BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

“BUET”

Course No: CE-6114

Course Title: Analysis & Design of Tall Building.

Assignment No.: 12
Assignment Name:
Theoretical questions answer from last class, Sir provided
the questions.

Submitted by:
Name: Harun-Ar-Rashid
St. No.: 1014042329
Dept.: Structural Engineering
(M.Sc Engineering Program)
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

1. Define tall building from structural engineer’s point of view. What are the factors
that you will consider in deciding the structural form? Discuss in brief two
structural forms of concrete high-rise buildings.
Ans:
Classification can be done in many ways:
– Based on total height
– Based on “Relative Height”
– Based on number of floors
– Based on structural response
From Structural Point of View:
Tall building is the one in which selection, behavior and design of lateral load resisting
system significantly affects the overall design of the building.
The Building Structural System - Conceptual
• The Gravity Load Resisting System (GLRS)
– The structural system (beams, slab, girders, columns, etc) that act primarily to support the
gravity or vertical loads
• The Lateral Load Resisting System (LLRS)
– The structural system (columns, shear walls, bracing, etc) that primarily acts to resist the
lateral loads

2. What are the factors that influence the choice of floor (one-way, two-way and flat)
system? Describe with neat sketches three reinforced concrete floor systems
commonly used in Bangladesh.
Ans:
Some Sample Floor Slab Types:
– Slab Only - Hollow Core Slab - Pre-Cast Slab Panels
– Beam and Slab - Beam-Slab - Girder-Beam Slab
– Joist Slab - Girder-Joist Slab - PC Slab-Beam System
Some Sample Floor Slab Systems:
Flat Slab Hollow Block Slab
Flat Slab + Capital Composite Girder-Slab
Flat Slab + Drop Panel Composite Truss Slab
Flat Slab + Drop Panel + Capital Alpha Truss System
Waffle Slab Wooden Beam, Rafter Plank System
Band Slab Sandwich Panels
Inverted Band Slab Flat Plate
Metal Deck/ Wood Deck Flat Plate
Composite Metal Deck

Selection of Layout and Type of Slab:

Basic Consideration
Span Length: Small, Medium, Long
Panel aspect ratio: Square, rectangular, oblong
Loads: Light, Medium, Heavy
Ducts and Piping: Electrical, Mechanical, Water supply

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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Openings: Size and Location

Architectural consideration: Aesthetics, clearance, etc
Special elements: Drop Panel, Column Capital, Beams
Construction Considerations: Form work, time, case of considerations

Flat plate slabs:

Small Spans (4.5 to 6 m)
Relatively light load < 500 Kg/m2 (5 kPa)
Common for residential buildings
Used where Drop panel or Column capital undesirable Easy construction. Low overall
height of building

Figure: Flat Plate Slabs

Flat Slabs:
Medium Spans (6.0 to 9.0 m)
Relatively heavy load > 500kg/m2 (5kPa)
Common in industrial floors, parking areas etc

Figure: Flat Slabs

Waffle Slab:
Large spans (7.5 – 12 m)
Relatively heavy loads
Common for public buildings
More aesthetic appearance
Difficult to construct

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Requires special form work

Figure: Waffle Slabs

3. Describe in brief provisions of live load reduction as stated in Bangladesh National

Building Code.
Ans:
Reduction of Live Loads:
(a) Load Group-1: Uniformly distributed live loads arising from the occupancies and
uses of (i) assembly occupancies or areas with uniformly distributed live load of
5kN/m2 or less, (ii) machinery and equipment for which specific live load allowances
have been made, (iii) special roof live load and (iv) printing plants, vaults, strong
rooms and armories, shall be classified under Load Group 1 and a reduction factor, R
= 1.0 shall be applied for such cases.
(b) Load Group-2: Uniformly distributed live loads resulting from occupancies or uses
of (i) assembly areas with uniformly distributed live load greater than 5kN/m2, and
(ii) storage, mercantile, industrial and retail stores, shall be classified under Load
Group 2 and live load reduction factor, 1.0 ≤ R ≤ 0.7 shall be applied to this load
group.
(c) Load Group-3: Uniformly distributed live loads arising due to all other occupancies
and uses except those of Load Group 1 and Load Group 2, shall be grouped into Load
Group 3 and live load reduction factor, 1.0 ≤ R ≤ 0.5 shall be applied to tributary
areas under this load group.

4. If the top deflection of a rigid frame structure exceeds the allowable limit, what
measures will you take to control top deflection most effectively?
Ans:
Lateral Displacement of Rigid Frame Subjected to Horizontal Loading:
1. Lateral displacement of a story of a rigid frame is resisted by shear in the columns of that
story. The accumulated shear causes the story-height columns to bend in double
curvature with points of contra-flexure at approximately mid-story height levels. The
moments applied to a joint from the columns above and below are resisted by the
attached girders, which also bend in double curvature, with points of contra-flexure at
approximately mid-span. The deformations of the columns and girders allow racking of
the frame and horizontal deflection in each story.

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2. The overall moment of the external horizontal load is resisted in each story level by the
couple resulting from the axial tensile and compressive forces in the columns on opposite
sides of the structure. The extension and shortening of the columns cause overall bending
and associated horizontal displacements of the structure. Because of the cumulative
rotation up the height, the story drift due to overall bending increases with height, while
that due to racking tends to decrease. Consequently the contribution to story drift from
overall bending may, in the uppermost stories, exceed that from racking. The contribution
of overall bending to the total drift, however, will usually not exceed 10% of that of
racking, except in very tall, slender, rigid frames. Therefore, the overall drift deflected
shape of a high-rise rigid frame usually has a shear configuration.
Measures to control drift most effectively:
1. Increasing the stiffness through the use of an efficient structural system.
2. By increasing the weight of the structure.
3. By increasing the densities through the addition of more structural and in fill material.
4. By selecting an efficient building shape.
5. By generating additional force to counteract the external lateral action.

5. What are the basic parameters to be considered in designing earthquake resistant

structures?
Ans:
Design of structures and components thereof to resist the effects of earthquake forces shall
comply with the requirements of this section. One and two family dwellings in Seismic Zone-
1 need not conform to the provisions of this section.
Basic Design Consideration: For the purpose of earthquake resistant design, each structure
shall be placed in one of the seismic zones as given in Fig 6.2.8 and assigned with a structure
importance category as set forth in Sec 1.2.3. The seismic forces on structures shall be
determined considering seismic zoning, site soil characteristics, structural systems and
configurations, height and dynamic properties of the structure as provided in Sec 2.5. The
structural system and configuration types for a building or a structure shall be determined in
accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.3. Other seismic design requirements shall be those
specified in this section.

6. Briefly describe the important design criteria that you will consider in the
analysis, design and construction of tall buildings.
Ans:
Most important design criteria for tall buildings are as follows:
Design philosophy:
The probabilistic approach for both structural properties and loading conditions has led to
the limit states design philosophy, which is now almost universally accepted. The aim of this
approach is to ensure that all structures and their constituent components are designed to
resist with reasonable safety the worst loads and deformations that are liable to occur during
construction and service, and to have adequate durability during their lifetime.

HARUN-AR-RASHID Page 5
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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Loading:
The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both
permanent and transient, that it will be called on to sustain during its construction and
subsequent service life. These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building, as
well as on its geographic location, and maximum probable values must be established before
the design can proceed.
The probable accuracy of estimating the dead and live loads, and the probability of the
simultaneous occurrence of different combinations of gravity loading, both dead and live,
with either wind or earthquake forces, is included in limit states design through the use of
prescribed factors.
Sequential Loading: For loads that are applied after completion of the building, such as
live, wind, or seismic loading, the analysis is independent of the construction sequence. For
dead loads, however, which are applied to the building frame as construction proceeds, the
effects of sequential loading should be considered to assess the worst conditions to which any
component may be subjected, and also to determine the true behavior of the frame.
Strength and stability:
For the ultimate limit state, the prime design requirement is that the building structure
should have adequate strength to resist, and to remain stable under, the worst probable load
actions that may occur during the lifetime of the building, including the period of
construction.
This requires an analysis of the forces and stresses that will occur in the members as a
result of the most critical possible load combinations, including augmented moments that
may arise from second-order additional deflections (P-Delta effects). An adequate reserve of
strength, using prescribed load factors, must be present. Particular attention must be paid to
critical members, whose failure could prove catastrophic in initiating a progressive collapse
of part of or the entire building. Any additional stresses caused by restrained different
movements due to creep, shrinkage, or temperature must include.
In addition, a check must be made on the most fundamental condition of equilibrium, to
establish that the applied lateral forces will cause the entire building to topple as rigid body
about one edge of the base. Taking moments about that edge, the resisting moment of the
dead weight of the building must be greater than the overturning moment for stability by an
acceptable factor of safety.
Stiffness and drift limitations:
The provision of adequate stiffness, particularly lateral stiffness, is a major consideration
in the design of a tall building for several important reasons. As far as the ultimate limit state
is concerned, lateral deflections must be limited to prevent second order P-Delta effects due
to gravity loading being of such a magnitude as to precipitate collapse. In terms of the
serviceability limit states, deflections must first be maintained at a sufficiently low level to
allow the proper functioning of nonstructural components such as elevators and door; second,
to avoid distress in the structure, to prevent excessive cracking and consequent loss of
stiffness, and to avoid any redistribution of load to non-bearing partitions, infill, cladding, or
glazing; and third, the structure must be sufficiently stiff to prevent dynamic motions
becoming large enough to cause discomfort to occupants, prevent delicate work being
undertaken, or affect sensitive equipment. In fact, it is in the particular need for concern for
the provision of lateral stiffness that the design of a high-rise building largely departs from
that of a low-rise building.

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STUDENT ID-1014042329
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Human comfort criteria:

If a tall flexible structure is subjected to lateral or tensional deflections under the action of
fluctuating wind loads, the resulting oscillatory movements can induce a wide range of
responses in the building’s occupants, ranging from mild discomfort to acute nausea. Motions
that have psychological or physiological effects on the occupants may thus result in an
otherwise acceptable structure becoming an undesirable or even unbendable building.
Creep, shrinkage and temperature effects:
In very tall concrete building, the cumulative vertical movements due to creep and
shrinkage may be sufficiently large to cause distress in nonstructural elements, and to induce
significant structural actions in the horizontal elements, especially in the upper regions of the
building. In assessing these long-term deformations, the influence of a number of significant
factors must be considered, particularly the concrete properties, the loading history and age of
the concrete a load application, and the volume-surface ratio and amount of reinforcement in
the members concerned.
In the construction phase, in addition to creep and shrinkage, elastic shortening will
occur in the vertical elements of the lower levels due to additional loads imposed by the
upper stories as they are completed. Any cumulative differential movements will affect the
stresses in the subsequent structure, especially in buildings that include both in situ and
precast components.
Fire:
The design considerations for fire prevention and protection, smoke control, fire-fighting,
and escape are beyond the scope of a book on building structures. However, since fire
appears to be by far the most common extreme situation that will cause damage in structures,
it must be a primary consideration in the design process. The stresses and loss of stiffness that
might result from a building fire must be a major consideration, as this is not a remote
possibility.
The parameters that govern the approach are stochastic in nature, and the results of any
calculation can be given only in probabilistic terms. The aim should be to achieve a
homogeneous design in which the risks due to the different extreme situations are
comparable.
Foundation settlement and soil-structure interaction:
The gravity and lateral forces on the building will be transmitted to the earth through the
foundation system, and as the principles of foundation design are not affected by the quantity
of tallness of the superstructure, conventional approaches will suffice. The concern of the
structural designer is then with the influence of any foundation deformation on the building’s
structural behavior and on the soil-structure interactive forces.
Although the principles of foundation design are not affected by the height of a building,
the situation for tall buildings is different as a result of the high short-term transient moments
and shears that arise from wind loads. The high dead load caused by the height of the
building produces large compressive stresses on the foundation, and excessive differential
settlements must be avoided. Any lateral deflections caused by rotational settlement will be
magnified by the height of the building, and the soil-structure interaction must be considered,
particularly under seismic actions.

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STUDENT ID-1014042329
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

7. Describe with net sketches the behaviour of rigid frames, coupled shear walls and
shear wall frame structure under lateral load.
Ans:
Optimum structural system:
In the design process, a thorough knowledge of high-rise structural components and
their modes of behavior is a prerequisite to devising an appropriate load resisting system.
Such a system must be efficient, economic, and should minimize the structural penalty for
height while maximizing the satisfaction of the basic serviceability requirements. This type of
structural system is known as “Optimum structural system”.

(a) Rigid Frames:

Figure: Forces and deformations caused by external shear

(b) Coupled shear wall:

Figure: Behavior of laterally loaded coupled shear walls.

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(c) Shear wall frame structure:

Figure: Behavior of laterally loaded on shear wall frames.

8. What is shear lag in tubular structure? What measures can be adopted to reduce
this problem?
Ans:
When a tubular structure subjected to bending under the action of lateral forces, the
stresses in the corner columns increases and reduces in the inner columns by the flexibility of
the spandrel beams. This phenomenon is known as “shear lag”.
(Both the flange panels (AB and DC), and the web panels (AD and BC), as shown by the
solid lines in figure below)

Compression Axial stresses in

flange columns

y Compression
D C
Neutral
axis
x x
Axial stresses in
Web
web columns
frame
s
A y B
Flange frames
Tension Column stresses – no shear lag
Column stresses – with shear lag
Wind
load

Measures for reducing shear lag:

 Shear lag may be greatly reduced by adding interior frame “web” panels across the
entire width of the building to form a modular or bundled tube structures.

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 By eliminating all exterior columns and replacing them with diagonals in both
diagonals and joining the diagonals where they cross, and at the four corners of the
building to form a braced tube structures.

Transfer
Axial stresses in Girder
flange columns

Compression
D C

Axial stresses
in web columns

A B
Tension
Wind load

Large openings can be achieved by:

 By using a large transfer girder to collect the vertical loads from the closely spaced
columns at the base (Fig (a) below).
 Several columns may be merged through an inclined column arrangement to allow
fewer larger columns in the lowest stories (Fig (b) below).
Structural Efficiency of Frame-tube system:
Frame tube building is doubly symmetric in plan about both the major axes, any applied
load may be resolved into two orthogonal force components along the axes and a twisting
moment about the vertical separate bending actions about axes XX and YY and a pure
tensional action. The analysis of each individual action may then be considerably simplified
by utilizing the double symmetry to allow the analysis of only one-half or one quarter plan of
the structure.

9. How does the behaviour of shear wall frame structure under lateral load differ
from those of shear walls and frames? Describe with net sketches.
Ans:
The wall deflects in a flexural mode with concavity downwind and a maximum slope at
the top, while the frame deflects in a shear mode with concavity upwind and a maximum
slope at the base.
When the wall and frame were connected together by pin-ended links and subjected to
horizontal loading, the deflected shape of the composite structure has a flexural profile in the
lower part and a shear profile in the upper part. Axial forces in the connecting links cause the
wall to restrain the frame near the base and the frames to restrain the wall at the top.

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Fig: (a) Wall subjected to uniformly distributed loading,

(b) Frame subjected to uniformly distributed horizontal loading,
(c) Wall-frame structure subjected to horizontal loading
The deflection curve and the wall moment curve (Fig. (a) and (b) below) indicate the
reversal in curvature with a point of inflexion, above which the wall moment is opposite in
sense to that in a free cantilever.
The shear is approximately uniform over the height of the frame (Fig. (c) below), except
near the base where it reduces to a negligible amount. At the top, where the external shear is
zero, the frame is subjected to a significant positive shear, which is balanced by an equal
negative shear at the top of the wall, with a corresponding concentrated interaction force
acting between the frame and the wall.

Fig: (a) Typical deflection diagram of laterally loaded wall-frame structure;

(b) Typical moment diagrams for components of wall-frame structure,
(c) Typical shear diagrams for components of wall-frame structure.

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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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10. What are the requirements for columns and two-way slabs without beams (Flat
Plate Structures) in regions of moderate seismic risk, Zone-2?
Ans:
Requirement for columns in regions of moderate seismic zone-2:
a. Maximum tie spacing shall not exceed over a length measured from the joint face.
The spacing shall not exceed, (i) 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
enclosed, (ii) 24 times the diameter of the tie bar, (iii) 0.5 of the smallest cross-sectional
dimension of the frame member, and (iv) 300mm. The length shall not be less than (i)
1/6 of the clear span of the member, (ii) maximum cross sectional dimensional of the
member, and (iii) 450mm.
b. The first tie shall be located not more than from the joint face.
c. Joint reinforcement shall conform to sec 6.3.8.
d. Tie spacing shall not exceed throughout the length of the member.
Requirements for two-way slab without beams in regions of moderate seismic zone-2:
a. The factored slab moment at the supports relating to earthquake effect shall be
determined for load combinations. All reinforcement provided to resist the portion of slab
moment balanced by support moment shall be placed within the column strip.
b. The fractional part of the column strip moment shall be resisted by reinforcement placed
within the effective width.
c. Not less than 0.5 of the total reinforcement in the column strip at the support shall be
placed within the effective slab width.
d. Not less than 0.25 of the top steel at the support in the column strip shall be continues
throughout the span.
e. Continuous bottom reinforcement in the column strip shall be not less than 1/3 of the top
reinforcement at the support in the column strip.
f. Not less than 0.5 of all bottom reinforcement at mid-span shall be continuous and shall
develop its yield strength at the face of the support.
g. At discontinuous edges of the slab all top and bottom reinforcement at the support shall
be developed at the face of the support.

11. Show with neat sketches the various coupled wall configurations in high rise
structures. Show also a sketch of simplified arrangement of reinforcement in shear
wall.
Ans:

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Fig: Various coupled wall configurations in cross wall structures

cw cw
Avv
s1
hw
Avh As As As
s2
lw

h
lw

Fig: simplified arrangement of reinforcement in shear wall

12. Write down the Code (ACI/BNBC) provisions for i) Partition walls and ii)
Reduction of live loads.
Ans:
When partitions, not indicated on the plans, are anticipated to be placed on the floors, their
weight shall be included as an additional live load acting as concentrated line loads in an
arrangement producing the most severe effect on the floor, unless it can be shown that a more
favorable arrangement of the partitions shall prevail during the future use of the floor. In the
case of light partitions, wherein the total weight per meter run is not greater than 5.5kN, a
uniformly distributed live load may be applied on the floor in lieu of the concentrated line
loads specified above. Such uniform live load per square meter shall be at least 33% of the
weight per meter run of the partitions, subject to a minimum of 1.2kN/m2.
Reduction of live load is permitted for primary structural members supporting floor or roof,
including beam, girder, truss, flat slab, flat plate, column, pier, footing and the like. Where
applicable, the reduced live load on a primary structural member shall be obtained by
multiplying the corresponding unreduced uniformly distributed live load with an appropriate
live load reduction factor, R as listed in Table 6.2.7 and set forth in Sec 2.3.9.1.

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BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
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Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

13. Discuss with net sketches the major features of high-rise masonry construction.
Ans:

14. Write down the significance of relative stiffness parameter kαH.

Ans:
1/ 2
12 I l 3  AI  2
kH =  3 c 1   H 
 b hI  A1 A2 l 2  

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kH is a measure of the stiffness of the connecting beams, and it will increase if either Ic is
increased or the clear span b is decreased.
o kH = 0  the structure behaves as a pair of linked walls
o kH =   the structure will behave as a single composite dowelled beam, with a
linear bending stress distribution across the entire section
o kH < 1  beams flexible; the walls tend to act as independent linked cantilevers.
o kH > 8  beams stiff; the structure tends to act like a composite cantilever.

15. Describe in brief three tall buildings in Bangladesh mentioning their story height,
structural and foundation system.
Ans:
1. City Centre:
City Centre is a high-rise building that is currently under construction in the Motijheel
business district of Dhaka. City Centre will comprise 37 floors of office spaces, a convention
centre, a business lounge, a gymnasium, refreshment, recreational areas, and a garage. It is
being developed by the Orion Group which owns Acoma Engineering. Orion is also an
established partner of Belasis Acoma, the constructor of the 7-star hotel Burj Al
Arab in Dubai. It topped out in early 2009 and is expected to be completed by early 2011.

Fig.: City Centre, Motijheel, Dhaka

2. City Bank Tower:

Enhanced statistical information helps users to find and track real estate developments and to
understand the needs of the market. The information provided through these statistics is
updated daily. When new information is entered into the database, it is instantly available for
your analysis. The statistics are powerful tools for researching specific cities. They give you a
clear and useful overview of development situations within individual construction markets.

HARUN-AR-RASHID Page 15
STUDENT ID-1014042329
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Technical Data

Height (Estimated) 109.33 m

Floors (Above Ground) 34

Construction End 2006

Commercial
Main usage
office

Fig.: City Bank Tower

The aim of this section is to provide a detailed photo archive of buildings in their
construction phase. Our editorial staff documents the construction process in cities
worldwide.
This section allows you to browse the most expensive buildings ever built in the
world. It is possible to search for the most costly buildings worldwide or by continent, as well
as differentiating by usages.
Emporia runs the world's largest and most comprehensive database of skyscrapers.
During the last ten years our organization has become the world's only source for complete
data on tall buildings.

3. Bangladesh Bank Building:

This section holds the official Emporis.com listings of the world's tallest buildings. The data
used for the statistics in this section is entirely based on content provided by Emporis.com
and is governed and supervised by the Emporia Data Committee.

Statistics:
Enhanced statistical information helps users to find and track real estate developments and to
understand the needs of the market. The information provided through these statistics is
updated daily. When new information is entered into the database, it is instantly available for
your analysis. The statistics are powerful tools for researching specific cities. They give you a
clear and useful overview of development situations within individual construction markets.

HARUN-AR-RASHID Page 16
STUDENT ID-1014042329
BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Technical Data

Height (Estimated) 99.69 m

Floors (Above
31
Ground)

Construction End 1985

Commercial
Main usage
office

Fig.: Bangladesh Bank Tower

16. What safety measures will you consider against fire in the design and construction
of tall buildings?
Ans:
Fire safety engineering:
Fire safety engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to
protect people and their environments from the destructive effects of fire and smoke.
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of fires.
The study involves:
 Compartmentalization
 Suppression
 Behavior
 Investigation of fire and emergencies
Objective:
 Scan for existing, new and potential materials
 Inspection of systems and technologies for fire protection of structures
Methods of protecting structures from fire
 Concrete Encasement in steel structures
 Insulating Board Systems
• Gypsum board
• Calcium silicate board
 Man Made Mineral Fiber Systems

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“BUET”
Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: +8801722756033

Fire Resistance rating:

A fire-resistance rating typically means the duration for which a passive fire
protection system can confine a fire and withstand a standard fire resistance test.
Fire rating considerations:
 Fire Walls
 Fire Separation or Barrier Walls
 Penetration Protection
Fire Walls:
 Passive fire protection system
 Has protected openings
 Extends continuously from the foundation to or through the roof
 Located in accordance with the locally applicable building code
 Subdivides a building into separate fire areas
Purpose of fire wall
 Safe evacuation during the fire
 Preventing the damage of surrounding properties
Fire separation or barrier walls
A wall that is designed to limit the spread of fire and smoke from a controlled fire
Characteristics of barrier wall
 May be masonry or protected steel frame walls
 Does not extend through all floors
 Divides floors into areas - "fire areas”
 Usually do not have parapet or wing walls
 Openings are protected - but they are not as important as fire wall openings
Penetration Protection
 Penetrating item - steel, ferrous or copper pipes, tube or conduits
 Annular space between the item and the fire-resistance-rated wall must be filled to
maintain the fire-resistance rating
 Filling material - concrete, grout, or mortar
What is top down construction?
 Enables a high rise superstructure and its sub-basement to be built simultaneously
 Involves the installation of deep foundation systems.
 Once the deep foundations and ground slab are complete, the entire basement is
excavated in sequence to the lowest basement floor whilst the above ground tower
structure is constructed from the ground floor towards the roof.
 Once the excavation is complete, all the levels of basement slabs will then be
constructed in the conventional manner to the ground floor.
Aim of top down approach:
 To give a brief idea about important aspects of Top down Approach for Deep
Basement Construction.
 To compare other methods with Top Down methods.
 Merits and Demerits of this Approach

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Scope:
 Attributes That Affect The Construction Of Deep Basement
 Situation & Consideration of Basement Construction
 Methods of Basement Construction
 Comparison between different Methods of Basement Construction
 Top down Construction – An Overview
 Sequence of Top down Construction Advantages, Disadvantages, Application etc. of
TDC.
Attributes that affect the construction of deep basement:
 Size of the site
 Volume of work
 Shape and Topographical conditions of site
 Neighborhood conditions of a site
 Geotechnical conditions
 Internal layout of the basement or other related structures
 Availability of resources for the project
 Availability of expertise skill
 Appropriateness of the methods selected for the construction
Special performance requirements imposed
 Complete the whole or part of the work at a prescribed time.
 Protect some facilities according to requirements during the course of work.
 Requires exceptionally high quality or accuracy in performance.
 Very high liquidated damages requirements are imposed in the contract.
Besides, there are situations like
 A new basement is required to construct simultaneously to replace an old one.
 Working under very fast-track schedule.
 Some basement works need to be carried out at the same time with the new
foundation or even with part of the future superstructure.
 This situation will create very difficult coordination problems that involve various
contractors and complicate the contractual position of the entire job.
Other considerations for basement works
 Accurate cost analysis or work study is difficult to carry .
 Every project, though look relatively similar from certain indicating factors, is in fact
unique in itself.
 A great number of random and uncontrollable variances are likely to arise.
 The actual effectiveness of works is highly depended on the site environments.
 Quality of the management and the executing parties, seriously affects the
performance and effectiveness of works.
Commonality found in recent basement projects
 Are usually very deep (below 20m) and very big in size (say up to 10,000m^2)
 Most basements are constructed in a top-down manner. Some other methods such as
combining top-down and bottom up, or combining open-cut and top-down
arrangement, can sometimes be seen.

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 Complicated coordination problems and teething arrangement often exist.

 Layout planning especially in phasing and sectioning of the job forms a very
important consideration mastering the success of the project.
 Dynamic layout arrangement is usually required for the removal of the excavated
spoil from the basement. Diaphragm walling is the most common cut-off provision
being used.
 System formwork can hardly be applied for most basement jobs due to access
problems as well as the confined working condition inside the excavated.
 Constructing the basement in “double bit” arrangement is becoming common.
 Protection and safety measures in particular to the life and property of third parties are
highly concerned.
 Progress of work can hardly be predicted or monitored accurately due to the existence
of numerous unforeseeable problems during the construction process.
 Majority of the basements are constructed in a top-down manner. Some other methods
such as combining top-down and bottom up, or combining open-cut and top-down
arrangement, can sometimes be seen.
 Complicated coordination problems and teething arrangement often exist between
various major contracts or other major building works.
 Layout planning especially in phasing and sectioning of the job forms a very
important consideration mastering the success of the project.
Examples of underground structures include
 Basement of buildings
 Semi-basement with slope stabilization purpose
 Transport facilities such as railway station, tunnel and pedestrian subway
 Access or services shaft
METHODS OF BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION
 Open cut arrangement
 Bottom-up approach
 Top-down approach
Sequencing of the work
STAGE 1
• Plunge Columns are installed
STAGE 2
• Diaphragm Walls are constructed
STAGE 3
• Ground floor slab is poured and formed
STAGE 4A – BELOW GROUND SLAB
• The Basement is excavated below ground level in sequence with the aid of Ground
Anchors.
STAGE 4B – ABOVE GROUND SLAB
• Tower construction commences with the installation of the jump form system for the
lift cores.

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STAGE 5A – BELOW GROUND SLAB

• Excavation continues from beneath the ground floor slab.
• The installation of ground anchors.
• Once the excavation is complete to the bottom, each ground slab is poured one level
at a time to the ground floor.
STAGE 5B – ABOVE GROUND SLAB
• Simultaneously the basement works and above ground level activity continues with
the tower construction.
Advantages
 Enables work to be undertaken above ground while excavating underground.
 Not only does this method shorten the construction schedule but it also minimizes
associated construction impacts on the community.
 Emissions of underground work, such as noise and dust, are localized and managed
within the basement levels.
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in removing soil due to restricted head space.
 If the underlying soil is too weak then this method is not applicable.
APPLICATION OF TOP-DOWN CONSTRUCTION METHOD
 Allows early commencement of super-structure construction.
 Overall construction duration can be significantly less than that of conventional
method thereby saving the cost.
 Does not require temporary bracing system.
 Minimize soil movement induced by excavation works which is an important factor
for some sensitive locations.

17. Describe in brief the factors affecting failure in Concrete Structures.

Ans:
Key Concepts and Factors Affecting Risks:
This section discusses the failure mechanisms of reinforced concrete sections such as
spillway piers, walls, slabs, and buttresses. The following are presented: 1) factors
influencing the strength and stability of the reinforced concrete sections, 2) considerations
when assigning failure probabilities for given analysis results, 3) considerations related to the
National codes (ACI or AASHTO) in the risk context, and 4) a typical event tree of the
progression of failure.
Factors Influencing Strength and Stability:
Factors influencing the stability of reinforced sections include:
• geometry and support conditions of the section,
• material properties of the reinforcing steel,
• material properties of the concrete,
• amount and detailing of reinforcement,
• type and duration of loading, and
• location of the reinforced concrete members relative to the entire structure

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Cracking of Concrete:
In Node 1 of the event tree, concrete cracking is evaluated. The tensile strength of concrete is
discussed in the section on Risk Analysis for Concrete Gravity Dams. The tensile stresses
induced on the section are compared to the tensile strength of the concrete. The dynamic
tensile strength of concrete is measured at Reclamation using the splitting tensile test loaded
to failure within a time of 0.05 seconds. This is typically the time for a stress spike during an
earthquake to go from zero to maximum tension.
The tensile stresses induced at the outer surface of the concrete superstructure at every 0.01
seconds during an earthquake. There is one spike in the record at about , a couple
of spikes at about , and numerous spikes at about . The tensile strength
of the concrete is evaluated against the magnitude of the tensile stresses, the number of
excursions above certain values, and the area of the section being overstressed. A few
localized excursions of overstress may not significantly crack the concrete over a large
enough area to result in structural distress.
For evaluation of moment demands the cracking moment must be determined.
Specifically, once the tensile strength of the concrete ft is determined in accordance with the
guidelines provided in the section on Risk Analysis for Concrete Gravity Dams, the cracking
moment can be computed as where is the moment of inertia of the gross
concrete section and yt is the distance from the censored of the section to the extreme tension
fiber.
Shear Failure:
Node 3 of the event tree evaluates the likelihood of the member failing in shear. The response
curve in Figure 14-14 is suggested for estimating likelihood values of shear failure given the
demand to capacity (D/C) for shear. Shear stress along a slide plane may be computed in a
number of ways. Figure 14-15 shows an example of shear stresses output from a finite
element study. Care must be taken to ensure sufficient mesh density when calculating shear
stresses, as a coarse mesh will result in an overly simplified (and low) shear stress
distribution. The extent of overstressing over the entire structure is considered.

The shear capacity should be computed considering the height to width ratio of the member,
the amount and orientation of shear reinforcement developing a clamping (normal) force, the
condition of the lift line or construction joint, the normal stress and associated friction acting
on the slide plane, and the amount of yielding of the moment reinforcement. The shear
strength of concrete decreases with continuing shear

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