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Civil Engineering Materials

Lecture 3 – Mechanical Properties B

Course delivery team

Dr. ‘Nwendu Ogwuda Dr. Chu, May Yen Dr. Ceren Ince
e: [email protected] e: [email protected] e: [email protected]

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Mechanical properties A - Content

Over the next few weeks the topics that we will cover are the
following:
2.1 Loading & Strength
2.2 Stress and Strain
2.3 Modulus of elasticity & Shear Modulus
2.4 Elasticity and Plasticity
2.5 Poisson’s Ratio
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness
2.7 Creep
2.8 Fatigue
2.9 Hardness
 2.5 Poisson’s Ratio

4. Poisson’s Ratio, μ
As can be seen in Figure 2.7, a tensile stress causes contraction and a compressive
stress causes elongation perpendicular to its own direction. Thus a lateral strain is
caused by an applied stress in the axial or longitudinal direction.

Poisson’s ratio, μ, is defined as follows:

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝜇=
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

e lateral
µ=
e axial
 Recall: Stress and strain

2.2.2 Strain
All materials deform and their original dimensions and shapes changes under the
effect of applied forces or loads.
A material shows elongation under tensile stresses and shortening under
compressive stresses.
A material can also show deformation as a result of change in temperature. It
expands upon heating and contracts upon cooling.
 Recall: Stress and strain

Deformation per unit length of a body is called “strain”. It is dimensionless (eg.

cm/cm).
Depending on the type of stress, the strain takes place in the body is called tensile
strain, compressive strain, or shear strain.

Tensile strain is the elongation per unit length. Compressive strain is the
shortening per unit length. These strains are shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: (a) Tensile strain ΔL/L0 with corresponding lateral strain Δd/d
(b) Compressive strain ΔL/L0 with corresponding lateral strain Δd/d
 Recall: Stress and strain

Tensile and compressive strains are calculated as follows:

L - L0 DL L0 - L DL
et = = ec = =
L0 L0 L0 L0

εt= Tensile strain

εc= Compressive strain
L0=Original length of the specimen
L= length of the specimen after being deformed
ΔL= Deformation of the original length
 Recall: Stress and strain

4. Poisson’s Ratio, μ
As can be seen in Figure 2.7, a tensile stress causes contraction and a compressive
stress causes elongation perpendicular to its own direction. Thus a lateral strain is
caused by an applied stress in the axial or longitudinal direction.

Poisson’s ratio, μ, is defined as follows:

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝜇=
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

e lateral
µ=
e axial
 2.5 Poisson’s Ratio

Question:
A mild steel plate (E = 200kN/mm2, μ= 0.3) lies in the plane x-y. It has dimensions
250mm×250mm×10mm. A compressive stress of 210N/mm2 is applied to the plate in the x
direction. Find the changes in dimension (and new dimensions) of the plate.

x
z

210N/mm2
250mm

250mm 10mm
 2.5 Poissons Ratio

Solution:
The axial strain (in the x direction) is calculated as: ε = σ / Ε
ε = σ / Ε = (210 Ν/mm2) / (200000 N/mm2) = 0.00105

The change in length at x direction is calculated as: Δl = ε x lx

Δl = ε x l = 0.00105 x 250 mm = 0.2625 mm

The lateral strain (in y direction) is calculated from poisson’s ratio:

εlateral = εaxial x v = (0.00105) x 0.3 = 0.000315

The change in length at y direction

Δllateral = εlateral x ly
Δllateral = εlateral x ly = 0.000315 x 250mm =
= 0.07875 mm
2.5 Poissons Ratio

Solution:

The change in length at z direction is calculated as: Δllateral = εlateral x lz

Δllateral = εlateral x lz = 0.000315 x 10mm = 0.00315 mm

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2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Work

2.6.1 Strain Energy

• If a constant force Fo is applied to a

member a constant displacement xo is
produced. The work done is the area
under the curve and equal to Foxo.

• If a linear force is applied to a member

a proportional displacement is
produced. The work done is the area
under the curve and equal to 1/2Foxo.
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Strain Energy

2.6.1 Strain Energy

Consider a simple spring system subjected

to a force such that F is proportional to
displacement x, hence,
F = kx (where k is the spring constant)

If F= Fo and x=xo the work done is determined as:

Work Done = ½ FoXo
This energy (work) is stored in the spring and is released when the force is
returned to zero.

Strain energy is the energy (work) stored in the material when the load is
applied and causes elastic displacement. This energy is released when the load
is returned to zero.
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Strain Energy

2.6.1 Strain Energy

A bar is loaded within elastic range with the force gradually applied to the bar
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Strain Energy

Question:

A steel member (E = 210 kN/mm2) forms part of a truss and is carrying a load of 85
kN in axial tension. Calculate the strain energy stored if the truss member is 4.5 m
long and has a cross-sectional area of 625 mm2.

Solution:

U = ½ F Δ = F2L /2AE

U = F2L /2AE
= [(85000 N)2(4.5 m)] / [2(625 10-6 m2)( 210 109 N/m2)]
= 123.86 Nm
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Strain Energy

2.6.1 Strain Energy

Stain energy on trusses
The concept of strain energy can be used to calculate the deflection of pin-
jointed frames/trusses

External work done = Internal energy stored by truss members

2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Strain Energy

Strain Energy Density

Consider a cube of material acted upon by a
force, Fx, creating stress σx =F/a2 causing an
elastic displacement, δ, in the x direction, and
strain εx = δ/a

Work done: W = ½ Fx δ

Strain Energy: U = ½ (σxa2)(εxa) = ½ σxεxa3

Strain Energy Density is the strain Energy per

volume.

u =U / Volume = (½ σxεxa3)/a3 = ½ σxεx

 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Toughness

2.6.2 Toughness and Resilience

In order to estimate the safe performance of structures subjected to impact loads, it is

necessary to consider the response of a material under impact loads. In other words, it is
important to know the energy absorption capacity of a material both in elastic range and
during its plastic deformation.

2.6.2 Toughness
“Toughness” is the ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic deformation.

The modulus of toughness is the maximum amount of energy a unit volume of the
material can absorb without fracture (kgf.cm/cm3). It is calculated from the whole area
under stress-strain curve. This area represents the work required to break the specimen.
In other words, it is amount of work (or energy stored) per unit volume of material.

Ductile materials undergo large plastic deformations while brittle materials have
relatively less plastic deformations.
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Toughness

T= Modulus of Toughness
σy= Yield strength
σy= Ultimate strength
εf= Stain at failure

Figure 2.17: Diagrammatic

representation of toughness

The modulus of toughness is referred as the maximum strain energy that can be stored per unit
volume up to the point of fracture. The modulus of toughness for a ductile material such as
metal (a) and for a brittle material such as concrete are shown below:

(a) s y +su (b) T = 2 (s u ´ e f )

T= ´e f
2 3

Mild steel is more ductile than the concrete and therefore, it has higher modulus of toughness
and hence higher resistance to impact loads.
Toughness is desirable when materials are subjected to dynamic loads such as shock or impact.
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Resilience

2.6.2 Resilience
“Resilience” is the capacity of a unit volume of a material to absorb energy in the
elastic range. This energy is measured by the area under the elastic portion of the
stress-strain curve shown in Figure 2.18.

s p ´e p
R=
2

R= Modulus of Resilience
Figure 2.18: Diagrammatic
σp= Stress at proportional limit
presentation of resilience. (Area
εp= Stain at proportional limit
OAB is a measure of resilience).
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Resilience

The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return
it when unloaded is called resilience. The resilience is also defined as the strain
energy per unit volume of material i.e. the strain energy density, u.

The strain energy per unit volume for uniaxial tension can be written as:

u = ½ σε = σ2/2Ε = ½ ε2Ε

The modulus of resilience is referred as the maximum strain energy that can be
stored per unit volume without causing permanent deformation (in elastic region).
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Resilience

Question:
A cube of steel is subjected to a uniform uniaxial stress as shown; Determine the
strain energy density in the cube when the stress is 300 MPa. The relationship
between stress and strain is presented below.
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Resilience

Solution:
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 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Toughness

Question:
A cube of material is subjected to a uniform uniaxial stress as shown; Determine
the strain energy density (toughness) in the cube when the strain in the x direction
is 0.004 (0.4%). The relationship between stress and strain is presented below.
 2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness – Toughness

Solution:
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness

Which material is the most resilient?

Which material is the toughest?
Stress
(MPa)

Strain %
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 2.7 Creep

If the stress which is smaller than the static ultimate stress is kept constant on the material for
a long time, the deformation of the material continues as time goes on. After a sufficiently
long time, the deformation of a material could increase slowly and progressively, leading to
fracture of the material. Slow and progressive deformation of a material with time under a
constant stress is called “creep”.
The amount of creep is affected by the magnitude of the constant stress and the temperature.
(e.g. Steel creeps at high temperatures but concrete and amorphous materials show creep at
much lower temperature.

Figure 2.19: Creep curve of metals at

constant temperature and stress.

First, an instantaneous elastic

deformation (OA) takes place. Then the
primary or transient creep (AB)
followed by the secondary creep and
finally the tertiary or accelerated creep
(CD) takes place.
 2.7 Creep – Retarded elastic deformation

Elastic aftereffect or retarded elasticity can be illustrated on a strain-time diagram as

shown in Figure 2.20. A material shows a certain instantaneous elastic deformation ε1
when loaded, followed by a retarded elastic deformation ε2 during a time t which
approached a final value asymptotically. If the load is removed a time t, there is an
instantaneous recovery equal to ε1. The deformation ε2 is recovered at a certain time
beyond time t.

Figure 2.20: Elastic aftereffet

2.7 Creep

Figure 2.19: Creep curve of metals at

constant temperature and stress.

First, an instantaneous elastic deformation

(OA) takes place. Then the primary or
transient creep (AB) followed by the
secondary creep and finally the tertiary or
accelerated creep (CD) takes place.
2.7 Creep
 2.8 Fatigue

In static loading, a material does not show failure if the magnitude of the load is
below the ultimate strength capacity of the material. However, the same material
may show failure when a stress is applied numerous times on it, even if the
magnitude of the stress is below the ultimate strength.

Repeated stresses initiate cracks and lead to the progression of these cracks within
the material.

The phenomenon of fracture caused by the progressive damage due to the

repetition of applied stresses is called “fatigue”.

Material does not fail due to being tired, the material fails due to the excessive
progress in crack propagation.

The fatigue strength of a material is the maximum stress that can be repeated
through a definite range of stresses a large number of times without causing the
material to rupture by progressive fracture.
 2.8 Fatigue

Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses which are below the ultimate tensile stress or
even well within the elastic range.

In order for fatigue cracking to initiate, three factors are necessary:

1. The loading pattern must contain maximum (smax) and minimum (smin) peak values
with a large enough variation or fluctuation (sr) for a fatigue crack initiation.
2. The peak stress levels must be of sufficiently high value. If the peak stresses are too
low, no crack initiation will occur.
3. The material must experience a sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied
stress. The number of cycles required to initiate and grow a crack is largely
dependant on the first two factors.
 2.8 Fatigue

Many materials used in machine parts and structures are subjected to cycling stresses as
shown in Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21: Cyclic stress: (a) Reversed; (b) Fluctuating

A curve showing the relation between the stress and the number of repetitions of stress
is called an “S-N curve”.
Figure 2.22 shows a typical S-N curve for steel (ferrous metals) where the inter-
crystalline regions are rigid and Figure 2.23 shows a typical S-N curve for concrete and
non-ferrous metals.
 2.8 Fatigue

Figure 2.22: Fatigue curve for ferrous metals Figure 2.23: Fatigue curve for concrete and
non-ferrous metals

Fatigue strength refers to the stress level that can be applied a specific number of
times before failure.

The stress below which an infinite number of stress repetition may be applied
without a fatigue is called fatigue limit or endurance limit. When the stress level is
below the fatigue limit, the specimen does not fail.

Usually the endurance limit of concrete is around 55% of its maximum static
strength.
2.8 Fatigue

I-35W Mississippi River bridge

 2.9 Hardness

Hardness is the resistance of the material to localized plastic deformation induced by either
mechanical indentation or abrasion.
Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than others (e.g. plastics, wood).
Common examples of hard materials are ceramics, concrete and certain metals.
Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds.
Variety of testing methods are available, with the most well-known being the Brinell

Brinell hardness is determined by pressing a

hardened steel sphere of a specified diameter,
D, under a specified load, P, into the surface of
a material and measuring the diameter, d, of the
indentation left after the test. The test is usually
conducted over a period of 10-30 seconds.
 2.9 Hardness

The Brinell hardness number (BHN), or simply the Brinell number, is then
obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the surface area of the
indentation, in square millimetres.

The resulting number has

units of pressure.

See video @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJXJpeH78iU

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