GENERAL BIOLOGY II (REVIEWER)

LESSON 2. Recombinant DNA Technology:

LESSON 1. Recombinant DNA Technology Application and Ethical Considerations
and Its Principles
Genetic Engineering 1. Genetically Modified Crops
- Manipulating/modifying genetic material to - Developing genetically modified crops with
create desired traits desirable traits
- Also known as Recombinant DNA Technology - e.g. Bt cotton produces Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) toxin harmful to certain pests, reducing the
Goal of Recombinant DNA Technology use of pesticides
- Isolation and characterization of genes
- Desired modification in isolated genes 2. Gene Therapy
- Artificial synthesis of new genes - Treating/preventing genetic disorders by
- Interpretation of hereditary diseases and related introducing functional genes
cures - e.g. in some cases of severe combined
- Enhancement of the human genome immunodeficiency (SCID) which affects the
immune system, gene therapy has been used
Principles of Recombinant DNA Technology introduce a functional copy of the defective
1. Identification of the desired gene gene, restoring the immune system’s function
- Scientists identify gene/DNA sequence they
want to introduce or modify (may be responsible 3. Production of Biofuels
for a desired trait) - Engineering microorganisms (bacteria, yeast) to
produce biofuels
2. Isolation of the gene - Introducing genes responsible for production of
- Desired gene called “transgene” or “foreign enzymes in biofuel synthesis, enhancing the
gene” is isolated from the DNA of another efficiency of biofuel production
organism
- Techniques such as restriction enzymes are Ethical Considerations
used A. Human Genetic Engineering
 Inequality – widen gap between who
3. Insertion of the gene can/can’t afford genetic enhancements
- Isolated gene is inserted into organism’s DNA  Designer Babies – creating designer
using a delivery vector (e.g. virus or plasmid) babies w/ specific traits; playing God, risk
of eugenics
4. Expression of the gene  Unintended Consequences – could have
- After insertion, the gene must be turned on to undiscovered long-term consequences
produce the desired protein/trait using regulatory
elements (e.g. promoters, enhancers) B. Environmental Impact
 Ecological Balance – disrupt natural
5. Verification and selection ecological balances, harm biodiversity
- Modified organism is tested to ensure  Gene Flow – spread modified genes to
successful gene introduction wild populations
- Only organisms exhibiting the desired trait are  Unpredictable Effects – long-term effects
selected for further breeding/cultivation are not well-understood

C. Animal Welfare
 Suffering and Cruelty – involve invasive
procedure, potential harm during
experiment
 Loss of Natural Behaviors – loss of natural
behaviors or abilities
 Unintended Consequences – unforeseen
effects
D. Patenting and Ownership
 Monopolization – patents can lead to
monopolization of certain technologies,
limiting access, hindering progress
 Exploitation – concerns on exploiting
natural resources and indigenous
knowledge
 Access to Healthcare – patented tech may
be expensive, limiting access to life-saving
treatments for those who can’t afford them
1. Eons
LESSON 3. Recombinant DNA Technology: - Largest division
Recent Developments - Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic
(most recent, divided into 3 eras)
1. CRISPR-Cas9 Technology
- Gene editing tool, making precise DNA 2. Eras
changes - Represent major intervals of time within an eon
- Uses guide RNA to target a DNA sequence - E.g. Eras of Phanerozoic Eon: Paleozoic,
- Cas9 cuts DNA; triggers DNA repair Mesozoic, Cenozoic
mechanisms to introduce desired changes
- Genetic engineering made more accessible, 3. Periods
efficient, cost-effective - Subdivisions of eras; represent smaller intervals
- Treat genetic diseases, developing GM crops, - E.g. Six Periods of Paleozoic Era: Cambrian,
studying gene functions Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
Permian
2. Gene Therapy
- Treat/prevent disease by introducing/modifying 4. Epochs
genes - Even smaller divisions within periods; represent
- Cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, certain relatively short intervals
cancers - Current epoch is Holocene (11,700 years ago)
- E.g. CAR-t Cell Therapy which modifies immune
cells to attack cancer cells 5. Ages
- Smallest divisions; represent shortest intervals
3. Genetic Engineering in Agriculture - Used to further refine the timing of events
- Develop crops with improved traits such as
increased yield, pest and disease resistance, Major Events and Life Forms Associated with
enhanced nutritional content Different Divisions of the Geologic Time Scale
- Resilience to climate change, fewer pesticides,
improved nutritional profiles Period
- E.g. Engineered rice to contain more Vitamin A a. Cambrian – rapid diversification of marine
life, complex organisms
LESSON 4. The Geologic Time Scale b. Jurassic – dominance of dinosaurs, birds

Geologic Time Scale Epoch

a. Holocene – human civilization, climate
- System in dividing Earth’s history based on
changes
major geological and biological events
- Framework; sequence of events
- Each division represents a significant interval of
time
 LESSON 5. The Geologic Time Scale: 4. Mutation – ultimate source of genetic
Major Groups of Organisms variation; caused by factors such as DNA
replication errors or exposure to mutagens;
1. Prokaryotes (3.5B years ago) mostly harmful/neutral but can be beneficial
- Earliest known forms of life
- Single-celled, no nucleus
- Bacteria and archaea LESSON 7. Pattern of Descent with Modification
Ex. Cyanobacteria – blue-green algae, first
prokaryotes to photosynthesize Natural Selection
- Explains how species change over time
2. Plants (500M years ago) - Certain traits become more/less common due to
- Multicellular eukaryotic organisms; their impact on survival and reproduction
photosynthesize
- Provide food, habitat, and oxygen 1. Divergent Evolution
- Ex. Ferns – reproduce via spores, vascular - 2 or more species evolve from a common
tissues to transport water/nutrients, dominant ancestor, become more different over time
during Carboniferous period, extensive coal - Exposure to different environmental conditions
deposits or niches
- Adapt to environment; develop distinct traits
Ex. Finches in Galapagos Islands – different beak
LESSON 6. Mechanisms of Evolution shapes/sizes to exploit different food sources

Evolution 2. Convergent Evolution

- Process by which species change over time - Unrelated species independently evolve similar
- Driven by various mechanisms leading to traits due to similar environmental pressures
genetic variation and subsequent adaptation Ex. Body shape of sharks and dolphins – both
evolved to be efficient swimmers
5 Main Types of Mechanisms
1. Natural Selection – most well-known; certain 3. Coevolution
traits provide higher chances of - 2 or more species evolve in response to each
survival/reproduction leading to increased other
frequency of those traits - Close ecological relationship (predator-prey,
a. Stabilizing – individuals with intermediate mutualistic interactions)
traits have higher fitness that w/ extreme - As one evolves new traits, the other evolves
b. Directional – individuals with one extreme counter-adaptations
trait have higher fitness than w/ other traits Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators
c. Disruptive – individuals with extreme traits
have higher fitness than w/ intermediate
LESSON 8. Development of
2. Genetic Drift – random changes in allele Evolutionary Thought
frequencies within population; more
pronounced in smaller populations; lead to Evolutionary Thought
loss/fixation of certain alleles - The study of how species change over time
a. Bottleneck Effect – drastic reduction in through evolution
size; loss of biodiversity; survivors may not
represent original variation Early Ideas
b. Founder Effect – small group establishes - Concept of evolution was contemplated by
new population in new area; genetic ancient civilizations (Greeks, Romans)
makeup is determined by founders - 18th-19th century significant progress

3. Gene Flow – movement of genes through 1. Jean Baptiste-Lamarck

populations through migration or transfer of - French biologist, early 19th century
gametes; introduce new genetic variation; - Species evolve through inheritance of acquired
more likely in geographically close characteristics
populations
- Organism changes during its lifetime in
response to environment, passed on to
generations
- Disproven but laid foundation for future
evolutionary thought LESSON 10. Evolutionary Relationships

2. Charles Darwin Evolutionary Relationships

- Most well-known - Connections/patterns of descent
- 1859, published book, “On the Origin of - Understand how different species are related
Species” Theory of Natural Selection
- Species evolve through variation, inheritance, 1. Phylogenetic Trees
and selection - Branching diagram; represents evolutionary
- Individuals with advantageous traits are more history and relationships between species
likely to survive, reproduce, pass on - Shows common ancestors and sequence of
branching events
Modern Synthesis - Based on genetic data, anatomical features, and
- Early 20th century, integration of genetics into fossil records
evolutionary thought
- Understanding of how genetic variation and
natural selection drive evolution

1. Gregor Mendel
- Austrian monk, experiments on pea plants (mid-
19th century)
- Laid foundation for field of genetics through
Principles of Inheritance
- Laws of Inheritance, how traits are passed from 2. Cladistics
one generation to the next, supporting Darwin’s - Grouping organisms based on shared derived
Theory of Natural Selection characteristics (synapomorphies), common
ancestry, and evolutionary relationships
2. Theodosius Dobzhansky - Cladogram – branching diagram that represents
- Ukrainian-American geneticist, bridged gaps evolutionary relationships between different
between genetics and evolution groups of organisms
- Mid-20th century, proposed genetic mutations
and recombination are raw materials for 3. Homology
evolutionary change - Similarities between organisms inherited from
- Emphasized importance of genetic variation in common ancestor
natural selection - Similarities in terms of genetic sequences,
anatomical structures, or developmental

LESSON 9. Evidences of Evolution 4. Analogy

- Similarities between organisms that are not
1. Embryology inherited but are a result of convergent evolution
- Study of development of embryos
- Comparative embryology reveals similarities in Ex.
early stages of development among species  Humans and Chimpanzees (Homology) –
Ex. Embryos of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals share common ancestor; share 98% of DNA;
have similar structure close revolutionary relationship
 Birds and Bats (Analogy) – for flight (wings,
2. Molecular Biology lightweight skeletons), convergent evolution
- Provides evidence for evolution at molecular  Whales and Fish (Analogy) – streamlined
level bodies and fins for living in water; convergent
- Analyzing DNA sequences, determine degree of evolution; whales are mammals more closely
relatedness between species related to cows
- The more similar DNA, more closely related
 - Results in 2 identical DNA molecules each
containing one original and one newly
synthesized strand

LESSON 11. Structural and Developmental

Characteristics of DNA Sequences
2. Gene Expression
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - Process by which info encoded in DNA is used
- Molecule that carries genetic instruction for to synthesize protein
growth, development, functioning, and - Involves 2 main steps: transcription and
reproduction translation
- Composed of 2 long strands of nucleotides - Transcription: DNA sequence of a gene is
twisted together to form a double helix structure copied into a molecule called messenger RNA
- Nucleotide sequence determines the genetic (mRNA)
code responsible for diversity - Translation: mRNA moves out of nucleus,
serves as template for protein synthesis
Structural Characteristics of DNA Sequences - Sequence of nucleotides in mRNA determines
1. Double Helix Structure sequence of amino acids in proteins
- Formed by 2 complementary strands of
nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds 3. Genetic Variation
- Each strand is made of a sugar-phosphate - Raw material for evolution; essential for
backbone and nitrogenous bases held together adaptation of organisms to changing
by hydrogen bonds environments
- Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T), - Can occur through mechanisms such as
Cytosine (C) always pairs with Guanine (G) mutations (changes in DNA sequence), genetic
- Complementary base pairing is essential for recombination (exchange of genetic materials
DNA replication and protein synthesis between chromosomes), and gene flow
(movement of genes between populations)
2. Nucleotides
- Building blocks of DNA Relatedness of DNA Sequences
- Each nucleotide consists of 3 components: a 1. DNA Sequencing
sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate - process of determining precise order of
group, and a nitrogenous base nucleotides in DNA
- Four types of nitrogenous bases: A, T, C, G. - Allows scientists to compare DNA sequences
Their sequence along DNA determines genetic from different organisms and study their
information relatedness to infer evolutionary relationships
and make phylogenetic trees
3. Chromosomes
- DNA sequences are organized into structures 2. Homologous Genes
called chromosomes, w/c are thread-like - Genes that share a common ancestry; similar
structures in the nucleus of a cell DNA sequences and perform similar functions in
- Contain long DNA molecules tightly coiled and different organisms
condensed
- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in 3. Molecular Clock
each cell containing thousands of genes - Concept in molecular evolution that uses rate of
DNA sequence changes to estimate time of
Developmental Characteristics of DNA divergence between species
Sequences - Assumes that DNA sequences accumulate
1. DNA Replication mutations at a relatively constant rate of time
- Process by which cell makes identical copy of its
DNA LESSON 12. Unique Characteristics of
- 2 strands of DNA separate, each strand serves Specific Taxa
as a template for the synthesis of a new
complementary strand Taxonomy – science of classifying and
categorizing living organisms into taxa
- Each taxon has its own unique characteristics
Kingdoms F. Porifera
A. Animalia - Simple multicellular, no true tissues and organs,
- Multicellular, heterotrophic (obtain nutrients by filter feeders
consuming other organisms), no cell wall, can - Include sponges
move

B. Plantae
- Multicellular, autotrophic (photosynthesize),
have cell wall made of cellulose, immobile

C. Fungi
- Mostly multicellular, heterotrophic, have cell wall
made of chitin, reproduce through spores

D. Protista
- Mostly unicellular, can be auto/heterotrophic,
diverse group w/ various characteristics, some
have cell walls some don’t

E. Archaea
- Unicellular, extremophiles, genetically and
biochemically distinct from bacteria

F. Bacteria
- Unicellular, prokaryotic (no nucleus), found in
various habitats, diverse metabolic capabilities

Phyla
A. Chordata
- Have notochords (flexible rod-like structure),
dorsal nerve cord, bony cartilaginous structure
- Include vertebrates such as mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, fish

B. Arthropoda
- Segmented bodies with jointed appendages,
chitin exoskeleton, compound eyes, largest
phylum (over a million species)
- Include insects, crustaceans, arachnids

C. Mollusca
- Soft-bodied w/ muscular foot, often have hard
shells, some have radula (feeding organ)
- Includes snails, clams, squids, octopuses

D. Annelida
- Segmented bodies w/ repeated units, closed
circulatory system, many have sitae (bristle-like
structures) for locomotion
- Include earthworms and leeches

E. Echinodermata
- Spiny-skinned, radial symmetry as adults, water
vascular system and feeding
- Include starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers