ANAPHY

CHAPTER 1

ANATOMY

 Study of the structure and shape of the

body and its parts
 CELLULAR LEVEL
PSHYSIOLOGY - Molecules combine to form cells, the basic
structural and functional units of an
 Study of functions and how the body parts
organism that are composed of chemical.
work.
- cells are the smallest living units in the
human body. Among the many kinds of cells
in your body are muscle cells, nerve cells,
and epithelial cells.

 TISSUE LEVEL
- are groups of cells and the materials
surrounding them that work together to
perform a particular function.

The four basic types of tissues in your body:

Epithelial Tissue - covers body surfaces,

lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms
glands.
THE SIX LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Connective Tissue - connects, supports, and
protects body organs while distributing
CHEMICAL – CELLULAR – TISSUE – ORGAN – blood vessels to other tissues.
ORGAN SYSTEM – ORGANISMAL
Muscular Tissue - contracts to make body
parts move and generates heat.
 CHEMICAL LEVEL
- includes atoms, the smallest units of Nervous Tissue - carries information from
matter that participate in chemical one part of the body to another through
reactions, and molecules, two or more nerve impulses.
atoms joined together.
Certain atoms, such as carbon (C), hydrogen  ORGAN LEVEL
(H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus - different types of tissues are joined together.
(P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S), are essential organs are structures that are composed of two
for maintaining life. Two familiar molecules or more different types of tissues; they have
found in the body are deoxyribonucleic acid specific functions and usually have recognizable
(DNA) and Glucose. shapes. Examples of organs are the stomach,
skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain.
  ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL -provides surface area for muscle attachments
- Consists of related organs with a common
-aids body movements; houses cells that produce
function. An example of the system level, also
blood cells; stores minerals and lipids (fats).
called the organ-system level, is the digestive
system, which breaks down and absorbs food.
Its organs include the mouth, salivary glands,
pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), MUSCULAR SYSTEM
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver,
Components: Skeletal muscle tissue— muscle
gallbladder, and pancreas. Sometimes an organ
usually attached to bones (other muscle tissues
is part of more than one system. The pancreas,
for example, is part of both the digestive system
include smooth and cardiac).
and the hormone-producing endocrine system. Functions:
- participates in body movements such as walking
 ORGANISMAL LEVEL - maintains posture
- Any living individual, can be compared to a
book in our analogy. All the parts of the human - produces heat.
body functioning together constitute the total
organism.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE ELEVEN SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special
sense organs, such as eyes and ears.
Functions:
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to
Components: Skin and associated structures, such
regulate body activities
as hair, fingernails and toenails, sweat glands, and
oil glands. - detects changes in body’s internal and external
environments, interprets changes, and responds by
Functions:
causing muscular contractions or glandular
- water proofs the body secretions.

- helps regulate body temperature - fast acting control system

- eliminates some wastes

-helps make vitamin D; detects sensations such as ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
touch, pain, warmth, and cold; stores fat and
Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal
provides insulation.
gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus,
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands,
pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone-
SKELETAL SYSTEM
producing cells in several other organs.
Components: Bones, ligaments, and joints of the
Functions:
body and their associated cartilages.
-regulates body activities by releasing hormones
Functions:
-supports and protects body
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Components: Organs of gastrointestinal tract, a
long tube that includes the mouth, pharynx
Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels.
(throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small
Functions: and large intestines, and anus
-Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; blood -includes accessory organs that assist in digestive
carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon processes, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps and pancreas
regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and
Functions:
water content of body fluids
-Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of
-blood components help defend against disease
food; absorbs nutrients
and repair damaged blood vessels
-eliminates solid wastes.
- blood components help defend against disease
and repair damaged blood vessels.

URINARY SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; spleen,
thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that carry Functions:
out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others).
-Produces, stores, and eliminates urine
Functions:
- eliminates wastes and regulates volume and
-Returns proteins and fluid to blood; carries lipids chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the
from gastrointestinal tract to blood acid–base balance of body fluids
-contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B -maintains body’s mineral balance
cells and T cells that protect against disease-causing
-helps regulate production of red blood cells
microbes.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries
Components: Lungs and air passageways such as
in females) and associated organs uterine tubes or
the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea
fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary
(windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading into and
glands in females
out of lungs.
epididymis, ductus or (vas) deferens, seminal
Functions:
vesicles, prostate, and penis in males.
-Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and
Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or
carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air
oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; gonads
- helps regulate acid–base balance of body fluids also release hormones that regulate reproduction
and other body processes
- air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords
produces sounds. -associated organs transport and store gametes
-mammary glands produce milk - refers to all chemical reactions that occur
within the body and all of its cell. It includes
breaking down complex substances into
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS simpler building blocks (as in digestion),
making larger structures from smaller ones,
 MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES
and using nutrients and oxygen to produce
- Every living organism must be able to
molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
maintain its boundaries so that its “inside”
the energy-rich molecules that power
remains distinct from its “outside”. Every
cellular activities.
cell of the human body is surrounded by an
external membrane that separates its
 EXCRETION
contents from the outside interstitial fluid
- is the process of removing excreta (waste)
(fluid between cells) and allows entry of
from the body.
needed substances while generally
preventing entry of potentially damaging or
 REPRODUCTION
unnecessary substances.
- the production of offspring can occur on
the cellular lever or organismal level. In
 MOVEMENT
cellular production, the original cells divide,
- Includes all the activities promoted by the
producing two identical daughter cells that
muscular system, such as propelling
may then be used for body growth or repair.
ourselves from one place to another (by
Reproduction of the human organism is the
walking, swimming, and so forth) and
task of the organs of the reproductive
manipulating the external environment with
system, which produce sperm and egg
our fingers. The skeletal system provides the
forms, which then develops into a baby
bons that the muscles pull on as they work.
within the mother’s body.
 RESPONSIVENESS
 GROWTH
- Responsiveness, or irritability, is the ability
- can be increase in cell size or an increase
to sense changes (stimuli) in the
in the body size that is usually accomplished
environment and then to react to them. For
by an increase in the number of cells. Cell-
example, if you accidentally touch a hot
constructing activities must occur at a faster
pan, you involuntarily pull your hand away
rate that cell-destroying ones for growth to
from the painful stimulus (the pan). You do
occur.
not need to think about it and it just
happens. Because nerve cells are highly
SURVIVAL NEEDS
irritable and can communicate rapidly with
each other via electrical impulses, the
 NUTRIENTS
nervous system bears the major
-contain the chemicals used for energy and
responsibility for responsiveness. However,
cell building
all body cells are responsive to some extent.
- include carbohydrates, proteins, lips,
vitamins, and minerals
 DIGESTION
- is the process of breaking down ingested
 OXYGEN
food into simple molecules that can then be
-Required for chemical reaction
absorbed into the blood.
 METABOLISM
 - made available for the cooperation of the DIRECTIONAL TERMS
respiratory and cardiovascular systems
-Explain location of one body structure in relation
to one another
 WATER
- 60 – 80% of the body weight  Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the
- most abundant chemical in the human head or upper part of a structure or the
body body; above
- provides fluid base for body secretions and  Inferior (caudal): away from the head or
excretions toward the lower part of a structure or the
body; below
 NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE  Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of
- 37 C (98.6F) the body; in front of
- below this temp, chemical reaction slow  Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside
and stop of the body; behind
-above this temp, chemical reactions
proceed too rapidly
-atmospheric pressure
-must be appropriate for gas exchange

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

- Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
 Medial: toward or at the midline of the
Exact terms for:
body; in the inner side of
o Position  Lateral: away from the midline of the body;
o Direction on the outer side of
o Regions  Intermediate: between a more medial and
o Structures more lateral structure
 Proximal: close to the origin of the body
part or point of attachment to a limb to the
Anatomical Position body trunk
- standard body position used to avoid confusion  Distal: farther from the origin of a body part
or the point of attachment of a limb to the
- terminology refers to this position regardless of body trunk
actual body position
- stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the
sides with palms facing forward and thumbs
pointing away from the body
  Superficial (external): toward or at the body
 Deep (internal): away from the body
surface; more internal

REGIONAL TERMS

 Anterior (ventral) and Posterior (dorsal)

body landmarks

BODY CAVITIES
o dorsal
o ventral

- Body cavities provide varying degrees

of protection to organs within them
 Dorsal body cavity has 2
subdivisions
a. Cranial cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected the skull
b. Spinal cavity
 Houses the spinal
cord
 Protected by the
vertebrae
BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS  Ventral body cavity has 2
- Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as subdivisions separated by
planes diaphragm
a. Thoracic cavity
- 3 types of planes or sections exist as right angles  Cavity superior to the
to one another diaphragm
 Sagittal section, divides the body (or organ)  Houses heart, lungs,
into left and right parts and other organs
 Median or Midsagittal, section divides body  Mediastinum, the
into equal left and right parts central region, houses
 Frontal or coronal section, divides the body heart, trachea, and
into anterior and posterior parts other
 Transverse or cross section, divides the body  Protected by rib cage
into superior and inferior parts
Abdominopelvic cavity OTHER BODY CAVITIES
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm o Oral and digestive cavities
 Superior abdominal cavity contains the o Nasal cavities
stomach, liver, and other o Orbital cavities
- protected only by trunk o Middle ear cavities

 Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive

organs, bladder, and rectums HOMEOSTASIS
- protected somewhat by bony pelvis - maintenance of relatively stable internal
 No physical structure separates abdominal conditions
from pelvic cavities  A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
 Necessary for normal body functioning and
sustain life

Main controlling systems

o Nervous system
o Endocrine system

Homeostatic imbalance
- A disturbance in homeostasis result in disease

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions

All homeostatic control mechanism has at least
- 4 quadrant
three components: receptor, control center, and
- 9 regions effector
 Receptor
- responds to changes in the environment
(stimuli)
- sends information to control center along
an different pathway
 Control center
- determines set point
- analyzes information
- determines appropriate response
 Effector
-provides a means for response to the
stimulus
-information flows from control center to
effecter along efferent pathway
FEEDBACKS MECHANISM

 Negative feedback
-includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
-shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its
its intensity
-work like a household thermostat

 Positive feedback
-rare in the human body
-increases the original stimulus to push the
--variable farther
-reaction occurs at a faster rate
-in the body, positive feedback occurs in
blood clothing and during the birth of a
baby