane. This plane is called the radical
plane of the two spheres.
8. Prove that the radical planes of three spheres meet in a line called the
radical axis of the three spheres.
9. Prove that the radical axis of three spheres is perpendicular to the
plane of their centers.
10. Show by definition that the tangent plane to a ruled quadric contains
the two generators which pass through the point of contact.
242 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV .

186. Circular sections. Certain planes cut the conicoids in

circles. For example, consider the ellipsoid
x2 y2 22
+ + 1 = 0.
9 1

The coördinates of all points on the curve of intersection of this

ellipsoid with the sphere 2+ y² + z² - 4 = 0 will satisfy the
equation
y² , z2 -
+ + 1) − k(x² + y² + z² — 4) = 0
4 9

whatever value is given to k. When k = 4, the equation becomes

3 z² 5 y² = 0
(1)
4 36

and therefore represents two planes. Each plane cuts the sphere,
and therefore the ellipsoid, in a circle.
Any plane parallel to either of the planes (1 ) cuts the ellipsoid
in a circle. For, let

3 √5 √3 √5
2. +y - k = 0 and z. m =0 (2)
6

be the equations of any two planes parallel to the two planes (1) .
Combining the product of the equations (2) with the equation
of the ellipsoid, it is easily seen that all points common to the
planes (2) and the ellipsoid must satisfy the equation
x2 22 3
+ + + k ( z. +m 2 ·+ y- km - 1 = 0.
4 4 4

But this is the equation of a sphere and hence the planes (2)
meet the ellipsoid in circles . There are thus two systems of
parallel circular sections, each being parallel to one of the planes
(1).
EXERCISES

1. Find the equations of the planes which cut circles from the ellipsoid
9 x² + 25 y² + 169 z² = 1.
2. For what values of k and m will the equations (2) be the equations of
tangent planes to the ellipsoid ?
ARTS . 186, 187] ASYMPTOTIC CONES 243

3. Find the equations of the system of planes which cut the hyperboloid
of one sheet x2 + y2 - z2 = 1 in circles.
9 25 169

187. Asymptotic cones. Consider the hyperboloid of one sheet

x2 y² z2
+ = 1.
a² b2 c2

Let P₁ = (x1, 1, 1) be any point in space. The equations of the

line joining the origin to P₁1 are

x = rx1, y = ry1 , z = rz19

r being a parameter ; and the coördinates of the points in which

this line meets the hyperboloid are found by substituting these
values of x, y, and z in the equation of the surface and solving the
resulting equation for r.
We thus obtain for r the
equation
1
7.2 =
2 y₁² 212
b2

It follows, from this

equation, that as P₁ is made
to approach the cone
x2 y2 ― 22 -
+ =0, (1)
a2 b2 c²

the values of r increase in

absolute value, becoming in-
finite when P₁ lies on the Y
cone. Therefore no gener-
ator of the cone (1 ) ever
meets the hyperboloid.
Moreover, the sections of
the cone and the hyper- FIG. 138
boloid, parallel to the XY-
plane, approach coincidence as the cutting plane recedes from the
XY-plane. The cone (1) is called the asmyptotic cone.
244 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP . XIV .

EXERCISES

1. Find the equation of the asymptotic cone of the hyperboloid of two

sheets.
2. Show that the asymptotic cone of the hyperbolic paraboloid consists of
two planes .
3. Show that a plane determined by any generator of the hyperboloid of
one sheet and the center is tangent to the asymptotic cone.
4. Show that neither the ellipsoid nor the elliptic paraboloid has an
asymptotic cone.

188. Projecting cylinders of a curve in space . The cylinders

whose generators intersect a given space-curve and are perpen-

FIG. 139

dicular to one of the coördinate planes are called the projecting

cylinders of the curve.
ARTS . 188, 189] PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 245

To find the equations of the projecting cylinders , eliminate x,

y, and z in turn from the equations of the curve. For example,
consider the curve whose equations are
x² + y² = 8 %, x²- y² = 4z.

Eliminating x, y, and z in turn from these equations, the three

projecting cylinders are found to be

y² = 2z, x² = 6z , and x² - 3 y² = 0.

The first two are parabolic cylinders, shown in the figure . They
intersect in the given curve. The third equation decomposes into
the two planes
x + √3y = 0 and x - √3y = 0

and shows that the given curve consists of two parabolas lying in
these planes.
EXERCISES
1. Construct the following curves :
(a) x² + y² = 25, y + z = 0. (b) x² + y² -
— 4 x = 0 , x + y + z = 3.
(c) x² -
— y² = 4, x + y + z = 0.
2. Find the equations of the projecting cylinders of the following curves :
(a) x² + y² - 2 y = 0, y² + 2² = 4 .
(b) 2 y² + z² + 4x4 z = 0, y² + 3 z² - — 8x = 12 z.
(c) x² + y² + z² = 25 , x² + 4 y² - 22 = 0.
The last is a spherical conic.
3. A point moves so as to be constantly 2 units from the Z-axis and
2 units from the point ( 2 , 0, 0) . Find the equations of its locus and plot the
curve.

189. Parametric equations of curves in space. If the coördi-

nates of a point in space are each functions of a parameter, the
locus of the point is a line in space, straight or curved . For
example, the equations in Art. 168 are the parametric equations
of a straight line in space. Again, the equations
x = r³, y = r², z = r

are the parametric equations of a curve in space. The equations

of the projecting cylinders of this curve are found by eliminating
r from each pair of equations. Thus, the projecting cylinders are
x² = y³, x = z³ , and y = z².
246 EQUATIONS AND THEIR LOCI [CHAP. XIV.

190. The circular helix. An important curve in mechanics is

the circular helix. Its parametric equations are
x = a cos 0, y = a sin 0, z =
= b0,
where is the parameter.
The equations of the projecting cylinders are

a sin
x² + y² = a², x = a cos j ' y = a
b

Hence the curve lies on the right circular cylinder x² + y² = a².

If b is a positive number, the XZ-
cylinder stands on the curve
2
x = a coS-
Cos or ABCDE ; and the
b
YZ-cylinder stands on the curve
y = a sin . The helix is there-
b
fore a curve wound around the
0 X circular cylinder, the distance be-
tween two consecutive turns being
2 bm (Fig. 140) .

EXERCISES
1. Plot the curves :
(a) x = 2r, y = r², z = —-1. ( b) x
FIG. 140 1 + cos²0
= 6 cos 0, y = 6 sin 0, z =
4
2. Construct a circular helix when b is a negative number.
3. Show that the equations
x = a cos 0, y = b sin 0, z = mo

are the equations of a helix wound on an elliptic cylinder.

4. Construct the curve
x = a sec 0, y = b tan 0, z = me.
5. The three equations
kx + 2y + kz - 2 k = 0,
x + y + kz − k = 0,
kxyzk - 1 = 0,
ART. 190] THE CIRCULAR HELIX 247

are the equations of three coaxial pencils of planes ( Art. 152 ) . Express the
coördinates of the point of intersection of the three planes, for any value of k,
in terms of k and thus show that the three pencils generate a space-curve.
Construct the curve.
6. Show that the point (2, 1 , 5) lies on the curve

x² + y² + z² = 30 , y² = 2 ,

and find : ( a ) the equations of the tangent line to this curve at the given
point, (b) the equation of the normal plane (perpendicular to the tangent
line) at the given point.
 ANSWERS

Art. 3. Page 10.

1. BA, AB, OB ; 8, 8, 3 ; No. 2. 73° on the Fahrenheit scale.
4. 205°, 170° 5. 310°. 6. 115°.

Art. 7. Page 13.

4. PP25, P2P3 = 3, P1P3 = 4.
5. P₁P₂ = √37, P2P3 = 3, P₁P3 = 4.
6. A square, one side 4 units, diagonal 4√2, area 16.
7. (2, 0) ; each √2 ; each 2 ; 1 .

Art. 9. Pages 15-16.

1. (2.598, -1.5) ; ( 2, −3.464) ; ( -1.25, 2.73) .
2. (√58, 66°.8 ) ; (2√5, 26 °.6 ) ; ( —- √34, 59°.03 ) .
4. y = ± 3,0 = ± 36°.8.
5. ( -177, 0 ) .
9. A ( 8.66, 5 ) or ( 10, 60°) . B = (0, 15) or ( 15, 0°) . C ( 10.39, 6)
or ( 12 , - 60°) .

Art. 11. Pages 19-20.

1. (a) 5 and 2 ; slope, . (b) 1 and -9 ; slope, - 9.
(c) 2 and 8 ; slope, 4 . (d) 1 and - 5 ; slope, -- 5.
2. 19° 6' ; 40° 54'.
3. (b) 26° 34' ; 75° 58' ; 146° 19′.

Art. 12. Page 21 .

1. 13.86. 2. √13. 3. 5.97.
4. 12.73 ; 2.23 ; 14.92 . 5. ( 80,7 ) , 144 miles .
Art. 15. Page 24.
1. 38° 27'. 2. 11.402 , 7.616 , 7.211 ; 100° 30' , 41° 3', 38° 27 .
4. 1.792. 5. 10. 6. 35° 24'.
249
250 ANSWERS

Art. 17. Pages 25-26.

1. (0 , 3.5) ; ( 1, -
— 1.5 ) ; ( 3 , 0) . 5. (0, 2) and (3, 3) .
6. ( 1.125 , .25) . 7. (1 , 0) and (0 , — 2 ) .

Art. 19. Page 28.

1. -
- 6. 3. - 7.5. 4. 6.897. 6. 2.5.

Art. 20. Page 30.

1. 88.5. 3. 22.935. 4. 151 .

Art. 21. Pages 31-32.

1. 122.5. 2. 25 acres and a sq. rd. 3. 60,294 sq. ft.
x = - 94.2 - 27.8 188.0 54.1
4. (a) { % = = 66.0 157.3 68.3 - 166.3
(b) N. 36° E.; S. 67° 36' E.; S. 29° 46′ W.; N. 26° 48′ W.; N. 1° 12′ E.;
N. 50° 45′ W.
(c ) 42,277.06 sq. ft.
5. 150.5. 6. 300, slope, ?.

Art. 30. Page 39.

1. Line of symmetry , x = 1 ; intercepts on X-axis, - 1 and 3 ; intercept
- 4) .
on Y-axis, - 3 ; turning point ( 1, —
2. Line of symmetry , y = 1 ; intercept on X-axis, } ; intercept on Y-axis, 1 .
3. ( ± 2, 2).
6.
(-2 ), 4 ac4 -
a b³).
7. Area = 4 x √25 — x², where x is one half the length of one side . Turn-
5√2
ing point for x = Max. rect. is a square whose side is 5√2.
2
432
8. Number of sq. ft . of lumber is + x², where x is the length of the side
х
of the base. Height of the box requiring the least amount of lumber is 3 feet.

Art. 34. Page 42.

3. (a) y = a. (b ) (x² + y² + 2 ax) ² = 4 a² (x² + y²) .
(c) (x² + y² — ax ) ² = a² ( x² + y²) .
4. r 2 cos 0.
Art. 41. Page 50.
10. 7 == t
9. pv = 4. +1.
50000
11. i = (93000000)2 i = 1.93, nearly.
d2
 ANSWERS 251

Art. 45 . Page 56.

1. (a) x² + y² - 2y - 8 = 0. (b ) x² + y² + 4x = 0.
(c) x² + y² + 8 x - 6 y + 16 = 0. (d) x² + y² - 2x4y31 = 0.
2. x² + y² - 4x - 6 y = 0.. 3. x² + y² + 4 x -− 6 y − 13 – 0 .
4. x² + y² - 5x + y = 0. 5. 10 x 8y + 3 = 0.
6. 2 (ac) x + 2 ( b -− d) y — b² + đ² ·- a² + c² = 0.
7. x² + y² == 16 . 8. x² + y² = 25.
9. x² + y² - 6x + 4y· - 12 = 0.

Art . 46. Page 57.

-
1. (a ) (3, 0) ; 5. ( b ) ( 3, − 2 ) ; 3√2. ( c) ( § , 4 ) ; ¹³ . ( d) ( − 1 , 2 ) ; 0.
(e) (4, 0) ; 4. (ƒ) (4, 1) ; { √5. (g) imag. (h ) imag.
2. (19, 32) ; 19.565, nearly.

Art. 48. Page 59.

1. (α) x-−y + 1 = 0. (b ) 3x + 2y + 1 = 0. (c) x + 9y + 13 = 0.
(d) 7x + 4y -
— 5 = 0.
5. (a) -1 ; 1,
2, 1. (b) ;, -1. (c) 3 ; - 3, 2. (d) - §; f, t

Art. 50. Pages 62-63 .

1. x2 + y2 = 1 ; e = 3.
|=
8

16
|

2. 4, 0.
x2 y2 y2 x2 4 y2 x2 y2 =
3. (a) + = 1 . (b ) ² + 2
25 9 36 = 1 . ( c) 25 + ¹² 1²= 1.
288 + 50
25 = 1. ( d) 100
x2 y2
(e) 50 + 25 = 1.
4. 877% , 716.
5. (a) a = √2, b = √3, c = (b) a = √3, b = √2, c = { √3.
(c) a = √2, b = } √6, c = √}. (d) a =·1 , b = √ √², c = {√2.
6. ( a ) 2√ž, ( b ) ¹√³
3 , ( c) z√2, ( d) 1 .

Art. 52. Pages 65-66.

y2 2. x2 y2 = 1. 3. 7.03+ and 1.03+ .
1.-- 1.
9 7 36 28
4. (a ) 3, 2 ; √13. (b ) 2 , 3 ; † √13. ( c) 1,4 ; √17 . (d) 2√m, √m ; †√5.
1+ m
5. (a) √6, 2 ; ¿ √10. (b) 4, 2 ; √5. Vm " √n ; √¹+m
(c) √
2√n
6. (4a) 2. (4b ) 9. (4 c ) 32. (4d) √m. ( 5a) 6. (5b ) 16. (5c) m
252 ANSWERS

Art. 53 . Page 67.

1. ( 1, 0) , 2. 2. y28(x - 1 ) . 3. x24(y- 1) .
4. (a) y² = 8 x. ( b ) x² = 8 y. 6. (a) 8. (b ) 4. ( c ) 6. ( d) 10.

Art. 57. Pages 70-71.

1. -
2 - 6 r cos ( 0 – 60°) = 7 ; √37.
2. r cos ( 60°) = 5 ; x + y√3 = 10 .
3. r 8 sin 0 ; x² + y² := 8 y.
6. r2a cos ( 0 - — 45°) ; x² + y² ± ax√2 ± ay √2 = 0 .

Art. 59. Pages 72-73.

7 5 6
1. r = 2. r = 5. r =
4 3 cos 0 3 cos 0 - 2 1 cos 0
c²- a² a² - c² a
9. r = 10. r = 12. r =
ac cos 8 a + c cos 0 ✓2 cos 0 1

Art. 62. Page 76.

√105 ✓165
1. (a) a = 3 , b = 2, c = √5, e = V5. (b) a = 7 9 b = 11
3
c = √ , e = V. ( c) a = 10, b 5, c = 5√5, e = {√5. (d) a = 2√}} ,
√39
b = V116 c = √1748 , e = ✓ (e) a = 8, b = 5, c = √39, e =
8
5 89
(f) a = 8, b = 5, c = √89, e =
2. 2y + x = 0 and 2 yx = 0. 3. 5 .
16 0 == arc tan .
4. r =
5 cos 0 - 3'

Art. 72. Page 87.

3. a = 2, T = zdő⋅ x = 2 cos & + √c² – 4 sin² p - c, where c is the length
of the connecting rod.
Art. 78 . Page 94.
1. 3x + 7y = 10. 3. x'y' -5. 4. y¹² = a√2 x' .

Art. 81. Page 97.

3√3 7. x = 4 - t², y = t (4 — t²) .
2. ( 31,5 ± 2
t2 ―
3. (4%, - 34) . 8. x2 y = 2 ( 2+ 1 ).
t² +극),
√7 x. 9. xa cos 0, y = a sin4 0.
6. y = ±
3
(a + b )² sin² 0 + b cos 0, y = a sin 0.
10. x = 1
r2
 ANSWERS 253

Art. 82. Pages 98-99.

2. (1) 2
/2-1/2 = 1. (2 ) y = 4 (x + 1) . (3) y == 2x + 3.
2 3
(4) y + 5x + 10 = 0. (5) 3x + 2y - 6 = 0 . (6) x + y = 1 .
(7) c²y + ACx = AB.

Art. 83. Page 100.

2. 10x8y + 40 = 0. - 1x -
− − zz y + = 0.
3. x - 3y + 9 = 0. 32x 2y + 6 + 0.
4. 10, - 4, 6 or - - 15, 6 , 9.

Art. 84. Page 101.

1. 11 x 35 y = 0.
2. 15 x 18 y - 3200, 4x + 5y - 30, 49x + 98 y - — 272 = 0.
3. 3x + 2y + 7 = 0. 5x - y + 8 = 0.
4. x√3 - y- (√3 − 3) = 0 . 5. 3 y - 10 x -
− 4 = 0.

Art. 87. Page 104.

1. (a) x + y√3-10-0 . (b ) x - y√3 + 10 = 0. (c) x√3 - y + 10 = 0.
(d) x + y = 0. (e) x + y = { √2. (f) x - y√3-12 = 0.
4. y = 5 and 21 x + 20 y 145 = 0.

Art. 88. Page 105.

1. 3√13 2. 2.35+. 3. x² + y² = 25.
13
4. 13, 4x² + 4 y² + 24 x - ---
— 32 y — 69 = 0 .
5. (a) x² + y² = 5. (b) x² + y² + 8x -·3y + 5.025 = 0.
-
(c) x² + y² + (6 −√2 ) x − ( 4 + √2)y + 25 = 0.
9(3-2√2) = 0.
(a) x² + y² + 3(2 -− √2) x + 3 ( 2 -
−√2) y +
2

Art. 89. Page 106.

1. 45°. 2. 4° 46' , nearly. 3. 105° 15' , 63° 26' , 11º 19'.
5. y == -
- ½, x − y = £9, 17 x + =
7y 0.
8. (a) 2x 3y = 6. (b) 3x + 4y = 15. (c) 3y - 2x = 5√13.

Art. 90. Page 107.

x2 y2 y2
1. (1 ) =.
+1 (2) 12 + 9 = 1. (3) 36 + 20 1.
21805

y2 1. y2 = 1. x2 y2
( 4) 25 + 16 = 1 (5) (6) 144 + 128 = 1.
+

16
254 ANSWERS

√26
2. ( 1 ) a = 5 , b = 1 , c = √26, e =
√24
(2) a = 5, b = 1 , c = √24 , e =
5

(3) a = 2, b = 3 , c = √13 , e = √13

2 .

( 4 ) a = 2, b = 3 , c = √5, e = v5
3.
(5) a = √10, b = 2, c = √14 , e = √‡.
(6) a = √10, b = 2, c = √6, e = √}.
512 13 √2 • √13
3. and 4. √13 ( 9 + 2√5 ) and V13 (9 – 2√5) .
3 3 6

Art. 94. Pages 110-111.

|+

x2 y2 = 1. r = 4
1. · x = 3 cost, y = 2 sin t.
9 4
+

3 - √5 cos 0
2.
x2 4 y2 = 1. r = 15 . x = 3 sec t, y = 3√5 tan t.
45 6 cos 0 - 4 2
x2 y2 = 1. r = 27 x = 6 cost, y = 3√3 sin t.
3.
36 + 27 6- 3 cos 0
x2 y2 = 1. r = 25
4. x = 4 sec t, y = 5 tan t.
16 25 √41 cos 0 4
α 25
5. c = 4, =
e
Art. 95. Pages 113-115.
1. (a) y = x + 2. (b) y = − 1 x ± 20. (c) y = - x ± √10.
4± √91
(d) y - 4= 9
(x - 3) . (e) y = x 5.

2. (a) y = x + }. (b ) y = ± x ± 5. (c) y = ± 6x ± 7√37.

Art. 96. Page 116.

3. (a) (4, 4). (b ) ( ± 18 , ± ¹²) . (c) ( ± √10, ± √10 ).
(12 (-94√91 ) -9( 16+ (e) ( ± 3 , ? ).
+ 91 )
7 4 √91 ) , − 9 ( 1655
( a) ( 12 ( − 9 55

(b) { Ellipse, ( ± 1², ± 3)

4. (α) { Circle, ( 18 ) J Hyperbola, ( 32 , ± 7 ) )
42 √37 7√37
Circle , ( + 土
37 37
(c) 13√37
300 √37
Ellipse, ( ± 259 9 ± 259
 ANSWERS 255

Art. 97. Page 118.

1. 3x + 8y = 19. 3. 3x + y = 7 . 4. y = 4, y = x + Y
5. x + 2y + 6 = 0. 6. 108° 26'.
10. (a) y == 3 x - 4. (b) 11x - y — 18 = 0. (c) 3y = x + 4.
(d) 11 x -
− 2 y√6 – 21 = 0.

Art. 99.
Page 120.
=- Yı y- yı a²yı
1. xiy - yix = 0. 2.
x - X1 2p x- x1 b2x1
3. 73, 73, 51, 4. 27 y 18 x 880. 7. 8x - 3y = 18 .
8. m √65 = 192 √65 ; subnormal = 4√65
; subtangent
3 65 3

Art. 102. Pages 124-125.

2. 9 y 2x√3 = 0, 3y + 2x√3 = 0.
X1X - y1y=0.
4. yıxxiy = 0,
a2 b2

Art. 103. Pages 126-127 .

1. y = x. 2. y =-
- 9. 3. x + 2y = 8.
b2
4. 13x11 y = 46. 5. y = x - 1. 6. y = x.
a2m

Art. 104. Pages 128-129.

1. (1 ) x8y = 16. (2 ) x + 2y + 6 = 0 . (3) 5x + 8y + 12 = 0.
(4) 5 x - 6 y = 5.
2. ( 15,10). 3. (50, 30). 4. ( -10 , 4 ) .
5. 6. a2b2x1 a2b2y1
(-Aa²,-
C Bb²).

Art. 109. Page 138.

1. x² + 2 y2 = 10, 5 x² - 120 y² = 24.

Miscellaneous Exercises. Pages 138–140 .

1. (2 ± 3√6)x + 2(6 ‡ √б)y = 40.

2. (149 ¥ 12√T5) x
х − ( − 54√5 ± 24√3 y = 18.
2 17
3. ( 1 ) ( 46
± 6V6 , 6 ±√6). (2) 12√15 18√5 ± 8√3\
(* 5 5 (2 ) ( 149 + 412V15, -18√517+ 8VB).
256 ANSWERS

4. 15. 5. ]v15 . 6. B2 = AC.

10. x + y + p = 0. 11. 94,559,610 and 91,440,390.

12. arc tan a²m² + b² • 13. 500,000.

m(a² — b²)
x2 y2 = x
15. + 17. y = x (m + m') .
a2 b2 a2

Art. 111. Page 145.

1. ( a) Ellipse , center ( , ) , foci ( ± √95, -— 3 ) .
(b) Ellipse, center (3 , - 4 ) , foci ( 3 ± √17 , —- 4) .
(c) Hyperbola, center ( 1 , 0) , foci ( ≥ , ± 7√3 ) .
(d) Parabola, vertex ( -2, -1 ) , focus ( -2, — - 9).
( e) Hyperbola, center ( 0 , 3 ) , foci ( 0 , 3 ± 2√3) .
(ƒ) Parabola, vertex (1 , 2) , focus (5 , 2) .
2. (a ) Circle. (b) Hyperbola. (c) Two lines parallel to Y-axis.
(d) One line parallel to X-axis . (e ) Imaginary lines.
(f) Two lines parallel to X-axis.

Art. 112. Page 148 .

1. Ellipse, 45°, e = .577+.
2. ( a) Ellipse. (b) Imag. ellipse. (c) Imag. lines.
(d) Hyperbola. (c) Real interesting lines.
3. (a) 3x² + y² = 2. (b) 3x2-7 y2 = 8. (c) 7x2-6 y2 = 14.
(d) 2x² + y² -
= 2. (e) 212 y2 = -9.

Art. 114. Page 152.

1. (a) (5x - y − 1 ) ( x + y + 5) = 0.
x2 y2 == 1 ; 0 = 67° 30' ; center - 1, 0).
(b)
2(√2-1 ) 2( √2 + 1 )
x2 y2
(c) =- 1 ; 0 = 67° 30' ; center ( − 1 , 1) .
2( √2-1) 2 (√2 + 1 )
(d) 3 x² + y² = 6 ; 0 = 45° ; center ( 1 , -
− 2) .
x2
(e) + y2 = 1 ; 0 = 13° 18′ ; center (1 , 1) .
3 + √5 3 --√5
(ƒ) Imaginary lines.
x2 y2 - 0 ; 0 = arc tan 2 ; center (3, 3).
(g) +
3+ √5 3 -1√5
 ANSWERS 257

Art. 115 . Page 154.

4√2 5√2 -
1. (a) y² x ; 0 = 45 ° ; vertex (-5V2, _ 2√2).
3 3 3
√2x ; 0 = 45° ; vertex ( 25√2 31
(b) y2 :== 4 (25√4 2 3/2).
8
4√5 y; 0 4√5 4√5
(c) x² arc sin 1 √5; vertex 5
25 5 25 27) .
6y 12 2 - 2√13
(d) x2 = 0= arc tan vertex 673).
13 √13 5 13 √13 507
2√5-; vertex - √5
(e) x² 44 ; arc sin 5, 0).
√5 5

Art. 116. Page 155.

1. (a) x - y - 1 = 0. (b) Imaginary lines . (c) x + y + 1 = 0.
(d) 3x - 2y + 2 = 0 and 3 x -
− 2y + 3 = 0.

Art. 117. Pages 156-157.

1. (a ) Hyperbola. (b) Real ellipse. (c) Parabola. (d) Hyperbola.
2. (a) Parabola. (b) Two real lines. (c) Real ellipse.
(d) Two real lines.
4. k = 1, imaginary.
7. Vertex ( , ) ; focus ( , ) ; directrix 4 x + 2y = 7.

Art. 118. Page 159.

1. (a) 3x + 8 y − 5 = 0 and 3 x --- 8y + 20 = 0.
- (b) x + y = 4.
(c) y + 4 = 0. (d) x + 2y + 3 = 0. (e) 8 x - 37 y + 18 = 0 and
8x13 y ― 18 = 0.
2. y - 4x = 8.
Art. 119. Page 162.
1. ( 5 ± √13 )x – 2 ( 7 ± 2√13 ) y — ( 13 ± 5√13) = 0.
2. Axes, x + y = 3 and x - y = 9.
Asymptotes, ( - 15 ‡ 7 √5 ) x ± 2 y √5 + 15 ± 2 √5 = 0.
3. y - x + 1 = 0, x + y - 3 = 0, x + y --
− 1 = 0.

Art. 121. Pages 163-164.

1. 17 x² + 105,xy -— 48 y² + 210 x + 39 = 0.
2. (a) 5x + 5y + 2 = 0. (b ) 3x - 2y = 0. (c) 6x + 1 = 0
(d) 4x - 2 ay + a² c² + d² = 4.
4. (} , −3) .
 ANSWERS

Art. 3. Page 10.

1. BA, AB, OB ; 8, 8, 3 ; No. 2. 73° on the Fahrenheit scale.
4. 205°, 170° 5. 310°. 6. 115°.

Art. 7. Page 13.

4. -
P₁P₂ = 5, P₂P3 = 3, P1P3 = 4.
5. P₁P₂ = √37, P2P3 = 3, P₁P3 = 4.
6. A square, one side 4 units, diagonal 4√2, area 16 .
7. (2, 0) ; each √2 ; each 2 ; 1.

Art. 9. Pages 15-16.

1. (2.598, - -
1.5) ; (2, · 3.464) ; ( — 1.25, 2.73) .
2. ( 58, - 66°.8 ) ; (2√5 , 26°.6 ) ; ( √34, 59°.03) .
4. y = ± 3,0 = ± 36°.8 .
5. (-17 , 0).
9. A = ( - 8.66 , 5) or ( 10 , 60°) . B= (0, 15) or ( 15 , 0°) . C = ( 10.39, 6)
or ( 12 , — 60°) .

Art. 11. Pages 19-20.

1. (a) 5 and 2 ; slope, . (b) 1 and - 9 ; slope, -- 9.
(c) 2 and 8 ; slope, 4. (d) 1 and 5 ; slope, -— 5.
2. 19° 6' ; 40° 54'.
3. (b) 26° 34' ; 75° 58' ; 146° 19' .

Art. 12. Page 21.

1. 13.86 . 2. √13. 3. 5.97.
4. 12.73 ; 2.23 ; 14.92. 5. (80, 144 miles.

Art. 15. Page 24.

1. 38° 27'. 2. 11.402 , 7.616 , 7.211 ; 100° 30' , 41° 3' , 38° 27 .
4. 1.792. 5. 10. 6. 35° 24'.
249
 ANSVERS

Art & Page I

1. BA, AB, OB; 8, 8, 3: N...

H
4. 205°, 170°

Art. 1 Page 18
4. PP2 = 5, P₂P₂ = & PP₁ = 4
5. PIP₂ = √37, P₂P₁ = & 7,3; = 4
6. A square, one side 4 Om The H.
7. (2, 0) ; each V2; each :

Art. 9. Pages 25-26

1. (2.598, -1.5) ; (2-144 - ...
2. ( 58, 66°.8); (2
4. y = 3,0 ± 388
5. (-17 , 0). = 1.
9. A = ( - 8.66, 5) or (14%. . . DEMAN
or (12, - 60°).

Art. 11. Pages 19-20

V3.
1. (a) 5 and 2 ; slope, . and
(c) 2 and 8; slope, 4. √2.
81and 1: -5
2. 19° 6' ; 40° 54'.
3. (b) 26° 34' ; 75° 58' ; 14

Art 12 Page 21. .03+.

1. 13.86. 212 835
4. 12.73 ; 2.23 ; 14.92. 譯 i; V5.
m
Art. 15. Page 24.
1. 38° 27'. 21142 7.616, 7. 2√n
211 ; 10 c) m
4. 1.792.
5. 10. 6.9
249
258 ANSWERS

Art. 122. Page 165.

1. x² + 2xy + y² --
— x − 11 = 0 and x² .1 ·2xy + y² -— x — 7 = 0 .
2. x² + 4 xy + 4 y² — x − 2 = 0 and x² - 4 xy + 4 y² -— x -− 2 = 0.

Art. 123. Page 166.

1. (a) x + 2(y ) , 3x + 1 = + ( y - 14 ) , x + 15 = (7y - 10).
(b) 7y + 36 = 0, x√7 ± 12 = 0.
(c) (2√2 ± √5)x− ( √5F√2 )y = ± (4√5 ± 2√2) , x − 2y = 0, x + y = 0 .
- 12√7 -
2. (a ) ( − 5, 0) , ( − 4, 3) , (3, 4) , ( 3′ , − 3 ) . (6 ) ( ± 1277 , —34).
4√10
(0) (+1 ± 2√10 ) , ( ± 2 , 2) .
5 5

Art. 124. Page 167.

-
1. (a ) 22 x2. 30 xy + 7y2 - 22 x + 9 y = 0.
(b) 24 x2 - 73 xy + 29 y² + 106 x -- 126 y + 40 = 0.

Miscellaneous Exercises . Pages 167-168.

2. (2, -3) .
4. x² + y² - 18 x - 36 y + 81 = 0 and x2 + y² - — 2 x 4y + 1 = 0.
5. (2, 0) and (5 , 0) . 6. (140,
x2 y2 = -- 1. y2
7. (a) y² = x. (b)
16 4 (c) 2012++ = 1.
10√13 x2 y2
(d) y2 = x. (e) + = 1.
13
4 ( 5 + √5) 4(5 – √5)
x2 y2 = 1. 3√2 x. 2√5
(ƒ) (g) y2 - (h ) y2 = -x.
3 2 5
(i) (5x - 2y + 3) (5x - 2y - 2) = 0. (j) x 1- 3y - 1 = 0.
(k) x² -— y² = -10√2. (1) x2 - y2 = 40. (m) Imag. lines.
$510
(n) y² = 21971& x. (0) (x - 2y - 2) (x + y + 1 ) = 0.

Art. 145. Page 200.

5√3
2. Each , 3. (7, -4, -3). 4. (1, 0, 11 ) , 7.
3
Art. 147. Page 201.
2. Lengths of the sides , √83, √217 , √54.
4. Terminal point, ( ≥, §, - 3 ± √23) .
6. Direction cosines,,, 0 ; }, -− } , – }. 8. 60° or 120°.

Art. 151. Page 204.

1. ( a ) 90 °. (b) arc cos 21. (c) arc cos .
7. 4 . 8. 1 .
 ANSWERS 259

Art. 152. Pages 205-206.

1. (a) (53, - 23, 31 ) . (b ) (3 , 17, 33) .
3. ( 1 , 2, 4 ) and ( -1 , 0 , 21). 8. - 2. 1.

Art. 155. Pages 208-209.

1. -
x² + y² + 22 — 10 x + 4 y - 62 + 37 = 0.
x² + y² + z² — 4 x + 6 y + 12 z = 0 . x² + y² + z² — 2 az == 0.
2. (a) (1, - 3 , 4) , r = 2. (b) ( − 5, 2, - - 1 ) , r = 5.
(c) ( -2, -2, -3) , r = 4. (d) ( − 3 , 0 , 0) , r = 3. (e) Imaginary .
3. x² + y² + z² - 2 x w 8 y - 16 z = 0. 4. x² + y² + 2² - 4 x = 217.
5. x² + y² + 2² = 4 and x² + y² + z² = 576.
3/22

Art. 156. Page 210.

༄Ę

1/2

2
1. x y2
།
|

= 1. 2. y² + z24= px.
& &&
+
+

a2 b2 b2
X2 y2 - 22
3. 1 and x2 y2_22 1.
b2 b2 a² b2 b2
5. y² + z2 = 4 px. y = 16 p²(x² + ≈2) .

Art. 159.Page 212.

y² _ (z -
− 3)² — 0 .
1. x² + y² --
= 22 tan² 0. 2. x2 +
4 4 9
4. ( 1 , 0, 1 ) and ( -1 , 0, 138) . 5. bx = az. About the Z-axis.

Art. 160, Pages 214–215 .

1. (a) x√2 + y + z = 8. (b) x + y√2 - 2 + 12 = 0.
(c) 6x 2y + 32 == 56. (d) 2x + y + 2 z + 15 = 0.
2. (a) 3x 2y + 6z = 49. (b) 2x - 5 y + z = 30.
(c) 3x + 4y -- 2 z + 29.
√2
3. (a) x y++ 2z = 1. (b) − 1 x + 2 y - 12 = 4.
1 4 2 2 3
(c) X- Y- 2= 3 (d)
1
-X -y - z =0.
21 /21 /21 √21 V 14 √14 V14
5. 54.
Art. 162. Pages 215-216.
2. 16 x6 y -− z = 14.
4. Area of XZ-proj . := 4. Area of YZ-proj. = 6. Area of XY-proj . 12.

Art . 163. Page 217.

1. 3x + 2y + 6 z = 12. 2. x - 3y - 2 ≈ = 0.
260 ANSWERS

Art. 164. Page 218 .

x y
1. 4. - 3. 2. 1.37 , nearly. 3. + ± = 1. 4. 581.
3 4 12
5. 8. 11. 6. x + 5y - 4 z −1 = 0.
7. x² + y² + z² -
− (yz + xz + xy ) + x + y + z = 1.

Art. 165 . Page 219.

-
1. (4, 4, 2) ; 118° 7 ', 61° 53', 60°. 4. 3x - y z + 5 = 0 .
2. 3x + 4y - 12 z — 12 = 0. 5. 3x - y + z − 12 = 0.
3. 7x + 5y - z — 13 = 0.

Art. 167. Pages 220-221.

1. 7x y + z − 18 = 0. 2. ; impossible ; } .
3. (a) 11x - 4 y + 2 z − 43 = 0. ( b ) 8x + 3y + 5 z -
− 36 = 0.
4. y + 4z - 1 = 0 ; x + z −5 = 0 ; 4x --y- 19 = 0.
5. 6x - 5y - 3 z ± 6 √15 = 0. 8. 2x + y + 2z = 2√3.
6. 5x - 3y7z - 20 = 0. 9. 5x + 3y + z =: 15.
7. x + 7 % = 2. 10. 3x + 9 y + z = 6.

Art. 168. Page 222.

х • (c) x = 2, y = −3.
1. (a) 2 = y = 2 +2 2. ( b ) x +3 1 = - y - 53-2-2
2 .
3 1
2. (a) (3, -1, 0 ), (0, 0, - 2 ) , (0, 0, -2).
(b) (— 4, 8, 0) , ( 3, 0, 16 ) , ( 0 , 1 , 1) .
(c) (2, ― 3, 0) , parallel, parallel.
3 -1 2 • 3 5 2
3. (a) " (b) (c) 0, 0, 1 .
√14 √14 /14 √38 38 /38
4. (a) 2(x + 1) = 2(y - − 2) = ( ≈ + 3) √2.
(b) -2 (x + 1) = 2 (y - 2) = (z + 3 ) √2. (c) 2y - x = 5, z + 3 = 0.
5. xy = 2.
Art. 170. Pages 224-225.
1. x- 2 y + 4 = 0, x - 3 z 20 , 2y - 3z - 6 = 0 ; 3x - 2y - 6 z = 0 ;
25 x --32 y --- 27 z + 46 = 0.
2. x√5-2y = 2√5 - 10 , z = 7 ; (x - 2) √3 = z - 7, y = 5 ;
2(y - 5) √2 = z - — 7, x = 2.
3. 5y - 72 + 4 = 0, 5 x −8z90, 7 x 8y 19 = 0.
1 1
4. " 0,
√2 √2
5. (3 , -3, 0) , ( 3 , 0 , 3 ) , ( 0, — 16, — ft) .
 ANSWERS 261

X- y+ 2
6.
}
x-a y-b 2
8. m n 1
√m² + n²² + 1 √m² + n² + 1 √m² + n² + 1
5 4 3
9. (a) 9 0. (b) 0, 1, 0.
√29 /29 (0) 713, 0, V13
х - = y =2 + 2
10. 11. x = 2 , y = 3.
2 5

Art. 171. Pages 226-227.

1. (0, 1 , 2) ; (- 10, - 7, 19 ) ; ( 2, - 18 , 4). 4. (3, 1, 1).
х - 1 y + 6 2 2.
5. = = 10. 8x + y 26 z + 6 = 0.
2 - 6
x +3--3-2-2
= = х + 23 .
- y + 1 =2 +
6. 11. x - 2 =
1 1 11 8 7
9. 2x + 5y - z = 19. 12.3 Yy1 = 2- 21
A B C
- yı) + c (z — 21 ) = 0.
13. a (x - x1 ) + b (y −

Art. 183. Page 239.

1. x² — y² — z2² = 0.
2. (a ) 3x + 2y = 2.
(b ) 2x² + 2 y² + 6 yz + 6 xz + 5 xy − 2 x − 4 y − 8 z + 4 = 0.
(c) 6 x² + 6 y2 - 4 z² + 15 xy - 18 x - 18 y + 12 = 0.
(d) 12 y² + 15 z² + 12xy - 8 x − 28 y + 12 = 0.

Art. 186. Pages 242-243.

-
1. x 3 zk, x + 3 z = m. 2. k = m = ± √2.
√194 194
3. ·x + z = k, х 2 = m.
13 13
 INDEX

(The numbers refer to the pages.)

A Circle, 55.
Circular cone, 211 .
Abscissa, 11 . sections, 242.
Addition of directed segments , angles, Cissoid, 169.
9. Classification of curves, 96.
Adiabatic expansion, 192 .
of quadric surfaces , 229.
Agnesi, Donna Maria, 172. Clockwise , 9 .
Algebraic functions , 41 . Cofactors, 150, 217.
Angle which one segment makes with
Colatitude, 196.
another, 22. Common chord, 163.
which one line makes with another, Conchoid, 170.
105.
Cone, 236 .
which a line makes with a plane, Conicoids, 229.
226.
Conics as sections of a cone, 211 .
which one plane makes with an- Conic sections , 110.
other, 218.
Conjugate axis, 62, 65.
Area of a triangle, 26, 28. diameters, 123.
of any polygon, 30. hyperbolas, 134.
Asymptotes , 81 , 133. Construction of a surface , 228.
Asymptotic cones, 243. Contour lines, 136.
Axes of coördinates, 11. Coördinate axes, 11 , 195.
of ellipse, 62. planes, 195 .
of hyperbola, 65. Coördinates, cartesian, 11 , 195.
Axis of parabola , 123. cylindrical, 197.
of pencil of planes , 219. of point of contact, 115.
Azimuth, 10.
polar, 13.
B rectang ular, 11 .
spherical, 196.
Bisectors of angles, 106. Cosine curve, 43 .
Boyle's law, 50. Counterclockwise , 9 .
Cross-sections, 229.
Cubic curve, 83.
C
Curves, algebraic, 169.
Cardioid, 178. in space, 245 .
Cartesian coördinates, 10. Cusp , 176 .
Cassinian ovals, 67. Cycloid, 173 .
Catenary , 85. Cylinders , 210.
263
264 INDEX

D Four-cusped hypocycloid, 177.

Function, 33.
Damped vibrations, 87.
algebraic, 41.
Descartes , 10.
inverse, 45.
Determinant, 26.
transcendental, 41.
form of equation , 59, 216.
Determination of functional corre-
spondence, 33. G
Diameter of conic , 123.
General equation of second degree,
Diocles, 170 . 145.
Directed segments, 8.
angles, 8. Graph of exponential function , 44.
Direction cosines , 200. Graphic representation, 34.
Graphs, 34.
Director circle, 114.
Directrices of conics, 107. geometric construction of, 34, 42,
44, 47.
Directrix of a parabola, 66.
of inverse functions , 46.
Discriminant, 150 . of transcendental functions, 41 .
Discussion of an equation, 77.
Distance between two points , 20, 199.
of a point from a line, 104. H
of a point from a plane, 217 . Harmonic range, 131 .
Duplication of cube, 170.
Helix, 246.
Hyperbola, 63.
E Hyperbolic paraboloid , 235.
Eccentricity, of ellipse, 62. Hyperboloid, 231 , 233.
of hyperbola, 65. Hypocycloid, 175.
Ellipse, 60.
Ellipsoid, 230 . I
of revolution, 210.
Elliptic paraboloid, 234 . Intercept form , 58, 215.
Empirical equations, 182. Intercepts, 38.
Epicycloid, 177. Intersecting lines, 99.
Equations of a line, 58, 221 . planes, 223.
of first degree, 98 . Inverse functions, 45 .
of a plane, 213–216 . Involute of a circle, 180.
of second degree, 107 , 229.
of higher degree, 169. L
of tangents, 111.
Equilateral hyperbola, 135 . Latus rectum, 63, 66, 67.
Exponential curve, 44. Law, 53 .
Lemniscate, 68.
F Length of a segment, 20, 199.
Limaçon, 172.
Foci of an ellipse, 61. Limiting cases of conics, 143, 155.
of an hyperbola, 64 . of quadric surfaces, 236-237.
of a cassinian oval, 68. Line , perpendicular to a plane, 226.
Focus of a parabola, 66. through a point, 101 .
Folium of Descartes, 84. through two points, 57.
 INDEX 265

Linear equations, 98. Pencil of planes, 219–220.

scale, 7. Periodic functions, 43 .
Lituus, 91. Perpendicular segments, 23.
Locus of a point, 53. Plane, 213.
Logarithmic paper, 189. through three points, 215.
spiral, 91 . Plotting, 34.
Point bisecting a segment, 24.
M dividing a segment in a given ratio,
25.
Machines, 48. Polar line, 128 .
Major axis, 62. coördinates, 13, 197 .
Maximum, 35. equation of circle, 69.
Midpoint of segment, 24. equation of ellipse, 71.
Minimum , 35 . equation of hyperbola, 71.
Minor axis, 62. equation of line, 70.
Monotone function , 35. equation of parabola, 71 .
Multiple-valued functions, 36. Poles and polars, 127.
Position of a point in a plane, 10.
N Profile, 16.
Projectile , 180.
Naperian logarithms, 6 . Projecting cylinders, 244.
Nicomedes, 171. planes , 222.
Normal form, 102 , 213.
Projections of a segment, 18 , 202 .
Normal to a curve, 119.
Prolate, 210 .

0 Q
Oblate, 210. Quadrant, 12 .
Oblique axes, 11 , 196. Quadratic equation , 1 .
Ordinate , 11 . Quadric surfaces, 229.
Origin, 8.
Orthogonal sets of curves, 137. R
Radical axis, 163 .
P Radius vector, 13 .
Pairs of planes, 237. Rectangular coördinates, 11 , 196.
Parabola, 66. hyperbola, 73.
cartesian equation , 66 . Reduction to normal form, 103 .
Reflection properties , 120.
polar equation, 71 .
Relation between rectangular coördi-
Paraboloid, elliptic , 234.
nates and polar coördinates, 14 .
hyperbolic , 235. Removal of term in xy, 95.
of revolution, 210.
Rotation of axes, 92.
Parallel segments , 23.
Parameter, 73. Ruled surfaces, 238.
Parametric equations, 73. Rulings on hyperboloids, 239.
Pascal , 172 .
S
limaçon, 172 .
Pencil of conics, 163. Semicubical parabola , 173 .
of lines, 100 . Simultaneous linear equations, 99.
266 INDEX

Sine curve, 42. Tangent to an hyperbola, 112.

Single-valued functions, 36. to a parabola, 112 .
Slope of segment, 18. Temperature a function of time, 50.
form of equation of a line, 58. Three-cusped hypocycloid , 180.
Sphere, 208 . Transcendental curves, 173.
Spherical coördinates, 196. functions, 41 .
Spiral of Archimedes, 40. Transformation of coördinates, 91 .
Steam pressure gauge, 49. from cartesian to polar, 14.
Strophoid, 97. Translation of axes, 92.
Subnormal, 119. Transverse axis , 62, 65.
Subtangent, 119. Trochoid, 180.
Surface of revolution, 209. Trigonometric formulas, 1 .
Symmetry, 37, 77, 228. Trisection of an angle, 171 , 172 .
System of concentric hyperbolas, 135. Trisectrix of Maclaurin , 173.
of circles, 163.
of confocal conics, 109. V
Vertex of parabola, 66 .
T Vertices of ellipse, 62.
of hyperbola, 65.
Tangent plane , 240.
Tangent to a curve, 111 . W
to a circle, 111 .
to an ellipse, 112 . Witch of Agnesi, 171.