PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

• A zygote gives rise to all of a plant's cells.

• The process of growth and differentiation are both processes that contribute to development.
• A complex bodily organization is established during the development phase, which generates roots, leaves, branches,
flowers, fruits, and seeds.

GROWTH

• Recognized as one of the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristics of a living being.
• Irreversible permanent increase in the size of an organ, its parts, or even in a single cell.
• Typically accompanied by metabolic processes that consume energy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH

• CELLULAR GROWTH – a process by which cells gain mass and grow larger physically.
• CELL DIVISION – a division of a parent cell into two or more daughter cells.
• CELL EXPANSION – necessitates the production of new cell wall material as well as the controlled loosening of the cell
wall to allow it to stretch and expand in size.
• CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION – a process of transformation of a cell into a different cell type and it is the proper
development and maturation of a less specialized cell in order for it to become more distinct in terms of form and
function.

TYPE OF GROWTH

PRIMARY GROWTH: APICAL MERISTEMS

• a meristem at the apex of a root or shoot that is responsible for increase in length.

SECONDARY GROWTH: LATERAL MERISTEMS

• a meristem that is arranged parallel to the sides of an organ and that is responsible for increase in diameter of the
organ

TWO TYPES OF SECONDARY MERISTEMS:

1. VASCULAR CAMBIUM - produces secondary xylem and phloem, adding growth to the diameter of the plant.
2. CORK CAMBIUM - replaces the epidermis of roots and stems with bark, one layer of which is cork, and lies between
the epidermis and the phloem.

PHASES OF GROWTH

• Meristematic – the apices of roots and shoots reveal growth. A thin cellulose cell wall, as well as many
plasmodesmata connections, aid in meristematic growth.
• Elongation – characterized by cell wall deposition and enhanced vacuolation.
• Maturation – cell wall thickening and lignification are two characteristics of this process.
Cells mature and reach their maximum size, as well as undergo protoplasmic alteration

GROWTH RATE

- The number of cells in living things grows in a variety of ways. The growth rate is defined as the rate of increase in
growth per unit of time and this can be mathematically represented.
• ARITHMETIC GROWTH
- It refers to a steady rate of growth over time, such as the elongation of a root or the height of a plant. It can be
represented by
 • GEOMETRIC GROWTH
- It begins with a lag phase of slow growth, which is followed by an exponential or log phase of rapid growth, which
leads to a stationary phase where growth slows.

CONDITION OF GROWTH

Essential elements required for growth are:

• WATER – is both necessary and sufficient for enzymatic activity. Growth is aided by mturgidity.
• OXYGEN – is necessary for the respiration and metabolism of organic substances in order to release energy for
growth.
• MACRO AND MICRONUTRIENTS – are essential as a source of energy and for protoplasm synthesis.

DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION, REDIFFERENTIATION

• DIFFERENTIATION – a meristematic cells undergo structural alterations and differentiation in order to accomplish
specific functions.
• DEDIFFERENTIATION – it is when differentiated cells that have been surviving for a long time regain their capacity to
divide and differentiate
• REDIFFERENTIATION – the dedifferentiated cells lose their ability to divide once more.

DEVELOPMENT

- Is a word that encompasses all of an organism's changes during its life cycle, from seed germination to senescence. It
is also influenced by a number of internal and external factors.
• INTRINSIC FACTORS
- These involve both genetic and hormonal control.
• EXTRINSIC FACTORS
- Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, water, nutrients, etc.

PLASTICITY & HETEROPHYLLY

• PLASTICITY – Plants' ability to follow different pathways and develop varied structures in response to their
surroundings and life stages.
• HETEROPHYLLY – refers to the various leaf shapes that can be found at various stages of life or in various
environments.

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS (PGRS) CHARACTERISTICS

• They're chemical substances found in nature, and they're found in plants. They're also commercially synthesized and
used in agricultural activities. Plant hormones, also known as phytohormones, are a type of hormone produced by
plants.
• They are derivatives of adenine (kinetin), carotenoids (ABA), terpenes (GA3) and indole compounds (auxins). Ethylene
is a gaseous hormone
• They are present in a very low concentration and act as chemical signals between cells
• Environmental factors influence gene expression and hormone production
• Plant hormones may show different effects at different stages and at different concentrations
• Plant hormones act by signal transduction, i.e., an external signal is converted to internal signal and which in turn
causes one or more cellular responses

According to their actions, they can be classified into two categories:

1. Plant growth promoters, which induce cell division, elongation, differentiation and the formation of flowers, fruits
and seeds, e.g. auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin's
2. Plant growth inhibitors are linked to dormancy, abscission and various stress responses, e.g. Abscisic acid (ABA)
3. Ethylene, the gaseous hormone has inhibitory as well as growth-promoting effects
• Brassinosteroids also have been discovered to work as a phytohormone
 • Different plant hormones may work antagonistically or complimentary (synergistically) to each other. There are many
events that get affected by more than one phytohormones, such as apical dominance, dormancy, abscission,
senescence, etc.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PGRS

• AUXINS
- Produced in the apices of roots and shoots. It is transported to other locations. Auxin is transported in a polar or
unidirectional manner. Natural auxins- IAA (Indole acetic acid) and IBA (Indole butyric acid), synthetic auxins- 2,4-D (2,
4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), NAA (naphthalene acetic acid).

Effect of Auxins:

• Apical Dominance
• Induces cell differentiation in xylem
• Induce parthenocarpy
• Promote flowering
• Delay abscission of young leaves and fruits, whereas, promote falling of older leaves and fruits
• Root initiation in stem cuttings for vegetative propagation

2, 4-D is widely used as herbicides to kill dicot weeds

• GIBBERELLINS
- Plant growth regulators that control growth and influence many developmental processes such as stem elongation,
germination, flowering, enzyme induction, and so on. More than 100s gibberellins are found. GA3 (Gibberellic acid) is
one of the first and the most common gibberellins. All the gibberellins are acidic.

Effect of Gibberellins:

• Cell elongation
• Delay in senescence
• Stimulate malting process
• Internode elongation
• Promote maturation and seed germination

CYTOKININS

- A family of plant growth regulators that play a key role in cell division in the roots and shoots of plants. There are
many naturally occurring cytokinins. They influence cytokinesis and are produced in the rapidly dividing cells.

Effect of Cytokinins:

• Cell division
• Inhibition of apical dominance
• Delay of leaf senescence
• Embryo development
• Seed germination
• Promote nutrient metabolism
• Formation of chloroplasts in leaves
• Adventitious shoot formation

• ETHYLENE

- A class of plant growth regulators that are commonly used to speed up the ripening of fruits and increase the number
of blooms and fruits produced. It is a gaseous hormone. Produced by ripened fruits and tissues undergoing
senescence. Ethephon is the most widely used compound.

Effect of Ethylene:
 • Fruit ripening
• Senescence and abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits
• Maintenance of apical hook-on seedlings
• Breaks seed and bud dormancy and initiates seed germination
• Root initiation
• Internode and petiole elongation in water plants
• Promotes flowering and femaleness

• ABSCISIC ACID (ABA)

- The stress hormone is what we call it. It works as a growth inhibitor for plants. It is synthesized in all plastid-
containing cells. It is an antagonist of Gas.

Effect of Abscisic Acid (ABA):

• Seed dormancy
• Closure of stomata and tolerance to various stresses
• Seed development and maturation

• BRASSINOSTEROIDS
- Seeds, fruits, leaves, and flower buds are all sources of this substance.

Effect of Brassinosteroids

• Light-mediated gene expression

• Cell division and cell elongation
• Seed germination
• Vascular development

• PHOTOPERIODISM

- It describes the impact of light duration on plant growth and development, particularly flowering. Based on their
flowering pattern in response to light, flowering plants are divided into the following categories:
• SHORT DAY PLANTS: Flowering begins when the plant is exposed to light for a shorter period of time.
• LONG DAY PLANTS: Flowering begins when the plant is exposed to light for a longer period of time.
• DAY-NEUTRAL PLANTS: The duration of light exposure has no bearing on flowering.

• VERNALISATION

- It's a temperature-related occurrence. A period of cold temperatures encourages flowering. To hasten blossoming,
seeds are cooled during germination.
• Crops for food are grown twice a year. Spring-planted cultivars are harvested at the end of the growing season.
Winter crops are planted in the autumn and harvested in the middle of the summer. If you plant winter types in the
spring, they will not flower during the growing season.
• In order to flower in the following months, biennial plants require a time of low temperatures.

• SEED DORMANCY
 - Endogenous seed dormancy is regulated. Even in favorable external conditions, seeds do not germinate. Seed
dormancy is caused by various factors:
• Hard and impermeable seed coat
• Chemical inhibitors
• Immature embryo
- Natural abrasions, such as microbial action and digestive tract enzymes in animals that eat seeds, break down the
seed coat. Knives, strong shaking, and sandpaper can all be used to do this. Cold temperatures, nitrates, and
gibberellic acids can all counteract hormone effects.

PLANT MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION

- All living organisms have the ability to move on their own without the assistance of others. This distinguishes them
from non-living objects that only move when pushed or dragged by something else, such as a thrown stone, a flowing
stream, or paper blowing in the wind.

PLANT MOVEMENT

• The change in position of an organism in relation to its surroundings is known as movement. Despite the fact that all
of the plants are fixed in one location, they nonetheless move.
• Plants' movements are manifested in the form of growth in their sections. Plants respond to environmental stimuli
such as light, water, gravity, and chemicals, which generate these motions.

Higher plants move primarily through the bending, twisting, and elongation of certain plant sections or organs.

TWO TYPES OF MOVEMENT

• SPONTANEOUS MOVEMENT – other plant movements occur on their own, without the need for external stimulation.
Spontaneous or autonomic motions are the terms used to characterize these movements. There are the following
three types of autonomic movements:
1. MOVEMENTS AND LOCOMOTION
2. GROWTH AND CURVATURE MOVEMENT
3. VARIATION MOVEMENTS

• INDUCE MOVEMENT – some plant movements are induced in response to specific stimuli, and they are referred to as
induced plant movements. Plant movements that occur spontaneously, without any irritability or protoplasm
sensitivity are referred to as spontaneous plant movements. There are the following three types of paratonic
movements:
1. TROPIC MOVEMENTS
2. TACTIC MOVEMENTS
3. NASTIC MOVEMENTS

AUTONOMIC OR SPONTANEOUS MOVEMENTS

• MOVEMENTS OF LOCOMOTION
- Movements of locomotion are free and spontaneous movements of the entire plant body, an organ, or material
inside the plant cell that occur in response to inherent conditions.
• CYCLOSIS (STREAMING OF PROTOPLASM)
• OSCILLATORY MOVEMENTS OF OSCILLATORIA
• MOTILITY OF ZOOSPORES

GROWTH AND CURVATURE MOVEMENT

• Uneven growth on the opposite sides of an organ causes these movements.

TWO TYPE OF GROWTH AND CURVATURE MOVEMENT

 • NUTATION – the side of the supporting organ in contact with the support grows moreslowly than the opposing side.
This causes a curvature, allowing the supporting organ to spiral or twin around the support.
• NASTIC – differences in the rate of growth on the two opposed surfaces of a plant organ cause these motions.
Epinastic movement occurs when quicker growth happens on the top side of the organ, while hyponastic movement
occurs when faster growth occurs on the lower surface of the growing organ.

VARIATION MOVEMENTS

- These movements are caused by periodic changes in the turgidity of an organ's cells.
- The Indian telegraph plant, Desmodium gyrans, is the best example, with its regular up and down movements of the
two lateral leaflets.
- These leaflets fall and rise at regular intervals. The presence of enormous thin-walled motor cells at the bases of the
leaflets causes this.
- When these cells lose water to nearby cells, they collapse, causing the leaflets to fall down; when they recoup water,
they become turgid, and the leaflets revert to their upright orientation.

PARATONIC OR INDUCED MOVEMENTS

• TROPIC MOVEMENTS
- Tropic motions are growth movements that occur in response to unidirectional external stimuli and result in the
placement of the plant component in the direction of the stimulus.
• PHOTOTROPISM - Phototropic plants are those that show a curvature when they are provided with artificial or
natural light only from one direction. The effect on the plant's growth is known as negative phototropic roots and
positive phototropic stems.
• GEOTROPISM - Growth movements induced by gravity are said to be geotropic. Primary roots always grow downward
in the direction of gravity. Main shoots grow upward away from the gravity and are called diageotropic. The second
lateral roots and shoots show a weaker response to gravity. They take up a position at an angle to the gravitational
stimulus.

DEMONSTRATION OF GEOTROPISM:

GOTROPISM can be demonstrated in the laboratory with the instrument known as Klinostat. It can allow a potted plant fixed on
it to rotate at a definite speed. But there is no bending in the root and shoot of the plant when the plant is stationary.

• HYDROTROPISM - Growth movements in response to unilateral stimulus of water are know as hydrotropism. Roots
bend towards the source of water as they bend away from the source similar to a tree bending towards its roots.
• CHEMOTROPISM - Chemotropism is a movement caused by unilateral stimulus of some chemicals. This is the
movement of pollen tube through the style towards the ovary is an example of chemotropism.

TACTIC MOVEMENTS

- Tactic movements are movements of locomotion, which are induced by some unidirectional external stimuli. Their
direction is controlled by the direction of the stimulus, and can be either positive or negative.
• PHOTOTACTIC - These tactic movements are in response to unidirectional light.
• CHEMOTACTIC - Chemotactic is the movement of antherozoids of bryophytes and pteridophytes towards eggs due to
chemicals. Chemotactic locomotion is the unidirectional movements of locomotion in response to certain chemicals.
• THERMOTACTIC - The reaction of locomotion to a single unidirectional temperature stimulation.

NASTIC MOVEMENTS

- The movement could be caused by changes in turgor or growth.

• NYCTINASTY - These movement of plant organs occur in response to day and light and thus are also known as sleep
movement. They can be Photonastic or Thermonastic if these movement when induced by change in light intensity. If
these movement is not induced, they are called Thermastic.
• CHEMONASTY - These movements are triggered by a chemical stimulation.
• SEISMONASTY - These motions happen in response to a contact stimulation that causes shock.

CROP ADAPTATION
INTRODUCTION

- Distribution of commercial crop production throughout the world is governed by many factors, including climate,
soils, topography, insect pressure, plant disease and economic conditions. In Australia, as in most developed
countries, segregation of crop types into particular production areas is largely governed by profit motives.

CROP

• In agriculture, a plant or plant product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence is known
as a food crop.

ADAPTATION

• It is derived from Latin word “adaptare” which means “to fit”.

• Adaptation of crop plants depends on many factors, and is best considered in relation to a set of conditions. Success
of a plant in a particular environment rarely depends on possession of a single adaptive character. Plant breeders
generally have to develop genotypes with an optimum combination of adaptive characters. The concept of
'adaptation' is difficult to define, as it is used in respect to the evolutionary origins of a character and its contribution
to the fitness of the plant to survive in its present environment. Reproduction, as well as survival, is a critical
consideration in commercial production of seed crops.

ACCLIMATION

- In contrast to adaptation, acclimation is the non-heritable modification of plant characters caused by exposure to new
environmental conditions such as warmer or drier weather. It results from temporary modifications to the plant
phenotype caused by the changing environment. Generally, plants subjected to several cycles of mild water or low
temperature stress suffer less injury from subsequent drought.

GROWTH

- Growth is the increase in plant biomass over time. About 95% of biomass is the net result of photosynthetic gains and
respiratory losses. Growth is affected by the supply and level of availability of all factors that are essential to normal
plant metabolism and function.
• WATER
• NUTRIENTS ELEMENTS
• LIGHT
• GASES
- All of these are usually limited in supply and frequently compete for resources among plants or species in a
community.
- Temperatures is an important factor affecting and controlling plant growth. The thermal environment in which a plant
is grown has significant effects on growth rate and dry matter yield. Adaptation to temperature is a major factor
governing the natural distribution of plants, and is a principal determinant in the selection of crop species for
commercial production. Cardinal Temperatures for growth are commonly used to describe plant adaptability and
response to temperature. The following are the ideal temperatures for any species:
• A Minimum, below which growth will not occur and above which growth rate will rise with temperature
• An Optimum, at which growth rate is maximal, and above which growth rate will decline with increasing temperature
• A Maximum, at which growth will cease.

DEVELOPMENT

• The passage of a plant through the stages of its typical life cycle is known as development.

TWO MAIN PHASES:

• VEGETATIVE
• REPRODUCTIVE

STAGES OF VEGETATIVE
 • ESTABLISHMENT – seed germination, emergence and, ultimately, independence of seed reserves.
• VEGETATIVE GROWTH – initiation, development and expansion of leaves, stems and roots.

STAGES OF REPRODUCTIVE

• Floral initiation – the transition of stem apices from vegetative to reproductive.

• Flowering and pollination, resulting in fertilized ovules which will develop into seeds.
• Seed growth to a maximum wet weight at physiological maturity.
• Seed maturation – grain dries naturally to a moisture content suitable for harvesting and storage.
• Harvest ripeness – dry grain ready for harvest.
- The adaptation of crops to harsher environments has depended more on changes in the length and timing of their life
cycles than on their ability to escape adverse conditions. Daylength is the most potent and universal controlling
element in the timing of life cycles of both wild and cultivated plants.

IMPACTS OF CO2 ON CROP QUALITY AND NUTRITION

- Research shows that increased CO2 can reduce grain protein by 4 to 13% in wheat and 11 to 13 per cent in barley. It is
suggested that increased emphasis on research evaluating crop composition, as well as yield, will be needed in the
coming decades.
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is fundamental to crop carbohydrate production and overall plant metabolism. CO2 levels may
reach 450–1,000 μmol by the end of this century, according to IPCC.
- Crop adaptation will be critical to ensure that crops can maintain, or even increase, productivity amidst a CO2-
enriched environment.
- Temperatures is considered the most important factor in determining how insects affect crop production and yield.
Some populations of insect species, such as flea beetles, are showing signs of over-wintering because of warmer
winter temperatures. As the growing season lengthens and winters moderate due to climate change, pressures from
plant, microbial, and insect pests are expected to rise.

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING EXISTING CULTIVARS AND DEVELOPING NEW CROPS

• DEVELOP NEW CROPS. New crops will likely play a key role in maintaining and increasing agricultural production.
Domestication began only 5,000 to 12,000 years ago for oldest crops such as maize, wheat, potatoes, and sorghum.
Scientists are crossing wild, perennial relatives of crops with their annual, domesticated counterparts.
• INTEGRATE BENEFICIAL TRAITS INTO EXISTING CROPS THROUGH USE OF GERMPLASM COLLECTIONS, RELATED
DATASETS, AND BREEDING. Crop scientists have identified and selectively adapted crops to exhibit desirable traits
that allow crops to achieve optimum yields while withstanding stresses. The success and speed of breeding efforts
depend on the ability of breeders to access optimal germplasm and quality information. Expanded use of these
resources will help researchers more quickly identify adaptive traits.
• USE NEW TECHNOLOGIES—IMAGE-BASED MEASUREMENTS, HIGH-THROUGHPUT DNA SEQUENCING, DATABASES,
AND STATISTICAL MODELS. Germplasm banks can help identify genes that contribute to abiotic or biotic stress
resistance. Using crop breeding alone or in partnership with new biotechnology, scientists can more rapidly identify
cultivars with enhanced productivity even in the presence of drought, heat, water logging, and frost pressures.
• IDENTIFY CROP GERMPLASM THAT TOLERATES DROUGHT, HEAT, AND WATER-LOGGING. Yield drops when crops
experience drought, excessive heat, or surplus water deviating from the optimum for growth during key stages.
Cultivars are now being developed which are tolerant to excess heat during pollination for cowpea and corn, and
flooding early in the growing season for soybean and rice.
• EXPAND FIELD-LEVEL EVALUATIONS OF CROP GERMPLASM. The modern crop breeder's toolkit enables
consideration of the entire world's genetic resources for use in crop genetic improvement. New technology in
combination with large scale field phenotypic evaluations will likely help disclose previously unknown genetic sources
and genomic regions on DNA associated with abiotic stress tolerance.
• EMPLOYING NEW TOOLS, TECHNIQUES, AND DATASETS TO ACCELERATE THE DELIVERY AND RELEASE OF PROVEN
VARIETIES. New technologies, made possible with the use of computer imaging, robotics, and super computers, allow
for fast and accurate identification of adaptive traits expressed in different environments. These technologies allow
researchers to identify adaptive traits more quickly and increase the probability of finding key clusters or groups of
genes that control traits for resistance to drought.
 • IDENTIFYING CROP GERMPLASM FOR TOLERANCE TO PATHOGENS, INSECTS, AND NEMATODES. There is a need for
concerted efforts to screen crop germplasm for susceptibility to many pest organisms. Such screening, coupled with
molecular marker tools, will assist plant breeders in dealing with current and future pest outbreaks. This will support
producers by providing new cultivar options at a faster pace, and provide greater food security.

LAND PREPARATION
• Is the disturbance of the soil in preparation for establishing a crop.
• It covers a wide range of practices from zero‐tillage or minimum tillage, which minimizes soil disturbance through to a
totally ‘puddled’ soil, which actually destroys soil structure.
• It may include land leveling and bund construction.
• Combination of tillage practices.
• Places the soil in the best physical condition for plant establishment and crop growth.

THE OBJECTIVES OF LAND PREPARATION:

• Decrease ped or clod size to give good seed soil contact for plant establishment
• Remove, incorporate or modify plant residue
• Manage soil water (both wetting and drying)
• Control weeds
• Mix and incorporate soil amendments such as lime and basal fertilizer
• Control or destroy insects, their eggs, larvae and breeding places
• Reduce wind and water erosion by leaving a rough surface.

DEVELOPMENT OF TILLAGE SYSTEM

• Performed through human labor (slaves)

• Performed via animals pulling a wooden plow

Jethro Tull “Father of Modern Tillage”

- 1731 – Horseshoing Husbandry

- “Tillage is Manure” theory
• Steel plow was invented in Midwest America
• 1990’s – farm tractors were introduced

SIGNIFICANCE OF:

TILLAGE

- Tillage is normally classified as primary or secondary tillage

SOIL PUDDING

- While soil puddling can be classified as a secondary tillage its primary purpose is to restrict water movement or deep
percolation from the soil surface.

TWO TYPES OF TILLAGE SYSTEM:

1. PRIMARY TILLAGE
- Is the first working after the last harvest and normally the most aggressive tillage operation.
- Tillage is best done when the soil is wet enough to allow the soil to be plowed and strong enough to give reasonable
levels of support for the tractor. This can be immediately after the crop harvest or at the beginning of the next wet
season.
- The dryer the soil, the more power that will be required to shatter and break the surface layers into smaller clods. In
human and animal based system, the time of plowing is often determined by the weather as rain or water is required
to soften the soil before plowing can begin.
- Plowing
 - First working after the last harvest
- Most aggressive tillage operation
• 10-15 cm deep
• kill weeds
• soil aeration and water accumulation
• chop and incorporate crop residue

PRIMARY TILLAGE IS DONE USING:

• Disc plows
• Moldboard plows
• Tined plows
• And in some instances rotovators and is generally the deepest plowing (100‐150mm) and requires the most energy.

FUNCTIONS

• Loosen the soil

• Bury the plant waste
• Weed control
• Kills pest
• Erosion control
• Preparation to secondary tillage

2. SECONDARY TILLAGE
- Is any working completed after primary tillage.
- Secondary workings are usually shallower (50‐75mm) and less aggressive than primary tillage.
- Normally 1‐3 secondary workings are done after primary tillage and before planting but this will depend on the
cloddiness of the soil, the number of weeds, the need to incorporate fertilizer and the need for puddling.

IMPLEMENTS USED FOR SECONDARY TILLAGE INCLUDE:

• Disc and peg tooth harrows

• Tined cultivators, and
• Rotovators.

FUNCTIONS

• Break the soil clods

• Shatter the soil clods
• Level the soil surface
• Harrow the soil and plant waste
• Firm the soil
• Kill weeds and helps conserve moisture

PUDDLING

- It is the tillage of rice paddies while flooded, an ancient practice that is used to prepare for rice cultivation.
Historically, this has been accomplished by dragging a weighted harrow across a flooded paddy field behind a buffalo
or ox (in some countries may be cow or horse), and is now accomplished using mechanized approaches, often using a
walking tractor.
- Puddling reduces the percolation rates of water by churning the clay particles and making them close many of the soil
pores.
PLOWING PATTERNS

The plowing pattern adopted will normally be pre‐determined by the implement being used. When using a one way plow or a
plow that throws soil in one direction, a continuous or round and round pattern will have to be used. If a tined, offset plow or
rotovator is used then and up and back or land pattern can be used.

CONTINUOUS PATTERN OR CIRCUITOUS PATTERN

Plowing begins at the edge of the field and works toward the center of the field always throwing the soil towards the outside of
the field. This pattern is used with one‐way disc and moldboard plows.

HEADLAND PATTERN

Plowing begins at one end of the field and works up and back until it reaches the other end of the field. This pattern can be used
with reversible plows, rotovator and tined plows. This pattern leaves a level surface
LAND SYSTEM PATTERNS

This system starts plowing in the centerline of the field and works out towards the field’s edge. This pattern can be used with all
implements but care must be taken to start plowing exactly in the center of the field. This pattern leaves a level surface.

COMMON TILLAGE OPERATIONS

UPLAND TILLAGE

- undertaken in locations where crops are grown in aerobic soil conditions

- Non-puddled and no freestanding water
- Water erosion can be a problem
- Plowing on the contour is recommended

OTHER TILLAGE OPERATIONS

• Rotary Hoeing
• Inter-row Cultivation or Inter-Plant Tillage
• Hoe Cultivation or Spading

TILLAGE PRACTICES

MAXIMUM OR CONVENTIONAL TILLAGE

- 1 plowing, 2 harrowing

ZERO TILLAGE OR NO TILL

- No or reduced tillage

MINIMUM TILLAGE

- Only necessary operations are performed

LAND PREPARATION FOR ANNUAL CROPS

TWO SYSTEMS OF LAND PREPARATION

1. LOWLAND / WETLAND
- Plowing and harrowing are done under submerged or flooded conditions which cause ‘puddling’ of soil
2. UPLAND / DRY LAND
- Plowing and harrowing are done in dry (moist) condition and soil is non-puddled
PHYSICAL CHANGES CHEMICAL CHANGES

LAND PREPARATION

LOWLAND CONDITION

1. LAND PREPARATION UNDER SUBMERGED CONDITION

• Requires atleast one plowing, two harrowing, and one levelling operation
• Water requirement: 725mm for the wet season and 470mm for the dry season
• Power source: carabao or water buffalo
• Tillage implements: mold board plow, comb tooth harrow, hand tractor, pedestrian tractors
• Labor requirement: draft animal, machine, man
2. LAND PREPARATION UNDER DRY CONDITION
• Plowing is done in the dry condition (non-flooded)usually by tractor operation but the subsequent harrowing and
puddling and levelling are done under flooded conditions
• Appropriate for light-textured soils
• Preparation is done within a shorter period of time
3. DRY LAND TILLAGE FOR DRY-SEEDED RICE (DSR) CULTIVATION
• Plowing and harrowing operations are done in the same way that the upland fields are prepared
• Direct seeding is employed and the early rains germinate the seeds
• Water is introduced after seedling establishment like lowland rice culture
• Commonly practiced in rainfed areas

UPLAND CONDITION

• Purposes: develop a desirable soil structure, incorporate stubble and weed

• Operations: plowing, harrowing
• Characteristics: granular, free of trash or vegetation, field is level
• Ideal soil moisture content: a level below field capacity
• Equipment: carabao-drawn, hand tractor, tractor mounted implements

PERRENIAL CROPS

Perennial crops can be established on lands that are level to:

Selective clearing rather than total clearing and contour cultivation and terracing may be done.

• LAND CLEARING
- Open grasslands may be cleared by a combination of tractor mowing, use of grass cutter or herbicidal application
- Alternate plowing and harrowing may be done whenever practical
- In sloping areas, clearing of designated spots on which individual trees will be planted is necessary