22-12-2022

UNIT-3: Dielectric, Magnetic and

Energy Materials

 Dielectric Materials: Basic definitions - types of polarizations

(qualitative) - ferroelectric, piezoelectric, and pyroelectric materials
– applications – liquid crystal displays (LCD) and crystal oscillators

 Magnetic Materials: Hysteresis - soft and hard magnetic materials -

magnetostriction, magnetoresistance - applications - bubble
memory devices, magnetic field sensors and multiferroics.

 Energy Materials: Conductivity of liquid and solid electrolytes-

superionic conductors - materials and electrolytes for super
capacitors - rechargeable ion batteries, solid fuel cells.

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 Polarizability: The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is

called Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment (μ) is proportional to the intensity
of the electric field (E).
E
  E
  polarizability constant

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 Permittivity is the ability of a material to store an electric field in the

polarization of the medium.

 Permittivity is a constant of proportionality exists between the

electric displacement and electric field intensity.

 The permittivity of a dielectric material is measured in Farad/meter.

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Figure gives the different

types of polarization
mechanisms

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a. The electronic polarization is defined as an electric strain produced in an atom due

to the application of electric field.
b. It is the result of the displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the
(negative) electrons of an atom in opposite directions on the application of the
electric field.
c. This kind of polarization is present in all materials.
d. Further it is proportional to the volume of the atoms in the material and is
independent of temperature.
e. Dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field strength and is given by
 e E
or
e   e E

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 Piezoelectricity was discovered by Curie brothers in 1880.

 It is the generation of electric field from applied pressure.
 It is observed in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry.
 The materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric also exhibit the
reverse piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical
strain resulting from an applied electrical field).

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Fig.: Schematic of direct piezoelectric effect;

(a) piezoelectric material,
(b) energy generation under tension,
(c) energy generation under compression

 The positive & negative charges are symmetrically distributed in a crystal.

 Piezoelectric ceramic materials are not piezoelectric until the random ferroelectric
domains are aligned by a process known as POLING.
 Poling consists of inducing a DC voltage across the material.
 When pressure is applied to an object, a negative charge is produced on the
expanded side and a positive charge on the compressed side.
 Once the pressure is relieved, electrical current flows across the material.

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Explanation for the origin of Piezoelectricity

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 Ferromagnetism was already known when ferroelectricity was

discovered in 1920 in Rochelle salt by Valasek.
 Thus, the prefix ferro, meaning iron, was used to describe the
property despite the fact that most ferroelectric materials do not
contain iron.

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Applications
1. The combined properties of memory, piezoelectricity, and
pyroelectricity make ferroelectric capacitors some of the most useful
technological devices in modern society.
2. Ferroelectric capacitors are at the heart of medical ultrasound
machines, high quality infrared cameras, fire sensors, sonar,
vibration sensors, and even fuel injectors on diesel engines.
3. The high dielectric constants of ferroelectric materials used to
concentrate large values of capacitance into small volumes, resulting
in the very tiny surface mount capacitor.
4. Non-volatile RAMS (memory).
•Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)
5. Tunable Microwave Devices.
•Lead titanate, (PbTiO3)
6. Pyroelectric Detectors/Sensors. •Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
7. Optical waveguides •Lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT)

 Pyroelectricity can be described as the ability of certain materials to

generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled.

 The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms

slightly within the crystal structure, such that the polarization of the
material changes.

 This polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If

the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric
voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current.

 The leakage can be due to electrons moving through the crystal, ions
moving through the air, or current leaking through
a voltmeter attached across the crystal.

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 Pyroelectric materials exhibit spontaneous polarization that is

polarization in the absence of electric field, this cannot be changed or
reversed on applying the electric field it does so in ferroelectric
materials.

 Hence all pyro electro materials are also piezoelectric. The

piezoelectric materials have a certain kind of piezoelectric crystal that
does not allow pyroelectricity.

 Hence pyroelectric effect takes place below the 1070-degree F curie

temperature, so when the material is heated above curie temperature
1070-degree F the atoms come back to their equilibrium positions.

 So, the electrocaloric effect is considered as a physical inverse of the

pyroelectric effect.

1.Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR sensor)

Passive infrared (PIR) sensors are a common type of motion detector sensors, which
can detect the movement of human beings, animals, objects, etc., or anything which
radiates thermal infrared radiation.
The thermal energy radiated in the form of infrared waves are invisible to human eyes.
So, the PIR sensors can work as a hidden device. Because of this ability, they are
widely used for security and automation applications.
The PIR sensors have an average operating range of 5m to 10m.

2.Infrared Thermometers
The infrared thermometers or pyrometers are used for non-contact temperature
measurements. They are used for temperature measurement in the areas where physical
contact is not possible. Such as moving objects, extremely heated substances, etc.

3.Laser Energy Sensors

Pyroelectric sensors are most commonly used sensor type, for measuring the Power and
Energy of Lasers. They have a fast response in measurement compared to other sensor
types. But, the pyroelectric sensor can measure only pulsed lasers that have a
repetitively pulsed energy up to 25 kHz. Even though, these sensors are recommended
to operate with a repetition rate less than 10 kHz.

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The pyroelectric effect has been extensively studied for various

applications, such as

1. infra-red sensor or IR detector,

2. thermal imaging or intruder alarms or Image tubes,
3. gas sensors,
4. fire alarms,
5. Temperature sensing elements.

Some of the pyroelectric materials are listed below

•Tourmaline
•gallium nitride
•cesium nitrate (CsNO3)
•polyvinyl fluorides
•derivatives of phenyl pyridine
•cobalt phthalocyanine
•Lithium tantalite (LiTaO3).

What is Liquid Crystal Display:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an flat display screen used in electronic devices such
as laptop, computer, TV, cellphones and portable video games. As the name says liquid
crystal is a material which flows like a liquid and shows some properties of solid. These
LCD are vey thin displays and it consumes less power than LEDs.

Molecular arrangement
of Liquid Crystal:

As the name says the molecular structure of liquid crystal is in between solid crystal and
liquid isotropic. In Liquid crystal display (LCD) nematic type of liquid cyrstal
molecular arrangement is used in which molecules are oriented in some degree of
alignment. For example when we increase the temperature the ice cube melts and liquid
crystal is like the state in between ice cube and water

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 Construction of LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces. Two

electrodes are used, one is positive and the other one is negative.
 External potential is applied to LCD through this electrodes and it is
made up of indium-tin-oxide.
 Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm is placed between two
glass sheets. The light is passed or blocked by changing the
polarization.

The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light. It does not produce
light on its own. So external light source is used. When the external light passes
from one polarizer to the next polarizer, external supply is given to the liquid
crystal ,the polarized light aligns itself so that the image is produced in the
screen.

The indium oxide conducting surface is a transparent layer which is placed on

both the sides of the sealed thick layer of liquid crystal . When no external bias
is applied the molecular arrangement is not disturbed.

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When the external bias is

applied the molecular
arrangement is disturbed and it
and that area looks dark and
the other area looks clear.

In the segment arrangement, the conducting

segment looks dark and the other segment
looks clear. To display number 2 , the segments
A,B,G,E,D are energized.

Positive and Negative LCDs:

In positive LCD display the segments are

dark and the background is white and the
polarizers are placed perpendicular to each
other. In the negative LCD display the
segments are white in the dark background
and the polarizers are aligned to each other.

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Advantages:
•It is thin and compact
•Low power consumption
•Less heat is emitted during operation
•Low cost

Applications:
Disadvantages: •Used in digital wrist watch
•Display images in digital cameras
•Speed of operation is low •Used in numerical counters
•Lifespan is less •Display screen in calculators
•Restricted viewing angles •Mainly used in television
•Used in mobile screens
•Used in video players
•Used in image sensing circuits

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