5 | Reflective practice: some notes on the development

of the notion of professional reflection

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Paul Warwick, Lecturer in Primary Science and Professional Studies,

Faculty of Education University of Cambridge

Why
. have I written this for the Busy Reflective practice - just thinking about
Guide? what we do?

I recently wrote a piece on reflective Many teachers and intending teachers will
practice for ‘Into Teaching’ (2007) which is ask why there is such a fuss about reflective
aimed at PGCE trainees and NQTs. In it I practice. Don’t all professionals think about
tried to outline why reflective practice is what they do and modify their approach as a
rather more than simply thinking about what result of this thinking? Don’t teachers, in
you’re doing (though that, of course, is a particular, have a ‘natural’ propensity for
good idea) and to suggest that the notion of considering what they’re doing and for
professional reflection has a strong and changing their approach on the basis of the
diverse academic pedigree. It struck me that response of their pupils?
tutors in numerous institutions may need
access to a digest of some of the important It is the intention of this guide to attempt to
‘messages’ from the literature that I hope I explain how reflection - in which searching
identified in the ‘Into Teaching’ article, so questions are asked about experience -
what is presented here is an expanded might be conceptualised, why it can be
version of that piece. It does not pretend to viewed as rather more than ‘thinking about
be comprehensive, nor indeed to present teaching’ and why a consideration of
new findings - rather, it specifically aims to reflective practice itself might be helpful to
expand upon an established model of both the beginning and the experienced
reflective practice proposed by Pollard teacher. In doing this it is not the purpose to
(2005) so that we can help beginning provide a comprehensive overview of the
teachers in particular to understand the traditions of reflective teaching (several
theoretical bases of much of what is written authors present admirable digests, amongst
about notions of professional reflection. So, them Zeichner and Liston, 1996), though
here goes… some historical antecedents of
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contemporary ideas are considered. The

primary intention here is to make evident the
links between notions of reflective practice
and the characteristics of such practice by
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professional educators. That said, it seems on-going assumptions is necessary if we are
useful to start with a look at two fundamental to be able to act or react in the classroom,
‘schools of thought’ on the nature of and Dewey acknowledged the arrogance of
reflection, represented by the work of Dewey an approach that questions everything all of
(1910, 1933, 1938) and Schön (1983, the time. But equally he acknowledged the
1987). inadequacy of an approach where a
professional acts without questioning
Dewey - routine action and reflective received truths. Thus the separation of
action routine and reflective action has a strong
appeal, as it provides a basis for an analysis
If we consider Dewey first, we find that he of teaching that sees beyond a ‘technicist’,
provides a useful distinction between routine competency-based model (Calderhead and
action - in which the grounds for action have Gates, 1993), and suggests a strong basis
not been actively considered and where upon which teaching itself might be viewed
tradition, external authority and as a profession. Reflection, then, is a ‘way
circumstance are guiding factors - and of being as a teacher’ (Zeichner and Liston,
reflective action. Reflective action derives, in 1996, p9); in Dewey’s view, reflection ‘…
Dewey’s view, from the need to solve a enables us to direct our actions with
problem and involves ‘the active, persistent foresight…It enables us to know what we
and careful consideration of any belief or are about when we act’ (1933, p17).
supposed form of knowledge in the light of
the grounds that support it’ (1910, p6). Extensions to Dewey’s work
Teachers who are unreflective about their
teaching tend to accept the everyday reality Dewey’s arguments have been extended in
in their schools and ‘concentrate their efforts various influential accounts of reflection.
on finding the most effective and efficient Whilst noting that ‘the attitude of everyday
means to solve problems that have largely work’ is one that sees teachers carrying out
been defined for them by (some) collective tasks ‘routinely and uncritically’ (p264), van
code’ (Zeichner and Liston, 1996, p9). It’s Manen (1977) identifies two levels of
not that unreflective teachers aren’t thinking reflection. At the first level the focus is on ‘an
- rather, their thinking does not allow the interpretive understanding both of the nature
possibility of framing problems in more than and quality of educational experience and of
one way. making practical choices’ (p 226-7). At the
second level ethical and moral questions are
Of course, some - and many would argue addressed as the ‘worthwhileness’ of actions
more than some - routine action based on is considered (p227). Zeichner and Liston
(1987) and Carr and Kemmis (1986) also

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highlight a moral dimension to reflective consider the characteristics of reflective
action, the former linking to van Manen’s practice. In illuminating the difference
notion of the two levels of reflection by between routine and reflective action,
characterising the action of teachers as Dewey (1910) outlines some of the skills
sometimes that of the ‘technician’, and personal qualities of reflection.
sometimes that of the ‘craftsperson’ and Certainly, keen observation, reasoning and
sometimes that of the ‘moral analysis are seen as skills central to
craftsperson’ (Zeichner and Liston, 1987, reflective practice. The linking of reflection
p27). Carr and Kemmis (1986) make a to problem solving leads Dewey to the
strong case for this higher level of reflection conclusion that ‘search or enquiry to test the
as central to ‘a critical educational science’ value of the suggestion before finally
that involves teachers as central actors in accepting it’ is essential (p30), and that this
transforming education (p156). Fullan involves thinking that is wide-ranging and
(1993) makes a crucial point here in stating based upon knowledge and experience,
that ‘Teaching at its core is a moral flexible and ‘fertile’, and well-structured and
profession. Scratch a good teacher and you coherent. This must, according to Dewey,
will find a moral purpose… Moral purpose be accompanied by personal orientations
keeps teachers close to the needs of such as ‘open-mindedness’, ‘responsibility’
children and youth.’ From this perspective, and ‘whole-heartedness’ (1933). LaBoskey
if it is the purpose of educators to make a (1993) supports this through research
positive difference to the lives of the showing that trainee teachers identified as
students that they find in their care, that ‘Alert Novices’, whilst no more intelligent
purpose would seems to connect strongly than another group identified as ‘Common
with higher levels of reflective practice Sense Thinkers’, were better able to engage
outlined by Carr and Kemmis, van Manen in reflective thinking primarily because they
and others. It seems evident that this displayed modes of thinking that mirrored
concern with ‘moral purpose’ can be Dewey’s open-mindedness, responsibility
strongly linked to the idea that ‘reflective and whole-heartedness. They seemed
teaching implies an active concern with driven by a will to know, were always on the
aims and consequences as well as means look out for something better, and were
and technical competence’ (Pollard, 2005, questioning of their premise in situations not
p15). only where they were tentative, but where
they were confident.
Dewey - the characteristics of reflective
practice

Let us now return to Dewey and start to

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It seems that most of the writers in the are unique, and he posits that in these
Deweyan tradition argue that learning to situations they tend to use their knowledge
reflect in the ways that they identify is a and past experiences as a ‘frame’ for action.
central part of learning to teach. However, This framing is an active, experimental and
McIntyre (1993) introduces a note of ‘transactional’ process that defines what
caution. If the higher levels of reflection Schön calls ‘professional artistry’- ‘the kinds
where the ‘moral craftsperson’ operates of professional competence practitioners
(Zeichner and Liston, 1987, p27) are only display in unique, uncertain and conflicted
possible where teachers have ‘a certain fund situations of practice’(1987, p22). The point
or store of experiences or facts from which here is that teachers rarely engage in bland
suggestions proceed’ (Dewey, 1910, p30), routine action, but rather in ‘knowing-in-
then the comparatively scant experience action’, revealed in the sorts of knowledge
that most teacher trainees have may limit that emerge in their ‘intelligent action’ (1987,
their reflective practice. If this is accepted, p25) and rather more than Dewey’s
the role of the mentor must be regarded as conception of routine action.
central to moving the trainee forward in their
own practice. Creating a reflective continuum, Schön
develops the notions of ‘reflection-in-action’
Alternative conceptions of reflection - and ‘reflection-on-action’. Reflection-in-
Schön action is about ‘questioning the assumptional
structure of knowing-in-action’, giving rise to
Furlong and Maynard (1995) go further. an ‘on the spot experiment’ (1987, p25).
They see the distinction between routine Reflection-on-action involves trying to
and reflective action as actually unhelpful, articulate tacit and spontaneous intelligence
failing to capture ‘the multi-facetedness, through language (Furlong and Maynard,
unpredictability and sheer complexity of 1995) and Schön argues that moving
teaching’ (p45). They also point to the teachers along the continuum from knowing-
difficulty of linking reflective practice firmly in-action to reflection-on-action is the way
with solving specific problems and believe that they gain control of their developing
that whilst ‘moral and ethical questions are artistry. The process is one of surfacing tacit
important…they are not separable from understandings so that they can be
questions about how children learn and the examined, critiqued, developed and re-
nature of pedagogy’ (p44). They point to the framed (Elliot, 1991). It is the way in which
work of Schön (1983, 1987) as providing an better and more general solutions are
alternative conception of reflection. Schön developed that can be applied in new
emphasises that professionals find circumstances - the ‘frame for action’
themselves constantly facing situations that develops and a more confident teacher

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evolves. Certainly, for this author, it is this by teachers occurs in five temporal
capacity to frame problems from different dimensions. These are:
viewpoints - from a developed frame for
action if you like - that is a central, defining 1. Rapid reflection (immediate and
characteristic of professional reflective automatic reflection-in-action)
practice. Importantly, part of re-framing 2. Repair (thoughtful reflection-in-action)
involves setting as well as solving 3. Review (less formal reflection-on-action
problems, ‘a process in which interactively at a particular time)
we name the things to which we will attend 4. Research (more systematic reflection-
and frame the context in which we will on-action over a period of time)
attend to them’ (Schön, 1983, p40). 5. Re-theorizing and Research (Long-term
reflection-on-action informed by public
Schön suggests that teachers engaged in academic theories.
reflection-in- and reflection-on-action
interpret and frame their experiences Griffiths and Tann argue that teachers
through ‘repertoires of values, knowledge, need to reflect in all of these dimensions at
theories and practice’ called appreciative one time or another, and that neglect of
systems (Zeichner and Liston, 1996, p16). one dimension at the expense of another
Others have named these systems can be problematic.
differently - practical theories (Handal and
Lauvas, 1987) or teacher’s strategic Schön - some critiques
knowledge (Schulman, 1986) for example -
but it is clear that one of the ideas Critics of Schön, as distinct from re-
fundamental to reflection is that in coming interpreters, highlight his lack of attention
to see a problem differently these to the discursive or dialogic dimension of
appreciative systems are themselves teacher learning (Day, 1993). Solomon
challenged, modified or strengthened - in (1987) in particular makes a powerful case
other words, re-framed. It seems that this for reflection as a social practice, in which
can be a career-long process - as Zeichner the articulation of ideas to others is central
and Liston have noted, ‘it is our sense that to the development of a critical perspective
teachers are capable of continually and so to the development of appreciative
developing their practical theories, their systems. In short, we all need a mentor,
images and their conceptions of teaching and social constructivists would point to the
as long as they continue to teach’ (1996, crucial role of language and interaction in
p37). Griffiths and Tann (1992) present an developing shared understandings
interesting framework that builds on the (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991, Mercer,
work of Schön to describe how reflection 2004).

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Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles & Lopez-Torres (2003) educationalists such as Carr and Kemmis
refer to the ‘situated learning discourse (1986) regard reflection that considers such
community’, where situated activity, interaction as ‘higher level’ and central to ‘a
reflection as a social endeavour, and critical educational science’ that involves
reflection as a distributed process - in which teachers in transforming education (p156).
dialogue is central - are core features. Here, it seems appropriate to argue that the
Mirroring Solomon’s (1987) critique of Deweyan notion of reflection that includes a
Schön, they see teachers in such a concern for aims and consequences is part
community interacting with colleagues ‘in of this ‘higher level’ reflection that is likely to
goal-directed activities that require lead to small-scale, and sometimes large-
communication and the exchange of ideas scale, transformations.
where reflection itself is not contained wholly
in the mind of the individual but is Drawing ideas together - Pollard’s ‘seven
‘distributed’’. It seems that the development characteristics’
of such a community should be seen as one
responsibility of professional educators. In attempting to draw together some of the
strands and traditions that inform our
Central here, of course, is the idea that trust understanding of reflective practice, Pollard
between teachers and between teachers (2005) provides a framework comprised of
and other practitioners must be embedded - seven characteristics. Though it leans
without trust the sharing of ideas, concerns heavily on Dewey, it presents one attempt to
and challenges can be highly threatening. synthesise elements of understanding of the
Interestingly, Kettle and Sellars (1996), in process of reflection that have developed
looking at the developing reflective practice through the work of both Dewey and Schön,
of trainee teachers, found that the use of together with studies that have extended and
peer reflective groups encouraged them to developed their work and those who have
challenge their existing theories and pre- contributed new understandings. In
conceived views of teaching whilst modelling attempting such a synthesis, Pollard’s
a collaborative style of professional framework undoubtedly falls short of
development. providing the level of detail that proponents
of various schools of reflection would hope
A further criticism of Schön is that his focus to include. Nevertheless, presenting the
is too narrowly on the individual, without framework diagrammatically (Figure 1)
necessarily considering the interaction allows a clear connection to be made
between the wider social setting, includng between theoretical traditions and the
the purposes of schooling and the characteristics of reflective practice in action.
professional. We have already seen that

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 Social Social
efficiency reconstructivist
tradition tradition

Academic Developmentalist
tradition tradition

Aims and
consequences Creative mediation of
externally developed
frameworks

Cycle of
monitoring,
evaluating
and revision Collaboration
and dialogue
Open- Application of with
mindedness, judgement colleagues
Evidence- based on
responsibility
based enquiry and
classroom and whole-
heartedness research
enquiry

Figure 1: Pollard’s framework of reflective

practice.

The seven characteristics of reflective 2. ‘Reflective teaching is applied in a

teaching detailed by Pollard are therefore: cyclical or spiralling process, in which
teachers monitor, evaluate and revise their
1. ‘Reflective teaching implies an active own practice continuously.’ This highlights
concern with aims and consequences, as involvement in a dynamic, continuous
well as means and technical efficiency.’ This reflexive process, an active researching of
is not only a concern with the immediate one’s own practice leading to self-
aims and consequences of classroom monitoring, reflection and change.
practice, but also encompasses the
responsibility for speaking out, on the basis 3.‘Reflective teaching requires competence
of professional experience and often through in methods of evidence-based classroom
professional organisations, on government enquiry, to support the progressive
aims and policies. development of higher standards of
teaching.’ This involves reviewing relevant

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existing research, gathering evidence, using 6. ‘Reflective teaching, professional learning
objective and subjective data, analysis and and personal fulfilment are enhanced by
evaluation, and judgement-making that dialogue with colleagues.’ This refers to
leads to decision taking. dialogue with specific individuals in school,
to collaboration across staff groupings - an
4. ‘Reflective teaching requires attitudes of integral aspect of the ‘intelligent
open-mindedness, responsibility and school’ (MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed,
wholeheartedness.’ Open-mindedness ‘is an 2004) - and to communication and
active desire to listen to more ideas than cooperation with individuals, organisations
one, to give full attention to alternative and agencies beyond the school.
possibilities, and to recognise the possibility
of error even in beliefs that are dearest to 7. ‘Reflective teaching enables teachers to
us’ (Zeichner and Liston, 1996, p10). Pollard creatively mediate externally developed
and Tann (1994) note that responsibility frameworks for teaching and learning.’ Here,
involves thinking about three central kinds of Pollard refers to the reflective teacher being
consequences of teaching - personal, able to justify protective mediation to defend
academic, and social and political (primarily existing practices; engage in innovative
the effects of teaching on the life chances of mediation by working within the spaces and
pupils). In referring to wholeheartedness, boundaries provided by new requirements;
Dewey meant that open-mindedness and contribute to collaborative mediation
responsibility should be central to the whereby externally developed ideas are
professional life of the reflective teacher. scrutinized and adapted in a professional,
mutually supportive environment; or even
5. ‘Reflective teaching is based on teacher engage in conspirational mediation, where
judgement, informed by evidence-based teachers’ appreciative systems form the
enquiry and insights from other research.’ basis of a judgement or judgements that
Here Pollard highlights the work of Schön in resistance to implementing external
pointing to the use of judgement in requirements through the use of subversive
reflection-in-action and its use in reflection- strategies is desirable.
on-action, the latter of which may be seen
as being more strongly linked to knowledge These characteristics mesh strongly with
of research, systematic enquiry and an Zeichner and Liston’s (1996) five key
understanding of the political framework of features of reflective teaching - ‘A reflective
action. teacher:

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o examines, frames, and attempts to solve Related perspectives - Handal and
Lauvas: the practice triangle
the dilemmas of classroom practice;
o is aware of and questions the Another related perspective is provided by
assumptions and values he or she brings to Handal and Lauvas (1987), who present a
teaching; useful conceptualisation of reflective
practice. In their ‘practice triangle’, teaching
o is attentive to the institutional and
that integrates teacher’s practical theories
cultural contexts in which he or she with their daily action involves three levels
teaches; of practice - at the zenith is the notion that
o takes part in curriculum development the reflective teacher must have a core
and a involved in school change efforts; concern with ethical and moral issues:
and
o takes responsibility for his or her own
professional development.’ (p6)

Level 3
Ethical & Moral
Considerations

Level 2
Planning and Reflection

Level 1
Action

Figure 2: The practice triangle [adapted from Handal and Lauvas, 1987]

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These attempts to provide characteristics or evidence and by calling into question
features of reflective practice or of a established practices.
reflective practitioner will always fall short
when viewed from any single theoretical It might be argued that it would be perfectly
perspective, but they do enable those new possible for a teacher to engage in a
to understanding teaching to appreciate the ‘monitoring-evaluating-revising’ cycle of
possible elements contained within a action, incorporating data collection and
reflective practice paradigm. However, the analysis procedures appropriate to action
real question is surely related to where research, without recourse to wider aims and
reflective practice leads. values. Yet is this ultimately sustainable?
The role of the teacher seems imbued with
Reflective practice and the process of moral purpose - why change anything, why
change engage in analysis, debate and painful trial
and error if this is not the case? On what
If we return to Schön for a moment, it seems basis are judgements to be made, if not at
that at the level of reflection-in-action least tangentially in relation to moral
teachers are concerned with the immediate considerations founded on values? Yet a
aims and consequences of classroom ‘moral purpose’ is something of an empty
practice, whilst at the level of reflection-on- vessel without an understanding of the
action the importance of where a teacher means by which change might be
‘places’ themselves with respect to the implemented. Here there seems to be a link
societal issues and influences on education with three inter-related elements of reflective
is fundamental to the way in which they may practice - an understanding of the ‘cyclical or
proceed, and to the ways in which they spiralling process’ of monitoring, evaluating
might view developments within the school. and revising practice continuously,
Fullan’s (1993) notion of ‘moral purpose’ is ‘competence in methods of classroom-based
most strongly linked to the second of these enquiry’ and the application of ‘teacher
levels, as fundamental to both is an judgement, informed by evidence-based
underlying and developing set of beliefs and enquiry’ and research (Pollard, 2005, p16-
values that inform action. As Bramell and 21). There thus seem to be at least two
White (2000) have stated, it is the value broad and interrelated elements in the
systems of teachers that provide a understanding of change - the first is to do
‘coherent, humane vision by which schools with understanding specific school and
can be guided’. And this vision is informed classroom circumstances and the second is
by action - by day to day classroom having a grasp on wider societal influences
experiences, by looking systematically for and intentions.

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At a time when teachers and other Dewey, J. (1910) How we think. London: D.
professionals within schools are constantly C.Heath.
struggling with new requirements, deciding
on what to implement, what to put to one Dewey, J. (1933) How we think: a re-
side and what to emphasise in their statement of the relation of reflective
schools, an understanding of the thinking in the educative process. Chicago:
importance of reflective activity has never Henry Regnery.
been more important. The creative
mediation of externally developed Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and
frameworks for teaching and learning Education. New York: Collier Books.
(Pollard, 2005, p23) is really only possible
from the position of professional Elliot, J (1991) Action research for
understanding, evidence and reflection. educational change. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
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