(Se How do sociologists interpret society? Intro - What is sociology ‘The study of human social life, groups and societies. + Sociology explores the social factors that shape human behavior and the way that society influences our daily lives. ‘Structuralism Fee of the two man approaches | towards sociology. Macro perspective, Societies are seen as sets of structures in which indiviguals play different roles = Individuals have ttle choice. Emile Durkneim ~ suicide: not different in countries but different between countries In societies with support networks — religion ~ strong connections leads to lower suicide rates. Durkheim used positvist's methods. Examples: Correlations and causation, Conflict vs. consensus approaches ‘shared on religion for instance. This is a stabie ‘+ Consensus ~ for equality in society or agreed norms. Status or power: values can be Conflict: where values are not shared such is Micro level approach individual is important ‘We grow up in society norms but always have an opportunity to choose from different identities, People own thoughts are important. The meanings individuals give to the society What people say about the crime is important. People make the societies. Socially available labels: ‘Age, gender, social class, rationality, roles in families such as a parent, religious or _ political organization, in which form of society. as societies with different wealth are ~ Families social norms (next generations can learn), are required. well = Prison (to keep criminals | — Proletariat off the roads). exploited — ora ‘never paid, ~ Schools er ‘and accept society unstable. Funetionallsm Marxism ‘= Consensus approach ‘+ Conflict approach, * Focus on social functions | + Different social classes — and ‘and ask ~ what keeps the | bourgeoisie (upper class) | inant, society together? ‘and proletariat (working ‘women = Schools help children | class), education run economies, ‘= Radical change and oa Polties and economics asf = Mass media distracts the Liberal feminist: Argue that equality has been feached and that only equality promoting laws are required‘Society for the main ‘Such as capitalism, = Radical feminists societies fundamentally patriarchal - need change, Marxist feminist: how class and gender work together. How do sociologists study society? sociologi The study of human social life, groups and societies, * Sociology explores the social factors that shape human behavior and the a n behavi at society influences our daily ives, ever ang ie way is * Sociologists must select and use evidence in a balanced way or other sociologsts may erticize the research. They focus on group (rather than individual) behavior and discuss the social influences on human ite Research Types + Primary or Secondary. + Different methods of research exist Important to follow proper procedures ~ others will question your research. Positivism vs, Interpretivism (main two approaches to study the society). i * Produce quanttative data such * Postivsts may be able to describe scientific subjects (chemistry, phys Socal weld Bu interprets wat ete} | tnderstand why an agton is taken = Quanttatwo data: facts snd] © Example To Understand. why” ime rumercalvakies |” takes place + Scientists are not guides by values but |» Major diferences betweSSSpostivsm ata and inepretsm. N '* Bias may exist in values and sampling © Positivism: methods. assume jective + Experiments are difficult in sociology ‘and therefore questionnaires and pe cata surveys are required for quanttave nts and Gata, ‘gf0up behaves in ar way?/ / | | selecting |) Colecting |) Analysing Samples || data || thedata | Kd ee a” —\¥ Evaluating the project carrying out pilot studies 1nd Hypothes Sociologists ask questions about the socal wo. When they carry St researc, they Pu ine ‘questions in the forms of research aims and hypothesis ch aim set out what the researcher is planning to investigate and sive @ the study. Budget etc. depends on the Aims. ‘A hypothesis is a hunch or informed guess. I tested and then either supported by the evider Research Aims or Hypothesis: 4. The media causes violent behaviour. clear focus to written as a statement that can be ‘or refutes (proven wrong). sis 2, People have a stereotypical view of women because of the way they are represented in the media. Hypothesis, inthe 3, Tofind out and compare the pattern of divorce of white UK. Aims 4. To find out if the family is stil important today experience of different types of family. Alms 5. Prisons do notthelpo reduce crime, Pilot Studies + Apilot study is a small-scale trial run carr ‘+ Itcan save time, money and effort in t whether the chosen research method (intervi useful, research Juse the researcher can check tionnaire, etc.) is likely to be‘Selecting Samples What is a sample? ~ A sample is a selection of the population used for a study. Why use a sample? ~ Because i's expensive and time consuming to question the whole population... How to select a sample? — A sample is selected from a sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list of members of the population, for example, a school register, a list of membership subscriptions or the Royal Mail's list of postcode addresses. If the sampling frame is inaccurate it may make the sample unrepresentative (not typical ‘of the general population). An unrepresentative sample does not allow for generalisations. Generalisations are statements and conclusions that apply to the whole population, not just those who have been sampled. is 10) WwW coat i) © 2 ° feo iwere eS ity. Samples on-Probabil Data Collection ‘+ Once a researcher has carried out a pilot study, made any necessary changes to it and selected a sample, he or she is ready to begin the process of gathering data. Data can be collected by using ane or more methods from a range of research methods such as in the above stated way, itis known as primary data '* Data Collection, + The research Process. Data Analysis. ‘Data Evaluation ‘+ Before the research can be published it is evalu: This form of peer assessment acts as a form of Difficulties in research & Ethical issues effecting Research * Ethical issues are those issues that have a moral Si fensions such as harm of distress ‘may be caused to the participant. * People involved so researcher and respondent should not be harmed.+ Some guidelines: = Participant should not harmed. = Informed consent taken. = Not invade participant's privacy. = Participants should not be deceived = The research should be confidential anonymous (whenever possibie) 1+ Ethical issues effecting Research. ‘© Harm fully aware of the harm ~ both physical and physiological. ‘+ Informed consent ~ What is the research? Information needs to be provided about gray areas. ‘+ Invasion of privacy ~ Does agreement to an interview mean that all questions need to be answered? + Deception — Respondents should not be deceived Jin methods used in sociological inv ion = Questionnaires = Interviews. = Experiments = Case studies = Longitudinal studies = Participation observation = Non participation observa = Content analysis, - Triangulation Questionnaires research + Types of Questions = “Closed ended: pre coded wih ime answer responses avaiable. Example being (yes or no options to answer a queston. = Advantage is ease of data analysis, advantage isnot having a requted option “(please spect to cue this pobie) + Scaled question ae algo avaiable = Open questions: Some times can answer at lngth, Why pe Sv can bbe coded but are more difficult to code compared to close, A = Self-completion questionnaires: there is.no adgi researcher. Postal questionnaires have the a ~ Structured interviews: the interviewer, ‘questionnaires. The questions are standardized. The advan i se rate and correct * Telephonic or face questionnaire + Ways of administering questionnaires: Bree trom 0 ‘numbers, but researchers cant monitor. It also has a low res question understanding. Disadvanta ae tr conticing te‘+ Reliability: research can be repeated with same responses. ‘Validity: when findings accurately reflect reality, ‘+ Social surveys are reliable mostly but not valid, Interviews. + Types: = Unstructured, ~ Semi structured (guide is present), Focus groups (how people respond in a group. Group dynamics are important because some people may be silent or dominating). ‘The interviewer does not need a schedule of questions and itis more like a conversation. Focus Con the interviewee: + Guidelines: — Certain order should be maintained, = Language used should be understandable = Quite and private setting = Quality recording machine (can't remember everything). — Some types of questions, = Introductory questions: can you tell me about? ~ Follow up questions: what do you mean by? = Probing questions: Could you say a bit nove ‘= Indirect questions: Why do people fee!? = Silence: So that more detail can be provides ‘Strengths: = Detailed and valid data, | — Flexibility allows for detail —_Interviewers‘can access the honestly. = Bring out info for further study, Experiments, * Neglected way but the closest to natural ge ® + They minimize subjectivity (he researcher's views Time consuming, Not able to make generalizations as ‘slandard questions not usec Less reliable than structur (how would you replica Interviewer needs to ‘questions ~ Responses ef bias: & WEN gy ists prefer this method. influences). * Cause and effect relations are being established (dependent and independent variable)‘+ They are reliable and valid. + Two types: = Laboratory experiments: artificial setting and flawed- may be spolled by Hawthorne effect or observer effec. Field Experiments Ethical problems enist. Case Studios + Adetailed study of one group or event. ‘+ Can be qualitative and quantitative People get angry about strange situations. Researcher can loose control over the experiment. But they are a very effective way of getting to know behavier. Example of a case study: Car worker in UK factory paid more and behave like a middle class person. This study was done via the case study method. Sienaihs Uiniaone: ‘Can explore different aspects of a! —- Only apply to case so generalizations case. are a problem. = Deep and detailed account of a case. = The findings cannot be replicated = Ma case is carefully chosen then wider | ~ Deep involvement of researcher can ‘conclusions can be made. Can be tested by other researchers as well influence the findings. ‘Longitudinal studies ‘+ Assurvey taking place at intervals for ‘+ Generally used by governments. ) Hie ~ Survey and interview. Panel studies: Where nearly the same people are studied. ‘Strengths ~ Suney research only a snapshot where as this is long film. — What factors have contributed for a Uinitatons Time and commit fom respondents. nges ‘change? lity of Respondents will provide valid data as ark, they have le esearch Participant observation: * Wed of the subject ~ geting in that to share characteristics of the Staying in: gaining trust ~ note taking can spoil thatGeting out: damage relationships. Being impartial, Detached is the key to success for this method. ‘© Covert and overt or ih cover the researcher becomes a full member. The group cannot discover the tive identi. It is hard work and requires some illegal activity. Criminal group study. Note taking is @ problem. — Overt where the researcher tell the group. Can easily take notes but the group may behave differently. Limitations: = Overt can affect behavior, as the respondents know that they are being studied. = Reliability low as can't be done again. = Can't make generalizations. = The researcher needs to have social characteristics of the group. = A lot of energy is required for cover. = Researcher looses objectivity ‘as he/she becomes close with the group, Validity. T Deep understanding of the group. 'Non-Pattcipation observation: “The researcher is just observing or video resi Used for quantitative data — how many times an action is taken. Used when groups unwiling to cooperate. ‘To make sure the behavior is not effected with the presence of the researcher. Not know the meaning people attach to actions ~ This is @ problem, People may also accuse the researcher of his or her own assumptions validity is a problem). Content Analysi ‘+ Study the content of documents and mass media. © Define a set of categories and classifies the material ‘appear. * Media does not show disabled people for insta people are shown and count the number of times' ‘can be figured out by using this method. ‘Strengths: estes ae eterna bat Statistical form where mass media can be studied and ecommendations can be made ‘not tell us why they are that way. "= What categories to use? =_How 10 allocale_material_to ‘such as asking the media to“show more deaf people, ‘ifferent categories. ~ Reliable. = No respondents’ ethical problems are limited in nature. + Triangulation, + When a variety of methods are used. ‘Strengths: imitations: = Quantitative data with qualitative (more | — Time consuming. reliability and validity) - Researcher needs to be skilled in both = Check validity of the research. areas. = Reliability checking various sources. = Positivists and interpretivist approach = Balance between methods. iffers and difficult to combine together. Th nce of ing research + Three issues = Practical: time and money plus response rates and how to transcribe long interviews is also an important aspect. = Ethical: anonymity, informed consent, confidentiality, harms and risk are all very important ethical concems. = Theoretical: Positivists and interpretivists, Validity, reliability representativeness and research bias: retlect reality, participation observation and and less so for positivist. © Reliability: exter io which results can be confirmed with repetition. Surveys are more reliable, This is less valid as respor are not truthful while responding to surveys. random sample or stratified random samy + Research Bias: Researchers own vi research. Positivists say that this s! it is acceptable. Research views, happen through social characteris Data types — © + Secondary (once was primary)+ Qualitative (by interpretivists). ‘= Quantitative (by positivsts). ‘Secondary data types Quantitative secondary data (official stats): ‘+ National and local governments. + Hard statistics - Free from any error or incompleteness (birth, marriages and death rates). ‘Soft statistics - depends on people making decisions on what to record (crime and unemployment statistics) Siena imitations: Readily available and free of charge. = Interpretivists argue that these are = Produced by research that is well socially constructed rather than planned - more valid, reliable and objective facts. Increase in motoring representative. offences or just that police reports = Part of longitudinal research thus more now? shows trends. = Stats are not accurate - UK census = They allow comparisons to be made ‘missing 1 millon people. ‘over time and between regions. = Poltics can affect these. — For policy makers and sociologists = Comparisons cannct be made - an increase in crime rate could just mean that more activtias are Hlegal now than in the past. - Manists argue that stats reflect the ruling class. Stats drawing away from white-collar crimes, Quanttative Data (non-official stats): + By religious groups, charities ete + UK Sutton trust carries out research that is quanitve in nature. + Diagrams, Chars, graphs and tables } Qualitative (historical data) oy * Letters and diaries, ‘Intention of being published vs. not published (One of the mg uestions is whether itis ethical to publish these if the person is not @ 5 “emily does not consent). + Polticians favorable view of themselves (nthe boa * Autobiographies ~ many years afer the event 2 Favorable viewpoint of the person involved. ee ‘Some documents not public. OD + Household accounts, wills, Pca fc data, + Strengths: =" High in validity.= First hand accounts of people involved. = Descriptive details and insight missing in statistics. Limitations: ~ Unrepresented. = Check against other sources. — Biased, Media content. Newspaper, TV programs, radio shows ete. Documentaries. There may be bias in programs. Movies may be a representation of life at that time. But writer's imagination also comes into play in movies and books so they may not depict realty. Interpreting and evaluating secondary qualitative data is essential — Who wrote the text (poor people didn't write $0 old text is generally coming from upper class)? ~ Why was the source written - should it be read by others or is it private? ~ Isitbiasea? = Isittypical for that type of social actor? = Isitclear how the author meant for the document to be looked at?