Journal of Borneo Social Transformation Studies (JOBSTS), Vol.

6, Number 1, 2020
ISSN 2462-2095
Universiti Malaysia Sabah

URBANIZATION AND IT IMPACTS TO LAND SURFACE

TEMPERATURE ON SMALL MEDIUM SIZE CITY FOR
YEAR 1991, 2011 AND 2018: CASE STUDY KOTA
KINABALU.

Ricky Anak Kemarau1, Oliver Valentine Eboy1

1
Geography Program,
Faculty of Social and Science and Humanities,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.

Correspondence: Ricky Anak Kemarau ([email protected])

ABSTRACT

Transformation of land cover vegetation toward urban areas causes the

temperature at urban higher to compare to suburban and rural areas, namely
urban heat island (UHI) effect. The UHI has a negative impact, such a stroke
heat, air pollution, green gasses emission, and electric consumption. UHI
studies at a tropical country still limited due to the containment of cloud
cover. Besides that, studies only focus on big cities which have residents
above than 2 million. The outcome this studied important to enhance our
knowledge of urban heat effect at small-medium cities and guidelines to
policymaker and urban planner to discover there has effectively taken to
decrease the effect of urban heat at the hot spot area. The main goal of this
research about to discovered influence of urban growth and selected urban
index, namely the Normalized Difference Built Index (NDBI) to LST. NDBI
is an index which denotes intensity of urban built up. In the first step, we
generate the LST and NDBI from Landsat 8 OLI at year 2018 and Landsat 5
TM for the year 2011 and 1991. Second, we applied the unsupervised
classification of Landsat 8 OLI and Landsat 5 TM to generate the land cover
maps for the years 1991, 2011, and 2018. Third of our method to examine
the relationship between Land surface temperature (LST) and NDBI. The
higher value NDBI is a hot spot, and the low value is a cold spot. In the last
step, we applied for Change Detection analysis using GIS to examine the
land cover change between 1991 and 2018. Our results show the higher the
value of NDBI and LST at the centre of the city and the lowest value at

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vegetation land cover. The transformation of land cover vegetation to urban

increase at countryside area and out-of-town and significantly increase of
distribution of UHI. On another hand, the shows positive relationships
between LST and NDBI. The output of the study provides a guideline for
policymakers and town designers to develop to toward city zero carbon,
sustainable and health.

Keywords: LST, Urbanization and NDBI, Surface Urban Heat Island,

Remote Sensing, and GIS

Introduction

The increasing population and the offer of better socio and economic
activities have been attracting the population to move from village to town
areas. The movement of the residents from village to town zones caused the
urban expansion and an increasing transformation from vegetation land
cover to human-built in recent decades (United Nations, 2018) to fulfill the
demand of the population. In 2007, regarding United Nations (United
Nations, 2015), estimated 66% of world population will live at town city. On
other hand at 2007, for first time in human history the population of urban
exceeded than rural area population. The phenomenon of urbanization has
the transformation of the land cover vegetation to build up human man,
which concerns the impact on waste, air and water pollution, and climate
change. The climate change because of green gasses emission and required
more energy consumption to comfort humans in urban areas in tropical
country and summer season at temperate climate because of the UHI effect.
UHI, where the atmospheric and surface temperature of town and
countryside areas higher compared to rural environments (Howard, 1818).
The first observed conducted by Luke Howard from the years 1772 until
1864. The Literature review mentioned the main index applied denotes to
built-up land properties namely Index Based Built up (IBI), the normalized
difference built-up index (NDBI), and Urban Index (UI) (Berger et al., 2017;
Peng et al., 2016; Liang et al., Estoque et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2018; Zhang
et al., 2019; Feng et al., 2018). The all studied mentioned above was applied
at climate temperate city areas where the towns are more advanced compare
to the urban tropical less studied because of cloud containment, in which
thermal and visible wavelength cannot penetrate the cloud. However, several
studies involving the tropical and subtropical cities was done in mega cities
at Asia namely Mumbai, Delhi in India, Dhaka in Bangladesh, Hanoi in
Vietnam, Singapore and Bangkok in Thailand (Feng et al., 2018; Chen et al.,

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Universiti Malaysia Sabah

2014). However, all the studied mentioned only focus on UHI analyses of
single cities and mega-cities (Ranagalage et al., 2018; Fu et al., 2015; Chen
et al., 2014). The motivation of this study because (Zhou et al., 2019) stated
that the principal UHI and SUHI concentration did not exist because of the
strong background rural area. Because of this, most of the studies done
mentioned above have a population of more than 5 million; there still not
studies focus on medium-small cities size such a Kota Kinabalu with the
population 224 700 (United Nations, 2018). The output from this study
expected to enhance our knowledge regarding SUHI and LST for medium-
small cities. On another hand, a few studies directed to report the long-term
land cover change because, in subtropical and tropical towns, the cloud
covers always the major problem in optical satellite data namely as Landsat
successions datasets cant penetrate the cloud. This study able to help more
understand the SUHI at medium city size. This objective of this study
research is to identified the relationship of the selected urban index, NDBI,
and land cover for an urban area, water, and vegetation and discover the
relationship of NDBI and urban growth on land surface temperature.

Study area

Kota Kinabalu is located on Borneo, which capital city of the state of Sabah,
Malaysia. The population of Kota Kinabalu 244,700 for the year 2017
(United Nations, 2018). Zhao(2019) has proposed to focus on medium
small-sized cities which with below 2 million urban population.

Figure 1shows study area.

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Universiti Malaysia Sabah

Methodology

Dataset

Table 1 shows the detailed of the dataset

Spatial resolution Thermal resolution

Data Data Acquisition
(meters) (meters)
Landsat 5
30 120 1991-06-14
TM
Landsat 5
30 120 2011-01-21
TM
Landsat 8
30 100 2018-08-27
OLI

This study chooses the 3 data because of the cloud cover less from 10%. The
Landsat data were first required pre-processed to reduce the effect of
illumination and atmosphere attenuation. The pre-processing included the
calibration, and employing NDBI, generate the Land surface temperature,
linear correlation, results, and the graph for representing our result.

Figure 2: Flow methodology

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Convert Digital Number to Land Surface Temperature at Landsat 5

TM.

The pre-processing task of the thermal band has done by ENVI 5.3 software.
The atmospheric pre-processing correction very important to reduce and
remove the atmosphere effect at thermal infrared data. The thermal band at
Landsat 5 TM is a band 6. The first step is an estimated sensor radiance
where there the digital numbers (DN). We applied the method which well
established and applied (Artis et al., 1982) as referring to the equation (eq)
below.

The follow eq. Above, Where Lλ,s cell value as radiance in W/(m2*sr*μm),
LMAXλ is the spectral radiance, scaled to QCALMAX in W/(m2*sr*μm)
and LMINλ is Spectral radiance that scaled to QCALMIN in W/(m2
*sr*μm). QCALMAX is a maximum quantized calibrated pixel value
(equivalent to LMAX) in DN: 255 and QCALMIN is a minimum quantized
calibrated pixel value (equivalent to LMIN) in DN:

15.303
1.238
Table 2: Information on Landsat 5 TM.

The information on Landsat 5 TM was provided at the metadata file Landsat

5 TM. The second of eq below, which by assuming that the earth’s surface
is a black body with the spectral emissivity of 1, at-sensor spectral radiance
transformed to eff ective at-sensor brightness temperature according to Eq.
(Artis et al., 1982):

where is the eff ective at-sensor brightness temperature in Kelvin (K), and

K1 and K2 are the calibration constants. For this case study, the Landsat-5
TM, K1 was 607.76W/(m2srμm), and K2 was 1260.56K. In the third step,
due to the at-sensor brightness temperature obtained by Eq. above, which
was related to a black body, spectral emissivity had to be corrected to
estimate LST related to the gray body. The emissivity corrected LST
calculated by using Eq. (Artis et al., 1982):

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Where LST is the land surface temperature in K, TB refers to the eff ective

at-sensor brightness temperature in K, λ stands for the wavelength of the
emitted radiance in meters (eff ective wavelength is 11.457μm, 11.269μm,
and 10.904μm for the thermal bands of Landsat-5 TM, respectively, based on
(Artis et al., 1982) with α=1.438×10−2mk), and ε is the surface emissivity.
Then LST calculated in Kelvin was converted to the Celsius degree, as
shown in Eq.:

LST(°C) = LST(K)−273.15

Generated of Land Surface Temperature From Landsat 8 OLI

The surface thermal radiation was recorded at spectral bands of Thermal

Infrared Sensor (TIRS) 10 in sensor Landsat 8 OLI. The pre-processing was
required to reduce the effect of atmosphere effect on thermal data. The
surface temperatures were retrieved based on algorithms (Jimenez et al.,
2014; Bao et al., 2019) applied. The values of the digital number (DN)
converted to spectral radiance Lλ at the top of the atmosphere, according to
Eq.
= ML × Qcal +

where Lλ stands spectral radiance, W/(m srμm) 2; ML represents the

rescaled gain corresponding to a specific band, W/(m srμm) 2; means the
re-scaled bias corresponding to a specific band, W/(m srμm) 2. After that, at-
sensor brightness temperature Tb (Unit: K) was extracted from TIRS 10,
corresponding to the OLI sensor through Eq.:

Where k1 and k2 are constants, with values of 774.89 (Unit: W/(m srμm) 2 )
and 1321.08 (Unit: W), Lst subsequently obtained after the emissivity
correction of ground radiance B(LST) (Unit: K) via a mono window
algorithm developed by Qin et al. (2001).

NDVI =

NDVI reference measured to refer to Eq below, where ρNIR and ρRED refer
to the reflectance values of the near-infrared and red bands. The calculation

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of the NDVI is important because, subsequently, the proportion of vegetation

(Pv), which is highly related to the NDVI, and emissivity (ε), which is related
to the Pv, must be calculated.

Pv =

Pv is the percentage of vegetation in a pixel. Pv is the vegetation proportion

calculated based on Carlson and Ripley (1997), by using Eq.:

Ε = εv Pv + εg (1-P) + 4 < dε >Pv (1-Pv)

Where ε is ground emissivity, εv is the emissivity of pure vegetation cover

area (=0.985), εg stands for the emissivity of the pure bare ground area
(=0.960),<dε>is the revised parameter by average 0.01 (19). Then LST
calculated in Kelvin was converted to the centigrade degree, as shown in Eq.:

LST = (TB/ (1 + (λ * TB / C2) * Ln(ε)))-273.15

Where LST is kelvin (K), BT is that-sensor brightness temperature

(Kelvin),ρ =hc/σ,σ =Boltzmann constant (1.38×10−23 J/K), h is Planck’s
constant (6.626×10−34 J/s), c is the velocity of light (2.998× 108 m/s), and e
is the emissivity.

Land Indices: NDBI.

NDBI is an represented the concentration of the urban built-up area. NDBI is

important as an analytical tool for characterizing land development,
urbanization, and land surface parameters (Chen et al., 2014).

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Results and Discussion

Figure 3 shows LST maps for the years 1991, 2005, and 2018.

Figure 3: LST Maps for the years 1991, 2011, and 2018.

The first result shows there excite of urban heat island, even the population
city below 2 million. The results same achieved which has done conducted at
Putra (Siti et al., 2018) and Johor Bahru (Afsaneh et al., 2018). The urban
areas indicate the value of LST high compared to areas of suburban and rural
areas. Most of the pixels which represented higher value LST are an urban
area. The high built-up concentration of the area can be clearly identified and
represented hot spot areas. The most of hot spot is an area study which
totally of compact with the building which no content of vegetation and
water surrounding the study area. The cold spot has been having the low
built-up concentration of an area on LST can be identity evidently and
relocated at rural areas or suburban or non-urban zone with the urban zone
which temperature of this zone is lower. The value of LST at area
surrounding water content namely river and vegetation lower compare to
LST at town areas. The red colour in map or figure 2 indicates high

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temperatures in centre of town. On other hand shows blue colour shows low
temperature at vegetation land cover and water contents. The temperature is
low in the countryside/suburban because of the green vegetation. The
example of suburban area University Malaysia Sabah. The value of mean
LST UMS is 27 and 28-degree Celsius for the years 2011 and 2018
compared to the canter of city Kota Kinabalu with mean 30 and 31 for the
year 2011 and 2018. The urban areas show higher temperature pixels due to
the existence of impervious surfaces like built-up areas and anthropogenic
materials in urban areas compared to rural areas. They explain the
importance of landscape vegetation very important in reducing of urban heat
effect (Zhang et al., 2017; Artis et al., 1982). The pattern of LST for the
study areas does have changed to grow to a suburban and rural area as
follows the urbanization process. It is clear from the maps of LST the urban
area grows to north-east of area study. The result shows the thus proving the
existence of a strong SUHI over Kota Kinabalu. Out of all, the three-year
LST map shows visible SUHI effects with strong contrast in temperature of
the urban and rural areas. In general, the expansion SUHI influenced by
population growth and in-migration because Kota Kinabalu provides a better
offer of social and economical to people of Sabah. The second factor because
of most education, industrial, commercial activities concentrated in Kota
Kinabalu.

Graph bar 1: Value maximum and minimum temperature for the years 1991,
2011, and 2018.

The graph bar 1 shows the maximum value for urban area LST temperature
for the year (34 Celsius degree) 1991, (31 Celsius degree) 2011 and (34
Celsius degree) 2018 were 35, 31, and 34. And the hand vegetation
maximum value 23 Celsius degree, 22 Celsius degree, and 23 Celsius degree
for the years 1991, 2011, and 2018.

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Graph Bar 2: Value means LST (Celsius Degree) every land cover for years
1991, 2011, and 2018. Based on the graph bar 2 explained the mean LST
(Celsius) at urban area high than vegetation cover as mentioned 33-degree
Celsius for 2018, 30-degree Celsius for the year 2011 and 32 Celsius degree
at the year 1991. There is different 11 Celsius between LST between land
cover urban and vegetation for the year 2018, 9-degree years 2011, and 12-
degree Celsius in the year 1991.

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Normalized Difference Built Index (NDBI)

Figure 4: The NDBI map for years 1991, 2011 and 2018

The NDBI developed to automate to identity the built-up and use for
mapping the process of built-up (20). The value of NDBI is a one is the
highest of building, and the -1 represents no content of built up. For this
study, the maximum for NDBI for 1991 is 0.6, and the minimum is a -0.9.
The maximum for 2011 is 0.6 and minimum -0.8, and for 2018 the
maximum is a 0.4 and minimum -0.5. Figure 4 shows that the high value of
NDBI at the centre of the city, which content compact of built-up, which no
content of natural creatures such as vegetation and water. The NDBI pattern
mostly in the town centre but the value NDBI which more than 0.1 extended
from the urban centre to the suburban. For this study, the NDBI grow up to
the northeast of the east area of study, as mentioned in the map of NDBI for
the year 1991, 2011 and 2019. Figure 4 shows there was an increased area of
NDBI from the years 1991, 2011, and 2018. From that figure, they clearly
explain to us the value of NDBI for the years 1991 and 2011. The highly is
0.6, and for 2018 the high value is 0.4. This because of for 1991 most area
has value 0.3 – 0.6 the vegetation is clear off for development particular at
Likas area which construction Sepanggar Port, University Malaysia Sabah,
and settlement. The maps NDBI 2011, the land cleared off for developing the

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commercial centre and settlement particular at Likas basin. The maps 2018
most the land which cleared off for man use has to done completed, and the
local authority has planted for the urban landscape.

Figure 5: The linear correlation between NDBI and LST

The study uses the 32 random samplings for performing the relationship
between the LST and NDBI data. The result of correlation shows the
relationship strong relationship between LST and NDBI. The relationship
between LST and NDBI was significantly positive with R² 0.95 as
mentioned at figure 5.

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Land Cover and Change Detection

Figure 6: Land Cover Map for years 1991, 2011, and 2018.

The result shows that the land cover urban area continues to increase, and
spatial pattern distribution was different between the three selected years.
The land cover urbanization was mainly focused in the centre of the city in
1991 but expanded to the northeast of study areas, which previously is rural
and suburban.

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Graph Bar 3 shows the total area (Square Kilometer) land cover for years
1991, 2011, and 2018.

Graph bar 3 shows the areas of land cover for the years 1991, 2011, and
2018. The area of urbanization increases every selected year from 99.266
square kilometres to 122.322 square kilometres in the year 2011 and
increases to 142.08 square kilometres in the year 2018. The area of land
cover water decreases from 251.31 square meters for the year 1991 to
256.766 square kilometres in the year 2018. This because of activities of
reclamation sea for built Hotel Sutera Harbour, settlement for Gaya Island,
and Sepanggar Port. On the other hand, it shows the area of vegetation
decrease form from 487.04 square kilometres in the year 1991 to 449.68
square kilometres in 2018.

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Figure 7: Change Detection for Land Cover between the years 1991 and
2018.

The red colour with pixel value three which, presents great change between
1991 and 2018. The main change from vegetation land cover to an urban
area relocated Likas Basin, which places transform from vegetation cover
area to housing, Government Building, High Learning Education Institute
University Malaysia Sabah, and commercial centre such 1 Borneo
Supermarket as marked with black square shape. Second, the big change is a
reclamation area from water land cover to built-up land covers such as the
Sutera Harbour Resort and Sepanggar Port, which marked green square
shape.

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Conclusion

The land cover change and NDBI have been impacting the LST pattern were
studied. However, because of the limitation of data free from cloud covers
the very difficult to understand the long trend of spatial UHI, NDBI, and
land cover change. The data of Landsat has been a wavelength visible and
thermal band which, as mentioned at the dataset, cannot penetrate the cloud.
The result discovered the SUHI in Kota Kinabalu was excited in small-
medium of city-sized with a population below 2 million. The high intensity
of the SUHI distributed at the center and expanded northeast of area study.
Results discovered that the land cover changes for a built-up area increase
5.1 from 1991 to 2018, decrease the water and vegetation land cover with 1.4
% and 4.33% for each of them. The results show there strong positive
relationship between NDBI and LST. This study suggests that the scenery of
vegetation and water bodies has the potential to decrease the urban heat
effect. The effectiveness of the mitigation of urban heat effects can assessed,
and monitoring uses the long trend of remote data sensing. The remote
sensing and GIS technology are effective and reasonable costs for
monitoring the LST pattern for large-area study. From this study, we can
improve knowledge to understanding LST and SUHI and supportive for
legislators or town planners to express the method to reduce the effects of
SUHI effect to people and increase the quality of life urban population for
achieving green city policy.

Acknowledgment

Thank NASA policy, which because gives free access to data of Landsat
generation.

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