Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

Chapter 1: Introduction to foundation systems

1.1.Introduction

A foundation is the lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the
structure to the ground. The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level
so as to increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below
ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft, piles
etc. at its base so as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure
on a large area of the soil lying underneath.
Super structure

Sub structure
Foundation

Figure 1.1: Major Building Parts

1.2.Purposes of Foundations

Foundations are used for the following purposes.

i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.

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Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.

v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
1.3.Types of Foundations

Depends on foundation loads and soils bearing capacity foundations can be broadly classified
into the following two categories.

a) Shallow foundations
b) Deep foundations

Figure 1.2: Different types of foundations

1.3.1. Shallow Foundations

The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the
ground level are known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations is to
distribute the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed. Since spread

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foundations (shallow foundations) are constructed in open excavations, therefore, they are
termed as open foundations.

Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -

i. Spread or Isolated footings

ii. Combined footing
iii. Cantilever footing
iv. Continuous or wall footing
v. Raft/Mat foundation
i. Spread or Isolated Footings

They are used to support individual column. Isolated footings are stepped type, simple type or
slope type, having projections in the base concrete. To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also
provided at the base. The reinforcement provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both
directions.

Figure 1.3: Spread or isolated footings

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Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

ii. Combined Footing

A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a row. Combined footing is used
when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other considerations limit the
footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing can be rectangular in shape if
both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if there is a space limitation and they
carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

Figure 1.4: Combined footing

iii. Cantilever or Strap Footing

Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings connected by a beam called a strap. It is
also sometimes called as strap footing. Cantilever footing may be used where the distance
between the columns is so great that a trapezoidal combined footing becomes quite narrow, with
resulting high bending moments. The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so a strap
doesn’t transfer any pressure to the soil.

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Property line
Figure 1.5: Cantilever or strap footing

iv. Continuous or Wall Footing

In this type of footing a single continuous reinforced concrete slab is provided as foundation of
wall and three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to
earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the structure.

Figure 1.6: Continuous or wall footing

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Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

v. Raft/Mat Foundation

A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports
all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure loads are heavy, the use
of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area, and it may prove more
economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where the soil mass contains compressible
layers so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control the raft tends to bridge over
the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement.

Flat plate mat foundation Two-way beam and slab (Ribbed mat)
Figure 1.7: Raft foundation

1.3.2. Deep Foundations

When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even by a raft
foundation, then eventually shallow foundation has to be ruled out and a deep foundation, taken
to an available firm stratum, is adopted. Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles, Piers or
Well (i.e. Caissons).

i. Pile Foundation

A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft, which is used to transmit the loads to deeper soil
layers capable of supporting the loads. It is adopted for a heavy loaded structure that is erected in
soils having low bearing capacity transferred to the group of piles through the pile cap.

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Figure 1.8: Pile foundation

The main function of pile cap is to transfer loads from a column or wall to an underlying group
of piles. To ensure stability against lateral forces, a pile cap must include at least three piles;
otherwise it should be connected by the beams to adjacent caps.

In general, pile caps should be arranged in such a manner that the centroid of pile group
coincides with the line of action of load to ensure that all piles carry an equal load and avoid
tilting of group in compressible bearing stratum.

Pile foundation is suitable under the following situations

 When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at a reasonable depth to keep the
bearing power within safe limits.
 When shallow foundations are very expensive
 When the building is a very high and carrying heavy concentrated load.

Classification of Piles

Piles are generally classified into the following categories according to the mode of transfer of
load, the use, composition or material of construction and the method of construction
(installation).

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i. Classification of Piles according to the mode of transfer of loads

a) End-Bearing Piles: - these piles penetrate through the soft soil or water and their bottoms
rest on a hard stratum and transmits the load to it.
b) Friction Piles: - When loose soil extends to a great depth, piles are driven up to such a
depth that frictional resistance developed at the sides of the piles equals the load coming
on the piles.
c) Combined End-Bearing and Friction Piles: - the piles which rest on hard strata and
resist the loads partly by bearing and partly by their skin friction are known as friction -
end bearing piles.

Figure 1.9: Types of Pile foundation

ii. Classification of Piles based on use

a) Uplift Piles: - these piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift or overturning
movement.
b) Batter Piles: - the piles driven at an inclination to resist inclined loads are known as
batter piles. These piles are used generally to resist lateral forces in case of retaining
walls, abutments etc.
c) Compaction Piles: - they are used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase
their bearing capacity. These piles themselves do not carry any load.
d) Sheet Piles: - the piles which consist of thin steel sheets driven in the ground to enclose
an area are known as sheet piles. These piles are used to enclose soil so as to prevent the
leakage of water and to enclose soft material.

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iii. Classification of Piles According to their composition or Material of construction

Figure 1.10: Pile composition

a) Timber Piles: - Timber piles are made of tree trunks with the branches trimmed off. The
timber to be used for the construction should be free from defects; decay etc. and it
should be well seasoned. These piles are circular or square in cross section. Top of these
piles is provided with an iron ring to prevent it from splitting under blows of the hammer.
The bottom is fitted with an iron shoe to facilitate sinking of the piles. Piles entirely
submerged in water last long without decay. When a pile is subjected to alternate wetting
and drying the useful life is relatively short.
b) Concrete Piles: - Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles. These
piles are strong and durable and can bear more load than timber piles. Concrete piles may
be classified into the following two types
i) Pre-cast concrete piles
ii) Cast in situ piles
Pre-Cast Concrete Piles: - these piles are manufactured in factory. These are R.C piles,
which are usually square, circular or octagonal in cross-section. Normally these are made
to resist the stresses caused by driving and handling as well as those produced by loads
they are supposed to carry.

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Figure 1.11: Pre-cast concrete piles

Cast-in situ Concrete Piles: - these type of piles are constructed in their locations in the
bore holes prepared for these purpose. The operation consists of boring a hole, filling it
with only concrete or with steel reinforcement and concrete. Straight bored piles or piles
with one or more bulbs at intervals may be cast at site the latter type is call as under
reamed pile.

Figure 1.12: Cast-in situ piles

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Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle. They do not require any extra reinforcement to
resist the stresses developed during handling or driving operations. There is no wastage of
material as the pile of required length is only constructed. The extra cost of transporting pile is
eliminated.

The disadvantages of these piles are

 It is difficult to maintain the reinforcement in correct position during construction of pile

 The piles cannot be constructed under water, and
 It is not possible to have a proper control over the composition and design of these piles.
c) Sand Piles: - the piles consisting of sand filled in boreholes are called sand piles. These
piles are formed by digging holes. The holes are then filled sand and compacted. Top of
the sand pile is covered with concrete to prevent the sand to come upwards due to lateral
pressure. Sand piles are used occasionally for taking light loads. They are not suitable in
regions subjected to frequent earthquakes.
d) Steel Piles: - the piles consisting of a steel section are called steel piles. These piles are
useful where driving conditions are difficult and other types of piles are not suitable.
Steel piles are usually H shapes or pipe piles. H-piles are proportioned to withstand large
impact stresses during hard driving. Pipe piles fitted with conical cost iron shoes are
driven in the ground and then hollow space is filled with concrete.
e) Composite Piles: - a composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of a bored
pile and a drive pile or of driven piles of two different materials. They are suitable where
the upper part of a pile to project above the water table. They are economical and easy to
construct.
iv. Classification Based on Method of Construction (Installation)
a) Driven Piles: - These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer
on their tops.
b) Driven and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by driving a casing with a closed
bottom end into the soil. The casing is later filled with concrete. The casing may or may
not be withdrawn.
c) Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles: - These piles are formed by excavating a hole into the
ground and then filling it with concrete.

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d) Screw Piles: - The piles are screwed into the soil.

e) Jacked Piles: - These piles are jacked into the soils by applying a downward force with
the help of a hydraulic jack.

Figure 1.13: Driven piles

ii. Pier Foundations (Drilled Caisson Foundation)

The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method of construction.
Pile foundations transfer the load through friction and or bearing, pier foundations transfer the
load only through bearing. Pier foundation is shallower in depth than pile foundation. Pier
foundation is preferred in a location where the top strata consists of decomposed rock over lying
a strata of sound rock. In such cases it is difficult to drive the bearing piles through decomposed
rock.

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Figure 1.14: Pier Foundations

iii. Well Foundations (Caissons)

These are box like structures circular or rectangular which are sunk from the surface of either
land or water to the desired depth. Much large in diameter than the pier foundations. These are
used for major foundation works, such as

 Bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes, etc.

 Wharves, quay, walls, docks (related to ships)
 Break waters and other structures for shore protection.
 Large water front structures such as pump houses

Well foundations are not used for building.

Figure 1.15: Well Foundations (Caisson)

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1.4.Loads on Foundation

An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can be
properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads.

a) Dead load: includes

 Weight of structure
 All material permanently attached to structure
 Static earth pressure acting permanently against the structure below ground surface.
 Water pressure acting laterally against basement walls and vertically against slab.
b) Live load: - temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful
life.
c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes provide
magnitude of design wind pressure.
d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earth quake motion. The total lateral force
(base shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with local building code.
e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case, separate
foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be considered in
design.
1.5.Selection of Foundation type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered:

 Function of the structure

 Loads it must carry
 Subsurface conditions
 Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.

Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a decision.

 Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the super structure and
the loads to be transmitted to the foundation
 Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.
 Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not
 They could be constructed under existing conditions.

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 They are capable of carrying the required load.

 They experience serious differential settlements.

The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.

 Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and subsurface conditions. Determine the approximate
size of footing or the approximate length and number of piles required.
 Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
 Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance and
cost.
1.6.General Principles of Foundation design

The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is

1) To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, load bearing
walls with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming
into the foundation units.
2) To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below
the ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
3) To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on
soil strength or structural requirement considerations.
4) To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable
bearing pressure.
5) To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are excessive
the bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and less
compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded on piles or other special
measures taken

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