Week 2: Elementary Algebra

Section……………………………………………………………………………………………….Page

Section 0: Elementary Algebra: Introduction……………………………………………………….2

Section 1: Real Numbers …………………………………………………………………………...2

Section 2: Basic Rules of Algebra…………………………………………………….………….....6

Section 3: Integer Exponents…………………..…….…………………………………………......10

Section 4: Radicals and Properties of Radicals…………………………………………………….12

Section 5: Operations on Polynomials (of one variable)……………...............................................14

Section 6: Factoring……………………………….………………………………………………..18

Section 7: Rational Expressions………………………………………………….………………....20

Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………………….……24

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 Section 0: Elementary Algebra: Introduction
The topic for this week on elementary algebra is about learning some basic algebraic techniques,
concepts and manipulative skills. The concepts, techniques and manipulative skills are generally logical
and robust such that you will know when and how to use them when you are face to face with diverse
algebraic problems which require such concepts, techniques and manipulative skills to solve them. The
general knowledge with algebra, and of course what will be faced in this week’s topic, is that numbers
or values to be used may be unknown or unspecified thereby leading us to represent them with letters.

Section 1: Real Numbers

In week 1, we have learnt of the following sets of numbers

* + the set of all natural numbers

* + the set of all integers

{ } the set of all rational numbers (numbers that can be expressed under
the form , where and are integers, and is not equal to zero). E.g.

{ } √

And since the set of all natural numbers is a subset of the set of all integers , also the set of all
integers is a subset of the set of all rational numbers , we have the set of real numbers as the set
composed of all rational and irrational numbers. Therefore, real numbers are natural numbers, integers,
rational and irrational numbers as is shown from the figure below given by (Larson & Hodgkins, 2009).

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 The Real Number Line
The real number line is a line on which each point is associated with a real number. A real number
associated with a point is called a coordinate of the point. The coordinate of the point 0 (zero) is called
the origin. To the right of the origin 0, all coordinates of the points are called positive real numbers
and to the left of the origin, all coordinates of the points are called negative real numbers (Larson &
Hodgkins, 2009).

Order on the Real Number Line

Given any two real numbers and If a is to the left of on the number line, we say is less than
(denoted by ), and in this case as is to the right of we say is greater than (denoted by
). Therefore, given two numbers on the number line, the one to the right is always greater than
the one to the left.

Also, when we have the case of it means that is less than or equal to and the case of
means is greater than or equal to .

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 The four symbols are called inequality symbols and they help indicate the way given
numbers are ordered on the number line.

Examples

a) Given that , interpret the following inequalities

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
b) Give the inequality form of the following expressions
i)
ii)

Solutions

For a):

i) : Means is representing real numbers on the real number line that are greater than 5
but 5 not included. E.g. these numbers include 5.1, 6, 6.7, 6.9, 7, 8, and many more.
ii) Means is representing real numbers on the real number line that are greater than 5
where 5 is included. E.g. these numbers include 5, 5.1, 6, 6.7, 6.9, 7, 8, and many more.
iii) Means is representing real numbers on the real number line that are between 3
and 5 where 3 and 5 are not included. E.g. these numbers include 3.0001, 3.0002, 3.01, 3.5,
3.6, 4, 4.1, 4.9, and many more.
iv) Means is representing real numbers on the real number line that are between 3
and 5 where 3 and 5 are included. E.g. these numbers include 3, 3.0001, 3.0002, 3.01, 3.5,
3.6, 4, 4.1, 4.9, 5, and many more.

For b):

i)
ii)

Absolute Values and Distance

The absolute value of a real number , denoted by | |, is the distance of a real number from the
origin. We can represent the absolute value of by

| | {

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 The above representation simply means that if we are to find the absolute value of a value greater than
or equal to zero we simply pick that number as the absolute value e.g. | | , and if we are to find the
absolute value of a negative number ( ), we simply put a negative sign in front of that negative
number then simplify e.g. | | ( ) .

If and are real numbers, then the following properties are true:

 | |
 | | | |
 | | | || |
| |
 | | | |

Also, an absolute value can define the distance of one real number from another on the real number
line.

Given that and are the two real numbers, the distance between and is given by

( ) | | | | ( )

Examples

a) Find the absolute values of the following numbers

i) 0
ii) 3
iii) -4
b) Find the following
i) The distance between 4 and 2
ii) The distance of 5 from -2
iii) The distance of -8 from -4
iv) The distance of -2 from 5

Solutions

For a)
i) | |
ii) | |
iii) | | ( )

For b)
i) ( ) | | | | or ( ) | | | |
ii) ( ) | ( )| | |

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 iii) ( ) | ( )| | |
iv) ( ) | | | | ( )

Section 2: Basic Rules of Algebra

Algebraic Expressions
Given the following expression

In the above expression, are called variables, are called terms, the real
numbers are called constants and is called an algebraic
expression.

Therefore, an algebraic expression is a collection of variables and constants connected to each other by
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

We can then deduce one of the basic characteristic of algebra as being the making use of letters
(variables) to represent numbers.

The Substitution Principle

This is a principle used to evaluate algebraic expressions by replacing letters with numerical values as it
states that if , where is a real number, then can be used to replace in an expression
involving .

Example

With the given value, evaluate the following algebraic expressions

i) ,
ii) ,
iii) ,

Solutions

i)

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 ii) ( ) ( )
iii)

The Basic Rules of Algebra

What we have under basic rules of algebra is basically the four basic arithmetic operations
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )), the properties with
which they relate and how they relate.

Let , and be real numbers, variables or algebraic expressions

The Commutative Property

Addition: For example:

or

Multiplication: For example: ( ) ( )

or

The Associative Property

Addition: ( ) ( ) For example: ( ) ( )

or
( ) ( )

Multiplication: ( ) ( ) For example: ( ) ( )

or
( ) ( )

Try the same operations we have done on commutative and associative property with subtraction in
place of addition and with division in place of multiplication. You will discover that commutative and
associative property work only for addition and multiplication.

The Distributive Property

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 ( ) For example: ( )
or or
( ) ( )
or
( )

( ) For example: ( )
or or
( ) ( )
or
( )

Identity Property

Addition: For example: ( ) ( )

or
0

Multiplication: For example: ( )

or
1

Inverse Property

Addition: ( ) For example: ( )

or
( )

Multiplication: For example: ( )

( )
or

Properties of Negation

Property Example

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

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 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Properties of Zero

Property Example

and and

( )( )
or

Properties of Fractions

Property Example

if and only if ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
or

and , and
( )( )
, or
( )( )

Properties of Equality

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 The idea of equality comes from the idea of equation which is a statement of equality where
mean the expressions and represent the same real number. Therefore,
mean that and represent the same number which is 7. Find below the three important
properties of equality.

Reflexive:
Symmetric:
Transitive:

Examples

Identify the rule of algebra illustrated by each of the following statement

i) ( )
ii)
iii) ( )
( )
iv) ( ) ( )
v) ( )( ) ( )( )
vi) ( )

Solutions

i) The zero property

ii) Multiplicative identity property
iii) Multi[locative inverse property
iv) Associative property of multiplication
v) Commutative property of multiplication
vi) Distributive property

Section 3: Integer Exponents

Let be a real number, repeated multiplication of by itself n number of times can be represented
under the form

n times

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 The form above is called an exponential form where is called a base and is called an exponent.

In this section we will be looking at the case where is an integer.

Example

Properties of Exponents
Let and be real numbers, variables or algebraic expressions

Property Example
, ( ) or

, or ( ) ( )

, or ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

| | | | | | | |

( ) ( )

( ) , ( )

or

( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

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 Example

Using properties of exponents, simplify the following expressions

i)
ii) ( )
iii) ( )

Solution

i)
ii) ( ) ( ) ( )
iii) ( ) ( )

Section 4: Radicals and Properties of Radicals

Let be a positive integer greater than 1 and let be a real number, we have

Where √ is called the radical, is called the radicand and is called the index.

The left side of the above equation, which is read as ‘the nth root of a’, is called the radical form and the
one on the right side is called the exponential form. The one on the right side is the kind of the
exponential form which is an extension to integer exponent; can be referred to as a rational exponent.

Properties of Radicals
Let and be real numbers, variables or algebraic expressions such that the indicated roots are real
numbers. And let and be positive integers, we have

Property Example

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 √ √ ; √ √
we do not write √ instead we write √ for
a square root
For n even, √ | | √( ) | | ,
also
√ | |
For n odd, √ √( )

(√ ) (√ )

√ (√ ) √ (√ ) ( )

√√ √ √√ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √
√ , √ √
√ √

Simplifying Radicals
When an expression involving radicals is in its simplest form it satisfies the following conditions:

 When the radical no longer possess possible factors

 When all fractions no longer have radicals (this is done by rationalizing the denominator)
 When the index of the radical has been reduced as far as possible

Examples

Simplify the following

i) √
ii) √
iii) √( )
iv) √

Solutions

i) √ √ √ √ √ √ √

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 ii) √ √ √ √ √ √
iii) √( ) | | | |
iv) √ √ √( ) √ , where

Section 5: Operations on Polynomials (Of one variable)

A polynomial is an algebraic expression in which the exponents on variables are non-negative integers.

The general stand form of the polynomial using the variable is given by

Where

- are real numbers(also called constants or coefficients), is the

leading coefficient and .
- are called terms of the polynomial.
- the highest nonnegative integer is called the degree of the polynomial and
are called degrees of the terms.
- is called the constant term and is considered to have a degree of zero (0).
- When we have only one term, the expression is called a monomial, when we have two terms it
will be called a binomial, when we have three terms it will be a trinomial and generally, i.e. for
any finite number of terms, the expression is called a polynomial.

Example

Rewrite the following polynomials under the standard form

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Solutions

i)
ii)

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 iii)
iv)

Therefore, a polynomial under its standard form is written in descending order of exponents.

Addition and/ or Subtraction of Polynomials

Before we get to addition and subtraction of polynomials, let us look at what like terms are. Like terms
are terms in the polynomial having the same variables which are raised to the same exponents.

We add and subtract polynomials by adding and subtracting like terms (we take out the variables and
add the coefficients left in brackets).

Examples

Simplify the following expressions

i) ( ) ( )
ii) ( ) ( )
iii)

Solutions

i) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

ii) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

iii)
To simplify, you first rearrange the terms in descending order of exponents,
( )
( ) ( )

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 Multiplication of Polynomials

Here we will look at the multiplication of two polynomials although the same method can be extended
to the multiplication of more than two polynomials.

To multiply two polynomials, we use the left and right distributive properties by first distributing the
first polynomial on each and every term of the second polynomial; then distribute the terms on each
term of the first polynomial, and multiply the coefficients and variables.

Example

Carry out the following multiplication of polynomials

( )( )

Solution

( )( ) ( ) ( )

(If there are any like terms, put them

together and simplify them)
( )

Division of Polynomials

In this subsection, you will be presented with division method called the long division method for
dividing two polynomials. For easy understanding, the method will be presented from the practical
point of view.

The Long Division Method

Given two polynomials ( ) and ( ) the division between the two

( )
( ) ( )
( )

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 Will be carried out as:

If ( ) and ( ) , then we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

We will have the division as follows

1. Divide the term with highest degree from ( ) into the term with highest degree from ( ):

2. Multiply the answer gotten in 1. above with ( ):

( ) ( )
3. Subtract the answer gotten in 2. above from ( ):

The answer is
4. Divide the term with highest degree from ( ) into the term with highest degree from the
answer gotten in 3. above. The answer you get, add it to the answer gotten in 1. above.

The answer gotten is 2, adding it to the answer gotten in 1. above, we get

5. Multiply to ( ) the answer gotten in 4. above after diving:

( ) ( )
6. Subtract the answer gotten in 5. Above from the answer gotten in step 3.:

The answer gotten is

7. At this point, we will not divide the term with highest degree from ( ) into the term with
highest degree from the answer gotten in 6. above because the answer gotten in step 6. has its
highest degree lower than that of the first term of ( )
We therefore conclude that after dividing ( ) ( ) , the answer is the one gotten
after adding the answer gotten in step 4. to the answer gotten in step 1. which is plus the
remainder which is the answer gotten in step 6. which is 3,
8. In standard form we will write the answer as
( )
( ) ( )

Quotient is what we get after dividing (the result of division)

9. The whole process of long division of polynomials will summarized in the diagram as follows

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 10. Final summary

Section 6: Factoring

Factoring is the process of writing a polynomial as a product other polynomials, with lesser degrees,
which may be divided into it without leaving a remainder. This is important for reducing fractional
expressions to their lowest (irreducible) terms and also for solving some equations. A polynomial in its
irreducible form is completely factored and remains with no reasons for any further factoring.

Factoring by Removing Common Factors

Example

Factor the following given expressions

i)
ii)
iii)
iv) ( )( ) ( )

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 Solutions

i) ( )
ii) ( )
iii) ( )
iv) ( )( ) ( ) ( )(( ) )
( )( )

Factoring Some Special Polynomial Forms

Factored Form Example

Difference of two squares

( )( )
( )( )
Perfect Square Trinomial
(i) ( )
(i) ( )
(ii) ( ) (ii) ( )
Sum/ Difference of two cubes
(i) ( )( )
(i) ( )( )
(ii) ( )( ) (ii) ( ) ( )( )

Trinomials (Quadratic Expressions) with Binomial Factors

Here, we will look at a special type of trinomial called a quadratic expression which of the form
.

To factorise the quadratic trinomial ., we first find two values, terms or expressions
such that when we multiply them, we get the product of and when we add them, we
get :

and then we finally factorise.

Example

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 Factorise the following expressions

i)
ii)

Solutions

i) , we first find two values such that

The two values are and .

Then we rewrite the expression by writing as a some of the value for
connected to the variable :

Next step is to factorise the first pair of terms and then the second pair of terms:
( ) ( )
Since ( ) is common to the two terms in the expression above, we factorise it finally as:
( ) ( ) ( )( )

ii) , we first find two values such that

The two values are and .

Then we rewrite the expression by writing as a some of the value for
connected to the variable :

Next step is to factorise the first pair of terms and then the second pair of terms:
( ) ( )
Since ( ) is common to the two terms in the expression above, we factorise it finally
as:
( ) ( ) ( )( )

Section 7: Rational Expressions

A rational expression is a fraction of two polynomials, i.e. one as a numerator and the other as a
denominator.

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 Examples

Simplifying Rational Expressions

Before simplifying any rational expression, we need to know its domain. Roughly, a domain of a
rational expression is a set of numbers such that when we replace each one of them in the denominator
expression, we do not get a zero.

We usually simplify rational expressions to their simplest form. The simplest form is where the
numerator and the denominator no longer have common factors. Therefore, to write a rational
expression in their simplest form is to cancel out their common factors just like in a fraction of real
numbers:

, where

The key in simplifying rational expressions successfully is in knowing how to factorise polynomials.

Examples

Simplify the following rational expressions

i)
ii)

Solutions
( )
i) , where
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
ii) where
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )

Addition/Subtraction of Rational Expressions

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 Just as in addition of real numbers, we will follow the basic rules of algebra.

Example

Add the following rational expressions

i)
ii)

Solutions

i) This problem is under the form , which can be solved as :

Therefore,

ii) This problem is under the form , which can be solved as :

Therefore,
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

Multiplication of Rational Expressions

We multiply by first factoring, then by cancelling out the common factors between numerators and
denominators and finally multiplying what remains. The multiplication is just like in real numbers by
following basic rules of algebra:

Example

Carry out the following multiplication

Solution
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( ),
where

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 Division of Rational Expressions
Just as in real numbers, using basic rules of algebra, we carry out the division of rational expressions.
But of course, with factoring the polynomials involved and cancelling out the common factors between
the numerators and denominators.

Example

Simplify the following expression

( )( )
= ( )
, where
( )

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 Bibliography

Barnett R. A. (1987). College Algebra (3rd). McGraw-Hill International

Editions Mathematics Series

Larson R., Hodgkins A.V.(2009). College Algebra -With Applications For

Business and the Life Sciences. Houghton Mifflin Company

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