Pattern of Development Lesson 4: EXEMPLIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

 technique that the writers use in developing ideas that are The descriptive text portrays events and brings a scene or object
logically arranged. to life in the imagination of the reader. Meanwhile, a narrative
 transitional devices -help you determine the difference of text tells story or events in chronological order. Now, let's move
one pattern from another. on to another pattern which is called exemplification and
2. DEFINITION classification.
explains not just what something means or is, but also what As you unravel the unique patterns of development in writing
something does, what something is used for, what something exemplification and classification paragraphs and how to
looks like, etc. incorporate them in your own writing, you must first begin to
learn how to identify the basic parts of these patterns – topic
Signal Words for Definition sentence, classifications (types, categories), examples
is defined as means as defined to define transitional expressions. (illustrations) and
refers to to illustrate ❖ These can be used in writing other papers with different
purposes other than telling a story, describing something or
1ST - It begins by citing general class to which the term belongs. defining a concept.
2ND- Particulars to differentiate the term from other members of Here are some transitional expressions in writing effective
that class. exemplification paragraphs: for instance, namely, to be specify,
3RD- provide clear details to support the term's definition " to clarify, to illustrate, for example, in short, as an example.
4TH- definition is then used. On the other hand, classification is used when a writer needs to
COMMON METHODS OF DEFINITION sort out or arrange subjects to groups or categories based on
by characteristics or features by its effect their common and shared characteristics.
by function by its origin Here are some transitional expressions in writing effective
by what it is not by example classification paragraphs: classified as, one kind, the last group,
Definition Example another kind, another, final type, the first category, are
If you were to define "whale" you might want to start by saying categorized as, the next part.
it is an aquatic mammal. Then you could talk about its size, READING & WRITING SKILLS
shape, varieties, environment, breeding habits and so on. LESSON 1: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
Definition Paragraph 1. NARRATION
- terminology is extensive and discipline specific -a narrative is a story
- writer's goal is to help the reader understand new items/ -a narrative paragraph can be effective at drawing the reader in
concepts and establishing your voice in the essay
- come to new understanding of terms -sequential presentation of events is observed
- important in sciences -it is normally chronological although at times can use
3. CHRONOLOGY flashbacks
 pattern that organizes ideas or events according to the time -contains action words --- verbs and adverbs--- that help move
it happened. Chronology comes in two forms such as the story or process along and make it more interesting
narration and process. -uses transitions such as first, then, soon, and suddenly, which
maintain coherence and show movement from one event to the
Signal Words for Narration next
at this/that point meanwhile as soon as Transitions that signal time:
later tomorrow in the meantime Before meanwhile afterward
yesterday immediately when At the same time to begin with
Previously subsequently
a. Narration Transitions that signal chronology:
used to describe how, when, and where an event actually After later soon never always next now
happened. It is used to tell a story or focus on a set of related Then at length this time during Once
events. until now earlier simultaneously
EXAMPLE OF NARRATION When following so far whenever while
Early one morning, Sarah decided to go for a jog in the park. As Immediately sometimes in the meantime
she jogged, the sun began to rise, casting a golden glow over the
trees. Later that day, she met her friends for lunch and shared STORY COMPONENTS
her morning adventure with them. (characters, setting, conflict, climax, and resolution)
b. Process -it is not simply listing the events; it is pointing in the direction
arranges details or information based on steps or stages. of a story using specific details.
EXAMPLE OF PROCESS a. character – a person or animal or really anything personified.
There can be one main character or many, and often there are
Signal Words for Process secondary characters, but not always.
b. setting – where and when is the story set? Setting represents
Before after first
both the physical location but also the time (past, present, future)
about Finally presently and the social and cultural conditions in which the character
When Till eventually exist.
During Prior immediately c. conflict – the challenge or problem around which the plot is
Then next based. Without conflict, the story will have no purpose or
trajectory.
The first thing you do is go to the store and get the mix, eggs,
d. climax – the height of a story. The character finally faces and
milk, and oil. Then you drive back to home sweet home. Next
usually defeats whatever the major conflict is. Tension peaks
you get a large bowl. After that, you pour in the mix, crack the
here.
eggs, and add the milk and oil. Then you set the oven to 350° F.
e. resolution – the end of a story. All major conflicts are
Next you stir it for about 2 minutes. After that you pour it into
resolved or purposely left open for a cliffhanger or sequel. In
the pan and put it in the oven for 35-45 minutes The last thing
many stories, this is where you find the happily-ever-after, but a
you do is let it cook and wait for a yummy surprise.
resolution doesn’t have to be happy.
Points to remember in developing a paragraph using  By its effect – discussing what effects the subject produces
Narration: are important with certain subjects or in certain contexts.
1. Use action verbs and transitional expressions. A story is built Ex: In an essay on global warming, a definition of CO²
around people doing things. emissions emphasizing the consequences of these emissions to
2. Your paragraph/s is/are characterized by words that show the environment would be important.
action and words that show sequence.
3. Descriptive details in a narrative paragraph are essential to a In a definition paragraph (or essay), the writers goal is to help
good story. Details help readers to connect to the world the the reader understand new terms or concepts, or to come to a
author envisions. new understanding of terms they may be familiar with.
4. Choose the right words for their meaning and use specific Scientific Definition – definition is very important in the
expressions. sciences, where the terminology is extensive and discipline-
5. Be guided by the sample narrative paragraph below. specific.
- In defining scientific terms, a writer should be as objective as
2. DESCRIPTION possible, and when impressions are essential, the writer should
 Used when you need to explain the nature of people, places, strive to use analogies and impressions that the reader can
and things readily identify with.
 You can start with the physical description – the details of Subjective Definition – definitions in the humanities can be
how your subject looks, sounds, feels, smells, or even more subjective.
tastes like - A writer may wish to define complex terms such as
 the details can be arranged in any pattern you think is best “heartache”, “luck”, or “democracy” in a personal way.
 Grow (1999) emphasized that successful descriptions 4. EXEMPLIFICATION (or illustration)
record a series of detailed observations. It is not about - in developing this type of paragraph, the writer develops a
what the writer sees but what the readers need to see in general statement – the topic sentence, with one or more
order to imagine the scene, the person or the object. He examples.
further suggested the use of sensory language; to go light - illustrations through clear and specific examples help explain
on adjectives and adverbs and to look for ways to describe abstract idea and illuminate or clarify meaning in texts.
actions.
- writers use examples to make general idea clear – to exemplify
TWO TYPES OF DESCRIPTION
idea
1. SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION – The writer is
describing an impression of what is observed. - the exemplification may be long, or it may be short
Ex: “It was a dark and lonely night” – This helps us imagine the - it may be a story, an anecdote, a quotation, or a statistic
kind of night it was. 5. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
- Description of characters, their appearance, mannerisms and -a paragraph that demonstrates comparison and/or contrast
utterances help us imagine what they are like. examines how given subjects are either similar or different.
- Often used in fiction -comparison examines how the subjects are the same
2. OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTION – Usually -contrast examines how the subjects are different
employed in reportorial and scientific writing. -central to the development using this pattern is the effective use
-The goal of the writer is to present an impartial and actual of appropriate transitional words and phrases that signal
picture of an object or scene. comparison and contrast
-The writer has to stay away from emotional impressions or Signal words for effective writing
responses, bracketing his or her biases. He/She must be aware of
For comparison For contrast
his/her own biases so as not to influence judgment.
Ex:  in the same way * yet * but
a. When detectives cover crime scenes and has to write  similarly * and yet * however
clear reports of their observation.  in like manner * nevertheless * though
B. News writers present their reports objectively.  likewise * nonetheless * otherwise
3.DEFINITION  in similar fashion * after all * in contrast
 It identifies a term and sets it apart from all other terms that * on the contrary * notwithstanding
may be related to it * on the other hand
 It begins by citing the general class to which the term
6. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
belongs.
- the cause-and-effect as a method in developing a paragraph is
 Followed by the particulars to differentiate the term from
the other members of that class providing clear details to useful in explaining why something happens.
support the term’s definition. - a paragraph emphasizing the ‘cause’ normally starts with an
Ex: If you were to define “whale”, you might start by saying it is effect
an aquatic mammal. Then you could talk about its size, shape, - the goal of this is to explore how a particular paragraph is to
varieties, environment, breeding habits and so on. explore how such effect came to be
COMMON METHODS OF DEFINITION - a paragraph emphasizing the ‘effect’ begins with a particular
 By characteristics or features – physical features as well cause then explains the consequences of effects of this cause
as behaviors (as in animal or cell behavior) may be a part -Notice how the causes of avalanche are explained in the
of this type of definition. Scientific definitions typically paragraph below.
rely on this type of definition.
 By function – how something works, or what it does can An avalanche is a huge snow slide that rushes down the side of
be an important part of definition
a mountain, carrying large trees, rocks, and other debris in its
 By what it is not – we can get a pretty good sense of what
path. Avalanches are similar to landslides but can be more
something is like, by learning what it is not, or what is
lacking dangerous and destructive. Avalanches can occur when huge
 By what it is similar to – comparison and analogy help us amounts of new snow fall on layers of snow and ice that have
understand things that are unfamiliar to us become unstable because of melting. They can also be triggered
 By example – giving examples illustrating what the term by explosions or earthquakes.
means can be highly effective
 By its origin – providing a history of what a term has
meant can help us understand its current meaning.
Ex: The slang term “wimp” comes from the term “wimple”,
which refers to a headscarf women wore in medieval Europe.
Cause and Effect (Source: How to Create A Web Page, http://www.make-a-web-
-it is essential that when writing a paragraph using cause-and- site.com)
effect you know which factor to highlight causes or effects and - When writing using process analysis paragraphs, it is vital
determine the reason of discussing the cause and/or effect. that the author determines who the audience is going to be and
-signal words used in cause-and-effect writes for that audience. How is this shown in the examples
Cause Effect above?
 because * for this reason 8. DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION
 since * it follows - are related methods for organizing objects or information.
 is due to * as a result -in division, we divide a general category of things into smaller
 is caused by * as a consequence subcategories.
* thus Example: “There are three main problems associated with living
* so across from a high school: noise, trash, and traffic congestion”.
* therefore -in classification, we develop criteria for the items in a
- aside from the common single cause with single effect, there subcategory based on relationships between the items. Consider
may be three other types of organization depending on the topic; your music playlist, the songs are organized into many
multiple causes with single effect, single cause with multiple subcategories like country, rock, hip-hop, dance music, world
effects, and casual chain/domino effect music, classical, jazz, soundtracks. etc.
7. PROCESS ANALYSIS -division and classification make it easy for individuals to locate
- a discussion of the steps one must take to achieve a particular what they are looking for
end -the purpose of classification paragraph is to clearly define
- intended for an audience that needs to learn how to perform a something and place it in a group according to some basis or
process themselves rule.
Example: fixing a bent bicycle wheel
quitting smoking Example:
finding a good job Computer Languages
- other process analysis writing is informative rather than A computer language used for creating web documents
instructional can be classified according to its purpose: HTML, JavaScript,
example: how to resolve the healthcare crisis and CCS. The first type of computer language, HTML, is the
- some process analysis work on both levels basic language for creating an HTML, or a web document.
example: a discussion about how to respond to global warming HTML, or Hyper Text Markup Language was developed in the
can be both instructional and informative 1980’s and revised until it reached its current form. The style
- individuals can take many steps to control global warming and content of a webpage is determined by HTML, code, tags,
- other steps may be taken by the government as well and attributes. A text file ending with the .html extension is
- a kind of paragraph which is used to teach someone how to do written in a text editor such as Notepad, and then interpreted by
something a browser. For example, the MSUGF homepage contains
- the steps happen in a sequence, thus presented in images, texts, links, headers and other HTML elements specified
chronological order. by HTML code which causes it to display in a web browser such
- To indicate the sequence, transitional expressions such as first, as Internet Explorer. The second type of computer language,
second, then, and finally are used CSS, or Cascading Style Sheets is also a language used for
Example 1: creating web pages; however, its purpose is to describe a page
Hello, my name is Joe and I’m going to give you a few structure and style. An inline, embedded, or external style sheet
simple lessons on how to make a Web Page. I must warn you is used in accompaniment to HTML and indicates styles for
though, this is for “all wet behinda ears” Newbies. If you’re at features like fonts, colors, images, and text. CSS is also used to
all experienced at this sort of thing, you’ll probably find this position elements on a web page, and to format how the page is
tutorial a bit of a yawner. displayed on various output devices, including printed
You’ll be happy to learn that it’s really pretty simple. documents, monitors, and hand-held devices. The third
The basic idea is this… A web page is nothing more than a file, language, JavaScript, is a computer language used for creating
a HTML file to be exact. It’s called HTML because web page executable applications in web documents. Like HTML and CS,
documents have the file extension .html or .htm. HTML stands JavaScript is created with a text editor and displayed by a
for Hyper Text Mark-up Language. (if you are unclear about browser. An application is composed of objects like expressions,
this file extension stuff, then you really are a newbie!! Take a variables, values and operators. An automatically updated time
quick detour for a few ramblings on the subject). or date on a web page is a JavaScript application. A script can
(Source: Barta, Joe. “So you want to make a web page.” From be produced for various functions including hiding e-mail
Page Tutor.com) addresses from spammers, or performing mathematical
functions. HTML, JavaScript, and CSS computer languages
Example 2: used for indicating the style, content, and formatting of elements
There are basically two ways to make a web page. The within web pages are constantly being revised to improve
first way is to create the page(s) offline and then upload them to usability for the programmer and the end-user and to offer
your Internet Service Provider (ISP) via FTP. The second way is endless options for web design.
to create your web page(s) online using a Telnet program by (Source: Kelly Byron (2005), from http://english
accessing your UNIX account, if you have one. 120.pbworks.com)
If you are creating your web page(s) offline, do so in
any text editing or word processing document. Make sure that 9. PROBLEM-SOLUTION
when you save your document, you save it as a “text”, “plain - it has two parts: a problem and a solution
- the writer presents the problem and some facts or reasons why
text” or “text only” document. Otherwise, it will not be read
it is a problem
properly by a web browser. Once you have created your page(s), -naturally, readers look for a solution for the problem
you will need to contact your ISP about how to go about -the closing statement or conclusion highlights the connection
uploading them to your server. between the problem and the solution
10. PERSUASION DEVELOPMENT: each paragraph must support the main
- to persuade is to convince someone that your opinion on a idea or the topic sentence
subject is the right one UNITY-oneness of the idea, appropriate connectives between
- for your paragraph to be more convincing, think of your and within the paragraphs must be used
audience and the kind of evidence your audience would likely •Ending (conclusion or summary)
respond to
Methods of persuasion:
a. Using facts
b. Referring to authority who can give impartial and - appropriateness of word / vocabulary
unbiased information usage.
c. Predicting the consequence and answering oppositions The Importance of Language
Signal words to illustrate your points when you want to give Language isn’t just thinking what you say, it is also important to
your reasons: know how to say it. To communicate effectively, it is not
First (second, third) finally enough to have well organized ideas expressed in complete
Another because sentences. We must also think what is the style, tone, and clarity
Next since of his/her writing.
Last for although Characteristics of Effective Language Use
⦿ Concrete and Specific, not vague and abstract
Signal words in answering oppositions:
⦿ Concise, not verbose
Of course Nevertheless On the other hand
⦿ Familiar,not obscure
Signal words when you want to draw conclusions: ⦿ Precise and Clear,not inaccurate or ambiguous
Therefore hence consequently thus ⦿ Constructive, not destructive
Example of persuasion: ⦿ Appropriately Formal
LAUGHTER, THE MEDICINE
Words and Phrases one must avoid to use in order to
Laughter is one of the greatest healing devices known to man. practice appropriate Language Use:
Laughter is powerful and can help people in many different TOO FORMAL
ways. It has the power to cure something as little as a bad day
or to heal the wounds of a terminally ill person. Laughing has
helped create the smile which is the universal sign of well-being.
Generally, individuals who do not laugh live miserably and have
unhappy lives. Dr. Robert Holden found out that smiling and
laughing releases endorphins in the brain which gives people an
overall happy well-being. Using comedy, many doctors have
stimulated the healing process in manic depressants and fatally
ill patients giving them hope and ambition. In many clinics
laughter is being used in replacing anti-depressants and reduces
the need for pain killers. (Dr. Gael Crystal). Take comedians for
example, they usually live long and happy lives. Putting a smile
on faces and laughs in soul is what makes life complete.
Laughter helps heal people and brightens spirits for a better
and healthier life. Laughing is a sign of joy and hope and keeps
people normal and the world happy. Using the techniques of
TOO UNSOPHISTICATED
laughter and happiness is the best medicine known to man.
Laughter is the universal sign of well-being and happiness
within health. Laughing brightens the spirit and heals the mind
and body of people who allow it to overcome them. Therefore,
try a smile and laugh on for size and live a longer happier life
with loved ones.

• refers to the arrangement of ideas in a text

• it is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged
in a text
• completeness of ideas in proper paragraphing
A paragraph is a unit of thought not of length
II. Components of a well-organized text:
1. Physical Format: how the text physically appears or how TOO VAGUE
the readers see the text
•textual cues such as headings and subheadings
• bulleted points
•font emphasis
2. Signal Words: textual cues that readers can use to follow a
text. OTHER TIPS
• signals the transition from one point to another •Jargon (i.e. “insider” terminology that may be difficult for
• shows the order of events and concepts readers from other fields to understand)
• signals the writer’s chosen text type •Clichés (which are expressions that are heavily overused, such
3. Structure: provides the framework upon which the text is as think outside of the box and but at the end of the day)
organized. It is the structural framework of writing •Everyday abbreviations (e.g. photos, fridge, phone, info)
• Beginning (introduction of the thesis statement •Slang (e.g. cops, cool)
• Middle (main ideas/topic sentence and supporting details) •Not gender neutral (e.g. firemen, mankind)
FOCUS: individual sentences must be built around a single idea
termed the “controlling idea”.  CONCRETE and SPECIFIC not Vague and Abstract
Note: Read This Passage Below, notice the Words Each of the following are actual headlines printed in
newspapers. Notice their double meaning.
He is a bad roommate (1) Include your children when Baking Cookies
He is lazy and discourteous He is untidy and unclean (2) Safety Experts Say School Buss Passengers should be Belted
He doesn't clean up his own messes (3) Bank Drive-in Window Blocked by Board
He leaves his dirty dishes on the kitchen counter (4) Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in ten years
Your relationship with John is unacceptable (5) Eye Drops Off Shelf
You do not get along well with John In short, it is wise to think carefully about your choice of words
You and John have a lot of arguments and their potential interpretations. To communicate effectively,
You and John insult each other too much precise and clear language is essential.
You and John call each other derogatory names
 CONSTRUCTIVE not, Destructive
- Notice how much more effective the statements become as the Constructive language phrases a potentially negative message in
language becomes more specific and concrete. The statements at a positive way, whereas destructive language directs blame and
the top, which are more abstract, can be interpreted in many criticism toward the reader, creating defensiveness. Readers are
possible ways, and leave many questions answered. The likely to become defensive when the writer's language expresses
statements at the bottom, which are more concrete, are less open any or all of the following:
to multiple interpretations. • Superiority over the reader
• Indifference or apathy about an issue of importance to the
 CONCISE, not Verbose reader
To have an effective language use, we must express our own • Negative evaluation or judgment of the reader (as opposed to
words as few words as possible. Concise means expressing neutral descriptions or observations)
something that is directed to the point of what the speaker would • Command or control over the reader
want to tell. • Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the
legitimacy of their claims
Consider the Following Example Bellow
(1) It is widely discussed by employees that many of them will Consider the following examples.
be forced to change jobs and take on new responsibilities when (1) Boss to employee: "Your job performance recently has been
the merger takes place between the two companies. unacceptable and there are no excuses for it. You have claimed
that you are having some serious personal problems, but even if
One way to reduce wordiness is to eliminate redundant words or this is true, you cannot allow it to affect the quality of your work.
phrases. Consider example one above. The phrases "to change If your work doesn't improve, I'll have to replace you with
jobs" and "take on new responsibilities" are redundant, and someone else."
could be combined into one short phrase to be expressed more (2) Student to instructor: "You have confused me so badly with
concisely. your lectures that I don't know what to do. I am considering
dropping out and taking the class next quarter from Dr. John
Consider example two above. The phrase "...should be sure to stone, who can explain the information much more clearly.I
carefully think about, ponder and reflect on..." contains three don't want to drop out, but I have never been so frustrated with
ways of saying the same thing. This sentence could be improved an instructor in my whole life.“
by using only one of the key phrases: "...to reflect on..." (3) Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so
confused with this material. Perhaps you should take an easier
 FAMILIAR,not Obscure course from an easier professor. It makes no difference to me."
One of the Effective use of Language is using Familiar language.
Because it is easy to use something what is familiar for audience APPROPRIATELY FORMAL
will understand it quickly. The formality of the language one uses should match the
formality of the situation and the relationship between the writer
Consider the following examples below. and reader.Consider the following examples.
A letter sent to high school students warning them of the risks of
an unhealthy diet: "Individuals who maintain a diet of high fat  Very Formal: Exceedingly large segments of the
content are exposed to an increased risk of developing population are expressing their discontent with medical
atherosclerosis, which is a buildup of fat deposits on the inner practitioners who appear to more engrossed in amassing
walls of the arteries. This condition can reduce or cut off the financial assets than in providing efficacious care to people
flow of blood in the arteries serving the major organs of the with health disorders.
body.This can lead to poor health."  Formal:A large number of consumers are complaining
about medical doctors who are apparently more interested
= As we can see, the example is too obscure and led to difficulty in making money than in provide effective health care.
of understanding the passage because it is not familiar with the  Informal:A lot of people are unhappy with their doctors
audience. who only seem to care about how much money they make,
and not about giving their patients good care. Notice that
 PRECISE and Clear not, Inaccurate or Ambigious any of the three examples could be effective, depending
To have a Language that is very easy to understand, you must upon the reader,the writer's relationship with the reader,and
always be precise on whatever your were talking about to have the situation. Under what conditions might you want to use
your audience an easy-understanding.Avoid misconceptions or these different levels of formality?
using vague language that will divert from your original topic.
Techniques to have an Effective Language Use
Consider the following examples. Note the potential 1. Know the Content
confusion or ambiguity in these phrases. 2. Remember,It is also important to know how to speak your
(1) Why the student body should continue in this state of apathy presentation.
is not really understandable. 3. Use words that is recognize by your mind
(2) Our student body is dull and slack-minded. 4. Know the Audience whom you speak of
(3)The practice and theory of politics are studied in the 5.Apply the Six Characteristics for an effective language use.
classroom but political habits on campus do not seem to benefit
from such labor. is the grammatical and lexical relationship within a
text or sentence.
- can be defined as the links that hold a text together and give it
meaning. point.
Six Ways to Achieve/Create Cohesion in a Text Parentheses ( ) - Parentheses are used to enclose additional
Cohesive Nouns information or explanations that are not essential to the main
Over a million dollars was spent last year. This investment wad sentence.
needed and wisely spent.
It is important to note that punctuation rules can vary slightly
depending on the style guide or language conventions being
Reference
followed. It is always a good practice to proofread and edit your
Clifford achieved the highest score in the text. He must have
writing to ensure proper and consistent use of punctuation marks.
studied
Ellipsis Spelling rules are guidelines that help ensure accurate and
A. Are the guests coming soon? consistent spelling in written language. Here are some common
B. Yes, they are coming.
spelling rules to keep in mind:
Substitution
I bought the red blouse. My sister preferred the red one. Silent E Rule: When a word ends in a silent "e," it usually
Conjunction makes the preceding vowel long. For example, "time," "hope,"
My friend failed to meet the assignment deadline. Therefore, he and "like."
failed the module.
Doubling Rule: When adding a suffix to a word that ends in a
Lexical Chains
The art gallery was exhibiting all his paintings, but, not his consonant-vowel-consonant pattern and the last syllable is
sculpture, or his early etchings. stressed, double the final consonant. For example, "running,"
Coherence - has something to do with good and smooth text "stopped," and "planning."
flow. I Before E Rule: In most cases, when the sound is "ee," "i"
- Is creating, texts that are, logical, thus, ideas in each part of comes before "e." For example, "believe," "chief," and "piece."
the text and the context are connected. However, there are exceptions, such as "weird" and "height."
- is achieved through logical ordering, of ideas, formatting clear Plural Rule: Most nouns form their plural by adding "s" or "es"
communicative strategies, eliminating ambiguity, maintaining to the end. For example, "books," "cats," and "wishes."
consistency in vocabulary and syntax, and using cohesive However, there are irregular plurals, such as "children," "mice,"
devices. and "oxen."
Coherance vs Cohesion Prefix and Suffix Rule: When adding a prefix or suffix to a
-Cohesion is a subset of coherence. word, the base word's spelling usually remains unchanged. For
-A text can be cohesive even if it is NOT coherent. example, "unhappy," "preheat," and "careless."
Example Homophones Rule: Homophones are words that sound the
I am a doctor. A doctor works in a hospital. A hospital is a place same but have different meanings and spellings. Some examples
where patients go. A patients is a person who is sick. Sick is an include "their," "there," and "they're," or "to," "too," and "two."
adjective. (Cohesive but not coherent) It's important to use the correct spelling in context.
-Coherence, is the relationship between ideas while cohesion is Capitalization Rule: Capitalize the first letter of a sentence,
the relation between sentences,or parts of sentences. proper nouns (names of people, places, and organizations), and
-A text is Cohesive if all the parts in it are linked together. A the pronoun "I." For example, "John," "London," and "I am
text is coherent if it makes sense. going."
-Cohesion (organization of words/sentences Hyphenation Rule: Use a hyphen to join words that form a
- Coherence (semantic) & (pragmatic) compound modifier before a noun. For example, "well-known
artist" or "high-quality product."
Punctuation marks serve as important tools in written language Silent Letter Rule: Some words contain silent letters that are
to clarify meaning, indicate pauses, and organize thoughts. Here not pronounced but affect the spelling. For example, "knee,"
are some common punctuation mark rules: "comb," and "gnome."
Period (.) - The period is used to indicate the end of a sentence Word Families Rule: Words that belong to the same word
that makes a statement or expresses a command. It is also used family often have similar spelling patterns. For example,
in abbreviations, such as "Mr." for Mister or "etc." for et cetera. "create" (verb), "creation" (noun), and "creative" (adjective).
Question Mark (?) - The question mark is used at the end of a Remember, English spelling can be complex and inconsistent,
sentence that asks a direct question. and there are exceptions to many rules. Regular practice,
Exclamation Point (!) - The exclamation point is used to reading, and using spell-check tools can help improve spelling
express strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis at the end of a skills. It's also helpful to consult a dictionary or style guide for
sentence. specific words or spelling queries.
Comma (,) - The comma is used to separate items in a list, to
separate clauses in a compound sentence, to set off introductory Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases used to
phrases or clauses, and to separate items in dates and addresses. represent the full version. Here are some general rules to keep in
Semicolon (;) - The semicolon is used to join two closely mind when using abbreviations:
related independent clauses that are not connected by a
coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, but, or). Periods: Abbreviations that are formed by omitting letters from
Colon (:) - The colon is used to introduce a list, explanation, or the middle or end of a word do not require periods. For example,
quote. It is also used in time expressions and to separate titles "Mr" for Mister, "Dr" for Doctor, or "Jan" for January. However,
and subtitles. abbreviations that are formed by omitting letters from the
Quotation Marks (" ") - Quotation marks are used to enclose beginning of a word or are acronyms typically use periods. For
direct speech, dialogue, or a quote. They are also used to example, "U.S." for United States or "e.g." for exempli gratia.
indicate titles of short works, such as articles or poems. Capitalization: In most cases, abbreviations are written in
Apostrophe (') - The apostrophe is used to indicate possession uppercase letters. For example, "USA" for United States of
(e.g., John's book) or to indicate the omission of letters in America or "NASA" for National Aeronautics and Space
contractions (e.g., can't for cannot). Administration. However, there are exceptions, such as "i.e." for
Dash (—) - The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in id est or "a.m." for ante meridiem, where lowercase letters are
thought, to set off a parenthetical statement, or to emphasize a used.
Plurals: When forming the plural of an abbreviation, add "s"
without an apostrophe. For example, "CDs" for compact discs or COHERENCE: This means that sentences are arranged in a
"VIPs" for very important persons. logical manner, making them easily understood by the reader.
Consistency: Be consistent in the use of abbreviations COHESION: connection of ideas at sentence level
throughout your writing. If you choose to abbreviate a term, use
the abbreviation consistently thereafter.
Context: Ensure that the abbreviation is widely recognized and COHESION
understood by your intended audience. Avoid using obscure or - the property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken
specialized abbreviations that may confuse readers. discourse that stems from links among its surface elements, as
Spacing: In general, abbreviations are not followed by a space. when words in one sentence are repeated in another, and
For example, "USA," "etc.," or "Dr." However, there are especially from the fact that some words or phrases depend for
exceptions, such as "a. m." for ante meridiem or "p. m." for post their interpretation upon material in preceding or following text
meridiem, where spaces are used. Example: Be assured of this. Most people do not want to fight.
Possessives: To form the possessive of an abbreviation, add an However, they will do so when provoked.
apostrophe and an "s" after the abbreviation. For example,
"NASA's mission" or "CD's cover." A. Arrangement of details according to…
Avoid Overuse: While abbreviations can be useful for brevity, CHRONOLOGICAL - The details are arranged in the order in
avoid excessive use of abbreviations in your writing. Overuse which they happened.
can make your text difficult to read and understand. This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead
of AM, so I woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes
Remember, specific style guides or contexts may have and ran out the door. I rode my bike as fast as I could and
additional rules or preferences for abbreviations. It's always a thought that I was going to be late for sure, but when I got there
good idea to consult the appropriate style guide or follow the everyone was outside and there were firetrucks all lined up in
conventions of your field when using abbreviations in formal front of school. I guess somebody pulled the fire alarm before
writing. class started. It worked out though, because nobody really
Capitalization rules are guidelines that help determine when to noticed or minded that I was tardy.
use uppercase (capital) letters in writing. Here are some general SPATIAL – The sentences of a paragraph are arranged
rules for capitalization: according to geographical location, such as left-to-right, up-to-
down, etc.
Proper Nouns: Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns, which The inside of Bill's refrigerator was horrible. On the top shelf
are specific names of people, places, organizations, and things. was a three week old carton of milk. Next to it sat a slice of
For example, "John," "London," "Apple Inc.," or "Mount melon that had started to get moldy. To the right of the melon
Everest." sat the remains of a macaroni and cheese dinner that had been
Sentences: Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a served a week earlier. On the shelf below was a slice of cake
sentence. For example, "The sun is shining." from his sister's birthday party. Though there was food, none of
Titles: Capitalize the first letter of important words in titles of it was edible.
books, movies, articles, and other works. This includes nouns, EMPHATIC – is when information found in a paragraph is
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. However, arranged to emphasize certain points depending on the
conjunctions, prepositions, and articles are typically not writer’s purpose.
capitalized unless they are the first or last word in the title. For The coherence of the paragraph is established in one of two
example, "To Kill a Mockingbird," "Gone with the Wind," or ways: (a) from least to most important, or (b) from most to
"The Lord of the Rings." least important.
Days, Months, and Holidays: Capitalize the names of days of After looking at all the brochures and talking to several
the week, months, and holidays. For example, "Monday," salesmen, I decided to purchase an SLR camera. For several
"March," or "Christmas." years I had been dissatisfied with the results I was getting from
Proper Adjectives: Capitalize proper adjectives, which are my point-and-shoot camera. The framing was imprecise and the
adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example, focus was not always accurate. I had planned a vacation to an
"American," "Italian," or "Shakespearean." area that promised many fabulous photo opportunities, and I
Historical Events and Periods: Capitalize the names of wanted to capture each one with accuracy. But the most
historical events, eras, and periods. For example, "World War important reason I decided on the SLR camera was the great
II," "Renaissance," or "Victorian Era." versatility it offered.
Languages and Nationalities: Capitalize the names of
languages and nationalities. For example, "English," "French," In the above paragraph, the organization moves from
or "Chinese."| the least important idea (dissatisfaction with the results of the
Titles and Headings: Capitalize the first letter of each major point-and-shoot camera) to the most important idea (the
word in titles and headings. This includes nouns, pronouns, versatility offered with the SLR camera).
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Articles, conjunctions, and B. Signal Devices - words that give readers an idea of how the
prepositions are typically not capitalized unless they are the first points in your paragraph are progressing
or last word in the title or heading. For example, "The Benefits 1. TRANSITIONS (words that connect one idea to another, in
of Exercise" or "How to Bake a Cake." order for our ideas to flow smoothly)
Acronyms and Initials: Capitalize all letters in acronyms and a. Time (first, immediately, afterward, before, at the same time,
initials. For example, "NASA" or "UNESCO." after, earlier, simultaneously, finally, next, in the meantime,
Brand Names and Trademarks: Capitalize the names of later, eventually, then, meanwhile, now, subsequent, etc.)
specific brand names and trademarks. For example, "Coca- b. Sequence (moreover, furthermore, next, also, finally, last,
Cola" or "Nike." another, first, second, third, besides, additionally, etc.)
It's important to note that there are exceptions and specific style c. Space (above,next to, below, behind, beside, etc.)
guides may have additional rules or preferences for d. Illustration (for instance, specifically, for example, namely,
capitalization. When in doubt, consult the appropriate style in this case, to illustrate, etc.)
guide or follow the conventions of your field or publication. e. Comparison (similarly,also, in the same way, still, likewise,
in comparison, too, etc.) reader. Avoiding unnecessary jargon, ambiguous phrases, and
f. Contrast (but, despite, however, even though, yet, on the excessive wordiness improves the overall quality of the text.
other hand, although, on the contrary, otherwise, conversely, Proof-reading and Editing: Thoroughly reviewing the text for
etc.) errors, inconsistencies, and clarity issues is crucial. Editing for
g. Cause and Effect (because, as a result, consequently, then, mechanics involves checking for grammar, punctuation, spelling,
so,since, etc.) and formatting errors and making necessary revisions.

h. Conclusion (thus, therefore, in conclusion, in short, etc.)

2. Repetitions (repetitions of main ideas keep continuity and
highlight important ideas)
-it could be a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line
repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text
Examples of Repetitions:
1.If you think you can do it, you can do it.
2.The boy was a good footballer, because his father was a
footballer, and his grandfather was a footballer.
3.The judge commanded, stamping his mallet on the table,
“Order in the court, order in the court.”
4.The president said, “Work, work, and work,” are the keys to
success.

3. Synonyms (these are words similar in meaning to important

words or phrases that prevent tedious repetitions)
4. Pronouns (words that connect readers to the original word
that the pronouns replace)
Example of Pronouns used in an actual sentence:

INCORRECT: Rodrigo Duterte is the 16th President of the

Republic of the Philippines. Aside from that, Rodrigo Duterte
also served as Davao City’s Mayor for a long period of time.
Rodrigo Duterte is also known by the populace as an adamant
leader. . .
CORRECT: Rodrigo Duterte is the 16th President of the
Republic of the Philippines. Aside from that, he also served as
Davao City’s Mayor for a long period of time. He is also known
by the populace as an adamant leader…

-set of conventions on how to spell,abbreviate, punctuate,and

capitalize
*Avoid contractions and exclamation points (unless part of a
direct quotation) *Mention the full name before the abbreviation.
*Numbers from 0-10 must be spelled out.
Mechanics in a well-written text refer to the technical aspects of
writing, such as grammar, punctuation, spelling, and sentence
structure. These mechanics play a crucial role in ensuring clarity,
coherence, and readability in a text. Here are some key elements
of mechanics in a well-written text:

Grammar: Proper use of grammar rules, including subject-verb

agreement, verb tenses, pronoun usage, and sentence structure,
is essential for conveying meaning accurately.
Punctuation: Correct use of punctuation marks, such as
commas, periods, semicolons, and quotation marks, helps to
clarify the meaning of sentences and ensure smooth flow and
readability to the text.
Spelling: Accurate spelling is important to avoid confusion and
maintain the credibility of the writing. Proofreading and using
spell-check tools can help identify and correct spelling errors.
Capitalization: Consistent and appropriate use of capital letters
for proper nouns, sentence beginnings, and titles adds clarity
and professionalism
Sentence Structure: Well-constructed sentences with a clear
subject, verb, and object, along with appropriate modifiers and
connectors, contribute to the overall coherence and readability
of the text.
Consistency: Maintaining consistency in style, tone, tense, and
formatting throughout the text helps to create a cohesive and
professional piece of writing.
Clarity and Conciseness: Using clear and concise language
ensures that the intended message is easily understood by the