ME 569- Mechanical Behavior

of Materials
Syllabus and introduction
General Information
▪Course: ME 569 Mechanical Behavior of Materials
▪Prerequisites:
MSE 230 – Structure and Properties of Materials
Student are recommended to take ME 323
before ME569 course
▪Number of credits: 3 credits
▪Contact Hours: 3 hrs Lecture
▪Textbook/material required:
Textbook: N.E. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Eng. Methods
for Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 4th ed., Pearson, 2012.
 Course Content:

• Chapter 1: Overview of mechanical behavior

• Chapter 2: Elastic behavior
• Chapter 3: Plastic behavior
• Chapter 4: Fracture mechanics
• Chapter 5: Fatigue and crack-growth behavior
• Chapter 6: Composite material behavior
• Chapter 7: Creep and stress rupture behavior
 Course Description
How loading and environmental conditions can influence the behavior
of materials in service. Elastic and plastic behavior, fracture, fatigue,
low- and high-temperature behavior. Introduction to fracture
mechanics. Emphasis is on methods of treating these conditions in
design.

The elastic properties of composite materials will also be covered in this

course.
Course Objectives

Course Objectives
The course is a combination and continuation of structure and
properties of materials and mechanics of materials. It will help
student to design parts from different materials by a better
understanding of materials behavior such as failure, elastic
response and plastic deformation. The course will help students
to explore the mechanics of composite materials and apply it in
the design of these new materials.
 Learning Outcomes
Students who successfully complete the course will be able to:

• Explain the concepts of elastic, plastic, fatigue, fracture and creep behavior of materials
• Solve basic problems of finding stresses under various loading conditions
• Explain the plane strain, plane stress and 3D stress state concepts, and evaluate the principal
stresses and strains
• Explain various failure theories for brittle and ductile materials and evaluate the conditions for
failure
• Explain various defects in materials and the factors affecting the mechanical and failure behavior
• Use the concept of linear elastic fracture mechanics, and estimate the effect of cracks in materials
and structures
• Explain the concept of fracture toughness and its use in engineering design
• Evaluate fracture toughness from various methods
• Explain the concepts of stress based fatigue, strain based fatigue, and fatigue crack-growth
• Evaluate fatigue life for materials using various methods
• Compare the mechanical, fatigue and fracture properties of materials
• Predict the fatigue failure properties of structures and materials
• Explain creep and stress rupture concepts for materials
• Analyze structures for stresses and deformations and predict failures
Student Evaluation

Details / Sub-assignments Weight

Attendance Attendance 5%
Week 6: PD1 (pres+voice) (10%)
Assignments Week 13: PD2 (15%) 30%
Week 14: PD3 (Q/A) (5%)
Graded Class Activity GCA #1 (10%)
2 x 10%
(GCA) GCA #2 (10%)
Moodle Quiz 5%
Quiz (5%)
Midterm Midterm Exam 20%
Final exam Final Exam 20%
Total 100%
Weekly Calendar
 DAY1: Chap.4: solving problems

Student Evaluation
WEEK SEVEN Fracture mechanics Chapter8 SO-6
(24 MAR – 30 MAR)
30 MAR - MIDTERM EXAMS BEGIN
WEEK EIGHT
MIDTERM EXAMS WEEK
(31 MAR – 6 APR)
DAY1: Chap.5: Fatigue and crack-growth
behavior

WEEK NINE 2,5

DAY2: Chap.5: Fatigue and crack-growth CHAPTER 9,10,11
(7 APR – 13 APR) (SO-1, SO-7)
behavior

10 APR, 11 APR & 12 APR - EID AL FITR

DAY1: Chap.5: solving problems of
Fatigue and crack-growth behavior 2,5,6
WEEK TEN
CHAPTER 9,10,11
(14 APR – 20 APR)
DAY2: Chap.6: COMPOSITE MATERIAL (SO-1, SO-7, SO-6)
BEHAVIOR
DAY1: Chap.6: COMPOSITE MATERIAL
BEHAVIOR
WEEK ELEVEN 2,5
(21 APR – 27 APR) (SO-1, SO-2, SO-6)
DAY2: SOLVE PROBLEMS (COMPOSITE
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR)
DAY1: DAY1: Chap.6: COMPOSITE MATERIAL
BEHAVIOR
WEEK TWELVE
(SO-1, SO-2, SO-6, SO-7) GCA2
(28 APR – 4 MAY)
DAY2: : Chap.6: COMPOSITE MATERIAL
BEHAVIOR
DAY1: SOLVING PROBLEM COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
Project D2
WEEK THIRTEEN
DAY2: SOLVING PROBLEM COMPOSITE submission
(5 MAY – 11 MAY)
MATERIALS (10%)

DAY1: PROJECT PRESENTATION

WEEK FOURTEEN
DAY2: PROJECT PRESENTATION
(12 MAY – 18 MAY)

PRESENTATIONS
REVISION FOR FINAL EXAM
WEEK FIFTEEN
(19 MAY – 25 MAY) 19 MAY - CHANGE OF MAJORS APPLICATION OPENS
23 MAY - CHANGE OF MAJORS APPLICATION CLOSES / CLASSES END

25 MAY – FINAL EXAMS BEGIN

WEEK SIXTEEN
FINAL ASSESSMENT WEEK
(26 MAY – 1 JUN)
WEEK SEVENTEEN 02 JUN - FINAL EXAMS END
(2 JUN - 8 JUN) 05 JUN - FINAL GRADES ANNOUNCED
 Notes about assignments:
After the submission deadline, students have a maximum 2-days grace period for late
submissions with the following penalty (excluding Fridays):
first day, within 24h from the deadline, 40% deduction
second day, within 48h from the deadline, 60% deduction.
Failing to submit within two days after notification means that the assessment will be
awarded 0.
Students have the full responsibility of:
submitting the required documents within the deadline
verifying that the correct files are submitted
verifying that the submitted files are not corrupted
Resubmission of student’s work falls under late submission policy.
Softcopies are required to be uploaded into Turnitin when applicable.
In case of plagiarism, an email will be sent to the student(s), applying the following
rule:
Resubmission within 24h from email notification: 40% deduction
Resubmission within 48h from email notification: 60% deduction.
Failing to resubmit within two days (48h) after notification means that the
assessment will be awarded 0.
Course topics in brief
 Design of Machine &
Structure

it is necessary to avoid excess deformation—cracking in components must be avoided

entirely
In this course, we try to address:
• How materials behave under different conditions

• What are different modes of failure?

• How to select the right material
• …

What background is required:

You need to know MSE230, ME 323, and calculus
• Designers of machines, vehicles, and structures must achieve
acceptable levels of performance and economy, while at the same
time striving to guarantee that the item is both safe and durable.

• To assure performance, safety, and durability, it is necessary to

avoid excess deformation.

• In addition, cracking in components must be avoided entirely, or

strictly limited, so that it does not progress to the point of
complete fracture.

• The study of deformation and fracture in materials is called

mechanical behavior of materials.
Material Failure

• The most basic concern in design to avoid structural failure is that

the stress in a component must not exceed the strength of the
material.

• Additional complexities or particular causes of failure often require

further analysis, such as the following:
1. Stresses are often present that act in more than one direction;
that is, the state of stress is biaxial or triaxial.
2. Real components may contain flaws or even cracks that must be
specifically considered.
3. Stresses may be applied for long periods of time.
4. Stresses may be repeatedly applied and removed, or the direction
of stress repeatedly reversed.
 Chapter 1:
Overview of Mechanical
Behavior
 Part 1
Types Of Material Failure
1 Types Of Material Failure

• Deformation failure
– Change of physical dimension which is sufficient for its function to be lost
• Fracture
– Crack to the extent that a component is separated more than two pieces

Figure 1.1 Basic types of deformation and fracture.

1 Types Of Material Failure

Definitions
• Strength is simply the stress that causes a deformation or
fracture failure.
• Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo
significant plastic deformation before rupture.
• Elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its
normal shape after being stretched or compressed.
• Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic
deformation induced by either mechanical indentation or
abrasion.
• Toughness is the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to
absorb energy in the process before fracture
• Brittleness: A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it
breaks with little elastic deformation and without significant
plastic deformation.
• Stiffness is the extent to which an𝐹object resists deformation in
response to an applied force. k=

1 Types Of Material Failure

Q1: The property by which a body returns to its original

shape after removal of the force is called __________
a) Plasticity
b) Elasticity
c) Ductility
d) Malleability

Q2: Which law is also called as the elasticity

law?
a) Bernoulli’s law
b) Stress law
c) Hooke’s law
d) Poisson’s law
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.1 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
• Deformation(e.g. bend, twist, stretch) is cumulative effect of strain
– Excessive elongation of spring, sway of tall building, unbalanced shaft
• Elastic deformation: recovered upon unloading
– Elastic modulus
• Plastic deformation: NOT recovered upon unloading
– Yielding, yield strength

Figure 1.2 Stress‐Strain curve with elastic deformation, and elastic + plastic
deformation
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.1 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
• Ductile behavior: sustaining large amount of plastic deformation
– Low‐strength steel, copper, lead, plastics, and polyethylene
• Brittle behavior: fracture without much plastic deformation
– Glass, stone, acrylic plastic, high‐strength steel
• Low carbon steel
– 0.05~0.3% carbon, Ultimate=750MPa, Young’s modulus=200GPa
– Cheap, good machinability(welding), structural steel, plate, pipe, bolt, nut
• High carbon steel
– 0.9~2% carbon, Ultimate=1000MPa, Young’s modulus=200GPa
– High tensile strength, tool steel, crank shaft, wheel, rail, spring

(a)Low carbon steel, 2 yielding

point, (b)High carbon steel,
Stress‐Strain curve
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.2 Creep Deformation
• Creep: accumulated deformation with time
– Result of long term exposure to stress
– Severe where high temperature is encountered, near melting point
– e.g. gas‐turbine engines blade, concrete, solder(low‐melting temp metal),
tungsten light bulb filament
• Creep strength: stress level that make strain rate zero

Stress, temperature increase

Figure 1.4 A tungsten lightbulb filament sagging under its

Typical creep curve, strain as a function of time with constant stress own weight. The deflection increases with time due to creep
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.3 Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
• Rapid fracture can occur under loading that does not vary with time
or that changes only slowly, called static loading.
• If such a fracture is accompanied by little plastic deformation, it is
called a brittle fracture.
• Ductile fracture can also occur. This type of fracture is accompanied
by significant plastic deformation
• If the loading is applied very rapidly, called impact loading, brittle
fracture is more likely to occur.
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.3 Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
Ductile vs Brittle Fracture
Parameter Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
Strain
energy Higher Lower
required
Stress, during
cracking Increasing Constant

Crack propagation Slow Fast

Warning sign Plastic deformation None
Deformation Extensive Little
Necking Yes No
Fractured surface Rough and dull Smooth and bright
Most metals (not Ceramics, Glasses,
Type of materials too cold) Ice
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.3 Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
Ductile Fracture
• Ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic
deformation.
• It is usually preceded by necking.
• It exhibits three stages - (1) formation of cavities (2) growth of
cavities (3) final failure involving rapid crack propagation at about
45° to the tensile axis.
• Fractography of ductile fracture reveals numerous spherical
dimples separated by thin walls on the fractured surface.
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.3 Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
Ductile Fracture

Stages of void nucleation, void growth, crack initiation and eventual

fracture under ductile fracture mode:
1 Types Of Material Failure
1.3 Fracture under Static and Impact Loading
Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture intakes place with little or no preceding plastic
deformation.
• It occurs, often at unpredictable levels of stress, by rapid crack
propagation.
• Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of
applied tensile stress, and hence called cleavage fracture.
• Most often brittle fracture occurs through grains i.e.
transgranular.
• Three stages of brittle fracture - (1) plastic deformation that
causes dislocation pile-ups at obstacles, (2) micro-crack
nucleation as a result of build-up of shear stresses, (3) eventual
crack propagation under applied stress aided by stored elastic
energy.
 1 Types Of Material Failure
1.4 Fatigue under Cyclic Loading
• Fatigue: failure due to repeated loading
– Tiny cracks start in the material, and grow until complete failure occurs
– Vehicle weight over bridge, bicycle pedals, heat/cooling, rotary machines
– High‐cycle fatigue: >106 cycles, small elastic deformation
– Low‐cycle fatigue: <103 cycle, significant plastic deformation
– Fatigue Crack Growth(FCG): estimate crack size, used to schedule inspection and
repair of aircraft, and etc.

Figure 1.8 Development of a fatigue crack during rotating bending of a Figure 1.11 Fuselage failure in a passenger jet that
precipitation‐hardened aluminum alloy. Photographs at various numbers of occurred in 1988.
cycles are shown for a test requiring 400,000 cycles for failure
 Part 2
Design and Material Selection
2 Design and Materials Selection

Product Development Process (PDP)

2 Design and Materials Selection
2 Design and Materials Selection
Prototype and Component Testing

Figure 1.13 Road simulation test of an automobile, with loads applied at all four wheels and the bumper mounts
 Part 3
Economic Importance of Fracture
3 Economic Importance of Fracture

• Fracture of material cause $119 billion (4% of GNP) loss in the

U.S.(1982)
• Total cost for material durability would increase up to 10% of GNP
‐ Extra cost for design/manufacture/analysis and testing
‐ Repair, maintenance, and replacement
‐ Recall, litigation, insurance
• 2/3 of cost can be eliminate through better technology
3 Economic Importance of Fracture

Chernobyl disaster, April 26 1986 due to

Operational Uncertainty
Consequence: 4K deaths & 600K contaminated, hundreds of billion dollar

I‐35 Bridge Failure, August 2007 Adverse

events due to Design Error and Maintenance Fault
Consequence: 13 deaths, 145 injured, $2 Billion annual loss

8100TEU containership sinking, June 17, 2013

Due to Buckling of shell plating & Fatigue in welded structure
Consequence: about $500 million property & business loss
 Part 4
Structure and Deformation in Materials
Objectives

• Review chemical bonding and crystal structures in solid materials at

basic level.
• Understand the physical basis of elastic deformation and theoretical
strength of solids due to their chemicalbonding.
• Understand the basic mechanism of inelastic deformation due to
plasticity and creep.
• Learn why actual strength of material is different with theoretical
strength to break chemicalbonds.
4.1 Introduction
Engineering Materials
• Material which is capable to resist mechanical load
• Metal/alloy: composite of metal andnonmetal
• Ceramics/glass: inorganic and nonmetallicmaterial
• Polymers: large molecule composed of many repeated subunits (or cells)
• Composite: composed of more than 2 material with different properties
• Different chemical bonding and microstructure affect mechanical behavior (Strength,
stiffness, brittleness, etc.)

Figure 2.2 Size scales and disciplines involved in the study and use of engineeringmaterials.
4.1 Introduction
Engineering Materials
4.1 Introduction
Metal and Allows
4.1 Introduction
Ceramics
4.1 Introduction
Polymers
4.1 Introduction
Composite
4.1 Introduction
Engineering Materials

• Different chemical bonding and microstructure affect mechanical behavior

(Strength, stiffness, brittleness, etc.)

Figure 2.1 General characteristics of the major classes of engineering materials.

4.2 Bonding in Solids
4.2.1 Chemical Bonding in Solids

• Primary bond
– Strong, atomic force
– Ionic, covalent, metallic bond

• Secondary bond
– Weak, molecular force
– Occur due to electro‐staticdipole
– Van der Waals, hydrogen bond (electrostatic attraction)
4.2 Bonding in Solids
4.2.1 Chemical Bonding in Solids
• Ionic bond
– Transfer(donation and acceptance) of valence electrons
– Insulator in solid state, brittle, crystalline structure, high meltingtemp.
• Covalent bond
– Share of valence electrons betweenatoms
– Single/double/triple bond, liquid or gas at roomtemperature
• Metallicbond
– Donate outer shell valence electrons to cloud of electrons
– Heat/electro conductive, high ductility andmalleability

Figure 2.3 The three types of primary chemical bond. Electrons are transferred in ionic bonding, as in NaCl; shared in
covalent bonding, as in water; and given up to a common “cloud” in metallic bonding, as in magnesium metal.
4.2 Bonding in Solids
4.2.1 Chemical Bonding in Solids

Figure 2.4 Three‐dimensional crystal Figure 2.5 Diamond cubic crystal structure of carbon. As a result of the strong and
structure of NaCl, consisting of two directional covalent bonds, diamond has the highest melting temperature, the highest
interpenetrating FCCstructures. hardness, and the highest elastic modulus E, of all known solids.
4.2 Bonding in Solids
4.2.3 Secondary Bonds
• Permanent dipole bond
– Dipole formed cause attraction between adjacentmolecules
– Hydrogen bond is stronger than other dipole bond
• Van der Waals bond (known to be a fluctuating dipole bond)
– Sum of force between molecules due to covalent bonds, especially force
between two instantaneously induced dipoles

Figure 2.7 Oxygen‐to‐hydrogen secondary bonds Figure 2.8 Hydrogen‐to‐chlorine secondary bonds
between water (H2O) molecules. between chain molecules in polyvinylchloride.
4.3 Structure in Crystalline Materials
4.3.1 Basic Crystal Structures
• Grain in metal/ceramic, non‐crystalline structure in glass, chain like molecules
in polymer
• Unit cell: the smallest group of atomic arrangement incrystals

The General Features of the Seven Basic Unit Cells The lengths of the edges of the unit cells are indicated by a, b, and c, and the
angles are defined as follows: α, the angle between b and c; β, the angle between a and c; and γ, the angle between a and b.
4.3 Structure in Crystalline Materials
4.3.1 Basic Crystal Structures
• Crystal structure: arrangement of atom for a given unit cell
– BCC, FCC is common inmetals
– HCP: 2 parallel plane(basal plane), 3 additional atoms at center plane
– Change its structure with temperature and pressure; iron phase, annealing

The three kinds of cubic unit cells, (a)simple cubic or Primitive Cubic(PC), Hexagonal close‐packed(HCP) crystal structure
(b)Body‐Centered Cubic(BCC), and (c)Face‐CenteredCubic(FCC) ‐ Alumina(Al2O3)
4.3 Structure in Crystalline Materials
4.3.2 Complex Crystal Structures
• Compounds have more complex crystal structures than elemental materials., due
to the necessity of accommodating more than one type of atom and to the
directional aspect of even partially covalent bonds.
• Some with an one of the basic crystal structures like a diamond cubic structure of
silicon carbide(SiC) with FCC and Al2O3 with a hexagonal unit cell.
• Mostceramic has complex crystal structure (semi‐crystalline, amorphous)
• Polymer has amorphous or chain like structure

Figure 2.11 Two‐dimensional schematics of amorphous structure (left)

Diamond cubic structure of siliconcarbide and crystalline structure (right) in a polymer.
4.3 Structure in Crystalline Materials
4.3.3 Defects in Crystals
• Ceramic and metal used for engineering purpose are composed of crystalline grains
• Grains (1μm to 1cm, depending on materials and its processing) are separated by
grain boundaries.
• Within the grains, NOT perfect. Point, line, or surface defects.
• Todescribe the defects, use the term lattice plane and lattice site
• Small grain size, high strength, lowconductivity

Figure 2.12 Crystal grain structure in a magnesium alloy

containing 12 wt% lithium. This cast metal was prepared in a high‐ Computer Simulation of Grain Growth in 3D
frequency induction melting furnace under an argon atmosphere. using phase fieldmodel.
4.3 Structure in Crystalline Materials
4.3.3 Defects in Crystals

• Defect within grain

– point defects: substitution impurity, vacancy, self interstitial, interstitial impurity; alloy steel
– line defects: edge dislocation, screwdislocation
– surface defects: lattice plane change orientation withingrain

Figure 2.15 Low‐angle

Figure 2.13 Four types of point defect in a Figure 2.14 The two basic types of dislocations: (a) boundary in a crystal formed by
crystalline solid. edge dislocation, and (b) screwdislocation. an array of edgedislocations.
4.4 Elastic Deformation and Theoretical Strength
4.4.1 Elastic Deformation
• Stretching the chemical bond between the atoms in a solid
• Elastic deformation in engineering ~ 1% strain
• Strong chemical bond --> Higher value of Elastic modulus
Ex: diamond: 1,000 GPa, metal ~ 100 GPa, polymer ~ 1 GPa

Figure 2.16 Variation with distance of the attractive, repulsive, and total forces between atoms. The slope dP/dx at the
equilibrium spacing xe is proportional to the elastic modulus E; the stress σb, corresponding to the peak in total force, is the
theoretical cohesive strength.
4.4 Elastic Deformation and Theoretical Strength
4.4.3 Theoretical Strength
4.5 Inelastic Deformation
4.5.1 Plastic Deformation
• Elastic deformation involves the stretching of chemicalbonds.
• Plastic deformation rearranges the atoms after the deformation is complete.
• Single crystals of pure metals with macroscopic size yield in shear at very low stress
than theory (i.e., τ0 = G/3,000) due toimperfections
• Plastic deformation occurs by motion of dislocations under shear stress
• Oneatom at a time rather than simultaneously
• Change neighbors and return to stable state after dislocation has passed

Figure 2.19 Shear deformation occurring in an incremental manner due to dislocationmotion.

4.5 Inelastic Deformation
4.5.1 Plastic Deformation

• Plastic deformation proceeds for edge and screwdislocations

Figure2.21 Slip caused by the motion of a screw dislocation

Figure 2.20 Slip caused by the motion of an edge dislocation.

Figure 2.22 Slip bands and slip steps caused by themotion

of many dislocations resulting from cyclic loading of AISI
1010 steel.

ME323- Mechanics Of Materials 60 Dr. E. Hanna

4.5 Inelastic Deformation
Strength of Steel
• Load‐carrying metals have strengths far above the very low values in crystals of
pure metals with somedefects.
• Theoretical strength > Crystal of pure metal (Whisker) > Bulk form
• Obstacle to interrupt dislocation motion -->Increase strength
• Ex : Grain boundary, alloying – different‐sized atoms make dislocation motion more
difficult. A large number of dislocations forming dense tangles

Figure 2.24 Ultimate tensile strengths for irons and steels in various
forms. Note that steels are mostly composed of iron and contain small
to moderate amounts of otherelements.
• The study of deformation and fracture in materials is
called mechanical behavior of materials.
The most basic concern in design to avoid structural failure is
that the stress in a component must not exceed the strength of
the material, where the strength is simply the stress that
causes a deformation or fracture failure.
Additional complexities or particular causes of failure often
require further analysis, such as the following:
1. Stresses are often present that act in more than one
direction; that is, the state of stress is biaxial or triaxial.
2. Real components may contain flaws or even cracks that
must be specifically considered.
3. Stresses may be applied for long periods of time.
4. Stresses may be repeatedly applied and removed, or
the direction of stress repeatedly reversed.
 Poll Question

A
B

1- Which material is the most ductile: A, B or C

2- Which material is the strongest: A, B or C
3- Which material is the toughest: A, B or C
4- Which material is the stiffest: A, B or C
5- which material is the most brittle: A, B or C
 Buckling
Buckling of Axially Loaded Members

Buckling is a mysterious phenomenon!

Buckling
is a failure mode characterized by a sudden and
sometimes unexpected failure of a structural member
subjected to high compressive loads

64
 Buckling
Material is still elastic but it cant withstand load anymore

Slender structures fail in compression

but NOT by compression they fail by
buckling or ‘elastic instability’

65
Buckling is an important design criterion in the design of
compressively loaded thin-walled structures e.g. storage
tanks, submarines and space rockets

66
 Mode of Failure
Structural members which carry compressive loads may
be divided into two broad categories
–Short, thick members fail by crushing
–Long, slender members fail by buckling instability

Instability of structural members subjected to compressive

loading is regarded as a mode of failure even though the stress
may remain elastic owing to excessive deformation (‘out from
under the load’)

Buckling occurs due to one or more of the following:

–The member may not be perfectly straight
–The load may not be perfectly aligned along the axis of the member
–Lack of uniformity of material properties throughout the member

•So buckling is dependent on compressive loading and geometrical proportion

67
Short columns subjected to axial loads will ‘fail’ due to crushing when the stress reaches
the yield stress or ultimate stress of the material, depending on the definition of failure
•Slender columns or struts, i.e. members in which cross-section dimensions are small
compared to length, may fail due to ‘buckling’ i.e. ‘elastic instability’ –Fig. (a)

Consider a long, uniform, perfectly-straight compression

member subjected to pure axially loading and with both ends
pin-jointed, movement being restrained to the axial direction
only as indicated in Fig. (a)

68
Ideally no lateral deflection of the column would occur with
increase in load P

If a small lateral force was applied to cause a lateral deflection,

for low values of P the column would become straight again
upon release of this lateral force (P<Pcr)

If P is increased such that upon release of the lateral force the

column remains deformed, this is the condition of neutral
stability and the column is just at the onset of buckling –Fig.
(b). The least value of P to cause this is Pcr

(a) (b)

69
Solution techniques for buckling of axially loaded members

Equilibrium conditions @ Pcrit

Beam differential equation: i.e. based on flexural deformation @ Pcrit

Energy methods i.e. based on assumed deformation of member @ Pcrit

70
 Stable or Unstable?

Consider a simplified model of an axially loaded column

consisting of two rigid rods AC and BC connected at C by a pin
and a torsional spring of constant stiffness K.

71
If the two rods and the two forces P and P’ are perfectly
aligned, the system will remain in the position of equilibrium,
Fig. (a), as long as it is not disturbed.

If C is moved slightly to the right, so that each rod forms a

small angle Δ𝜃 with the vertical, will the system return to its
equilibrium (stable) position or move further to the right (and
become unstable)?

To determine whether the two-rod system is stable or

unstable, consider the forces acting on rod AC (next slide).
(a) (b)

72
To determine whether the two-rod system is stable or
unstable, consider the forces acting on rod AC.

These forces consist of two moments, namely the couple

formed by P and P’(say CC) and the moment M exerted by the
spring.

If CC < M then the system will tend to return to its original

equilibrium position; the system is stable.

If CC > M then the system will tend to move away from its
original equilibrium position; the system is unstable.

The value of the load P for which the two moments balance
each other, CC = M, is called the critical load Pcr and given by

73
 Try this one now?

The column consists of a rigid member that is pinned at A

and attached to a spring at B. If the spring is un-stretched
when the column is in the vertical position, determine the
critical load that can be placed on the column.

Σ𝑀 = 0 → Pcr = KL

74
Determine the critical buckling load for the column. The
material can be assumed rigid.

75
Rigid bars AB and BC are pin connected at B. If the spring at D
has a stiffness k, determine the critical load Pcr for the system.

76
Euler buckling load

Consider a uniform, initially straight, pin-jointed column under

axial load P

A small lateral deflection causes the column to bend under

axial load P. Load P increases to critical load Pcr

Take origin A as shown in Fig. (a) with coordinates x and y. At

any point, say Q, along the column the deflection y is a
function of x
•Consider equilibrium of AQ in Fig. (b): moments about Q gives
Mx= Pcry

77
Applying the elastic beam differential equation gives

78
The solution of the differential equation

is y = A cos nx + B sin nx

where A and B are constants of integration

Boundary conditions:
–y = 0 at x = 0
–y= 0 at x = L
•Hence A = 0 giving y = B sin nx and
0 = B sin nL

79
Now B cannot equal 0 since y is not zero.
Hence sin nL = 0.

B is therefore indeterminate and the deflected form y = B sin

nx is indeterminate. This is characteristic of the condition of
neutral stability of a column subjected to the critical load Pcr

For sin nL = 0, nL = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, etc.

Since nL = 0 is meaningless use nL = 𝜋, giving

is the minimum value

This value of Pcr is termed the ‘Euler buckling load’ for the column

80
 Try this one now?

A steel column 5 m long has a cross-section 90 mm square. The

column is hinged at both ends. Calculate the maximum compressive
load it can sustain. Use E = 200 GPa and sy= 210 MPa.

81
Show that a pin-ended strut of circular cross-section will yield
before it buckles if the ratio of length to diameter is less than
22.5. Use the values for E and sy in the table.

Solution:
Two scenarios are possible, buckling of the column and its yielding.
2
𝑙 103 𝑙 𝑙
= 𝜋 2 × 206 × = 2031 ⇒ = 45 ⇒ = 22.5
𝑟 1000 𝑟 𝑑

82
 Creep of Materials

Reference: Hosford Chapter 16 (pages 259-265)

83
Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Creep Behavior
Creep is a time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials
when subjected to a constant load at a high temperature (>0.4Tm).
Examples: turbine blades, stream generators.

Creep Testing Stages of Creep

84
 A typical creep curve
Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Stages of Creep

• Primary/transient creep.
• Secondary/steady-state
creep.
• Tertiary creep.

Stage I: As soon as the load is applied, there is an instantaneous elastic response, followed by (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

period of transient creep.

Secondary/steady-state creep is of longest duration and is the most

important parameter of the creep behavior in long-life applications

έ=Δε/Δt

Stage III: The strain rate may increase again (stage III), accelerating until
failure occurs.

85
Mechanical Behavior of Materials Decreasing temperature and stress
lead to slower creep rates, but failure often
occurs at a lower strains.
Creep Behavior

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under
license.

The effect of temperature or applied stress on the creep curve

86
Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Creep: With increasing stress or temperature, the instantaneous strain

increases, the steady-state creep rate increases and the time to rupture
decreases. The stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state creep
rate can be described by

έss= K σn exp (-Qc/RT)

where Qc is the activation energy for creep, K and n are material

constants.

Different mechanisms are responsible for creep in different materials

The mechanisms include

1. Viscous flow Stress

Assisted vacancy diffusion
2. Diffusion-controlled creep
3. Grain boundary sliding Grain boundary diffusion
4. Dislocation motion

87
 With Newtonian viscosity, the rate of strain,
γ˙, is proportional to the stress, τ

γ˙ = τ/η,

viscosity
𝜀. = σ/η’

η' = 3η

In polycrystalline materials, grain boundary sliding is viscous

in nature grain
size
The rate of extension . constant
ε = C(σ/η)/d.
Viscous flow is thermally activated so

grain boundary sliding strain rate

88
 Grain boundary sliding is not the only mechanism

Grain boundary sliding causes incompatibilities

at both ends of the planes, A and B, on which sliding
occurs. This must be relieved by another mechanism for
sliding to continue.

89
Diffusion mechanism

Creep by diffusion between grain boundaries.

As atoms diffuse from lateral boundaries to boundaries
normal to the tensile stress, the grain elongates and contracts
laterally.

Nabarro-Herring creep
If the creep occurs by diffusion through the lattice, it is called
Nabarro-Herring
creep.

lattice diffusivity

90
Coble creep

diffusivity along grain boundaries

91
 Dislocation motion

Dislocation motion: Slip is another mechanism of creep

The creep rate is controlled by how rapidly the dislocations can

overcome obstacles that At high temperatures=> is dislocation climb
obstruct their motion.

the constant AS has the same temperature dependence as

lattice diffusion

92
 Multiple mechanisms

Temperature Dependence of Creep

Sometimes the temperature dependence of creep rates are

expressed in terms
of preexponential term that is inversely proportional to the
temperature, T, for
example

93
94
Other terminologies

• Creep test - Measures the resistance of a material to deformation

and failure when subjected to a static load below the yield strength
at an elevated temperature.

• Climb - Movement of a dislocation perpendicular to its slip plane

by the diffusion of atoms to or from the dislocation line.

• Creep rate - The rate at which a material deforms when a stress is

applied at a high temperature.

• Rupture time - The time required for a specimen to fail by creep at

a particular temperature and stress.

95
Other terminologies

1. Stress-rupture curve - A method of reporting the results of a series

of creep tests by plotting the applied stress versus the rupture
time.

2. Larson-Miller parameter - A parameter used to relate the stress,

temperature, and rupture time in creep.

96
 Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Creep Behavior

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used
herein under license.

Results from a series of creep tests. (a) Stress-rupture curves for an iron-
chromium-nickel alloy and (b) the Larson-Miller parameter for ductile cast iron

97