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Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation during pile driving using
PIV technology

Article in Geomechanics and Engineering · October 2020

DOI: 10.12989/gae.2020.23.2.139

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Geomechanics and Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 2 (2020) 139-149
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12989/gae.2020.23.2.139 139

Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation

during pile driving using PIV technology
Tong Jiang, Lijin Wang, Junran Zhang, Hang Jia and Jishun Pan
Henan Province Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Structural Engineering,
North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou, Henan 450045, China

(Received May 26, 2020, Revised August 2, 2020, Accepted September 27, 2020)

Abstract. Piles are widely used in structural foundations of engineering projects. However, the deformation of the soil around
the pile caused by driving process has an adverse effect on adjacent existing underground buildings. Many previous studies have
addressed related problems in sand and saturated clay. Nevertheless, the failure mechanism of pile driving in unsaturated soil
remains scarcely reported, and this issue needs to be studied. In this study, a modeling test system based on particle image
velocimetry (PIV) was developed for studying deformation characteristics of pile driving in unsaturated silt with different water
contents. Meanwhile, a series of direct shear tests and soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) tests also were conducted. The test
results show that the displacement field shows an apparent squeezing effect under the pile end. The installation pressure and
displacement field characteristics are sensitive to the water content. The installation pressure is the largest and the total
displacement field is the smallest, for specimens compacted at water content of 11.5%. These observations can be reasonably
interpreted according to the relevant unsaturated silt theory derived from SWCC tests and direct shear tests. The variation
characteristics of the soil displacement field reflect the macroscopic mechanical properties of the soil around the pile.
Keywords: particle image velocimetry (PIV); model test; unsaturated; pile driving; displacement field; soil-water
characteristic curve

1. Introduction pile bearing capacity, but only a few studies the distribution
and variation trend of the soil displacement field around the
Silt is widely distributed in the Henan area in China and unsaturated subgrade during the pile driving process.
is convenient to use for highway construction projects. Moreover, the influence of suction on pile-soil action
Owing to the poor engineering characteristics of silt mechanism in unsaturated subgrade is still unclear.
(Ahmadi-Naghadeh 2019), a natural silt foundation does not Particle image velocimetry (PIV) designed originally for
meet the requirements of foundation strength and fluid mechanics is widely used to measure soil deformation
deformation. Therefore, a pile foundation is used for (Yuan et al. 2012, Zhang et al. 2019), and the strain and
reinforcement that effectively reduces settlement. However, displacement fields of a sample surface can be accurately
the strong disturbance of the surrounding soil caused by the determined using PIV technology (Qi et al. 2017, Yuan et
driving process will have an adverse impact on the existing al. 2017, You and Chen 2018). In recent years, the PIV
buildings. Extensive research has been conducted on the technology has been applied to unsaturated soils. Azmatch
pile-driving process in saturated soil subgrade using et al. (2008) studied the growth and microscopic
different methodological approaches, including scale mechanism of frozen soil ice lens based on PIV technology
models (Liu et al. 2011, Al-Omari et al. 2016, Fattah et al. using Devo clay labeled with fluorescent powder aqueous
2017, Al-abboodi et al. 2020), numerical simulations solution, and pointed out that the consolidation
(Ekanayake 2013, Cyril et al. 2019, Hyodo et al. 2019, Jeon phenomenon of frozen soil was related to the change of
et al. 2020, Yuan et al. 2020), theoretical calculations pore water pressure. Using PIV and DIC techniques, Li et
(Masoumi et al. 2007, Li et al. 2020), and field tests (Gao et al. (2019) studied the development of displacement
al. 2018). Most previous studies focused on pile driving in direction and strain concentration during tension. In
sand, transparent soil, and saturated clay. In recent years, summary, PIV technology has been developed in the
some studies have been published on the influence of measurement of unsaturated soil stress-displacement/strain
unsaturation in engineering problems such us bearing characteristics.
capacity of foundations. Lalicata et al. (2019) investigate The embankment soil in the Henan area is mostly
the effects of saturation and unsaturation on the behaviour unsaturated owing to the subgrade height above the water
of laterally loaded piles. Most of the research focuses on the table. Therefore, the study of unsaturated soil is an urgent
need for subgrade soil (Wang et al. 2020). Matric suction is
the core of unsaturated soil research (Zhang et al. 2016,
Corresponding author, Ph.D. Gao et al. 2019, Xin et al. 2020, Zhang et al. 2020), and the
E-mail: [email protected] soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC), which
characterizes the relationship between matric suction and
Copyright © 2020 Techno-Press, Ltd.
http://www.techno-press.org/?journal=gae&subpage=7 ISSN: 2005-307X (Print), 2092-6219 (Online)
140 Tong Jiang, Lijin Wang, Junran Zhang, Hang Jia and Jishun Pan

water content, is essential (Fredlund and Xing 1994,

Bordoni et al. 2017). Many studies have addressed the
influence of different factors on SWCCs and proposed
methods for their prediction (Sun et al. 2007, Jayanth et al.
2012, Bareither and Benson 2013, Zhou et al. 2019). The
SWCC is of considerable significance to solve the problem
of unsaturated soil and can quickly provide useful
parameters for geotechnical engineering projects.
In order to further clarify the internal mechanism of pile
squeezing effects and the influence of suction on pile
bearing capacity in unsaturated subgrade. A modeling test
system based on PIV was developed for studying the
process of single pile driving in unsaturated silt. A charge-
coupled device (CCD) high-speed camera and Davis8.0
series acquisition software were used to record images
throughout the entire testing period, a loading system was Fig. 1 GCTS SWCC experimental setup
used to measure the installation pressure, and the post-
processing software such as PIVview2C was used to obtain
the displacement field distribution of soil around the pile.
The deformation field of unsaturated silt around the pile
was determined, and the mesoscopic silt deformation
characteristics with variable water content were deeply
analyzed. Direct shear tests and SWCC tests were
conducted for studying the physical and water retention
characteristics of unsaturated silt. The results are discussed
in combination with test results of pile driving process.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Experimental setup

2.1.1 SWCC testing apparatus

As shown in Fig. 1, the Geotechnical Consulting and
Testing Systems (GCTS) SWCC apparatus is a set of
unsaturated soil testing equipment used to obtain the soil Fig. 2 PIV experimental setup
SWCC. The pore water pressure is applied from the bottom
through the high-air entry disk, and the pore air pressure is
applied from the top cap. The matric suction of the mm/min. The load data is determined from a loading cell
specimen is controlled by axial translation (Hilf 1956, with the capacity of 160 N, the accuracy of 0.03% Full
Fattah et al. 2017). Scale (FS), and the resolution of 0.001 N. Displacement is
determined from measurements using a linear variable
2.1.2 Direct shear testing apparatus differential transducer (LVDT) with the capacity of 100
An SDJ-1 three-speed electric direct shear apparatus mm, the accuracy of 0.1% Full Scale (FS), and the
was used to measure soil shear strength. The controllable resolution of 0.001 mm. Both the load cell and LVDT
shear speeds are 0.02, 0.8, and 2.4 mm/min. The maximum collect information simultaneously during testing. Specimen
vertical load is 400 kPa, and the maximum horizontal shear deformation is therefore performed synergistically with the
force is 1.2 kN. load applied by the loading system.
The image capture system consists of floodlights, CCD
2.1.3 PIV model testing apparatus high-speed cameras, Davis 8.3.0 series software, and post-
The automatic static pile-driving device with an image processing software, including PIVview2C. The range of
capture system is shown in Fig. 2. This apparatus consists the photographed specimens was 38.5 × 38.5 cm. The outer
of two systems: a loading system and an image capture boundary size of the upper opening of the model box was
system. The loading system is a CMT4000 electronic 35 × 20 cm, the wall thickness was 1.0 cm, and the height
universal testing machine developed by the American was 30 cm. The model pile made of a steel plate was square
Meester Company, includes loading equipment and a data with a length of 36 cm and a width of 1.1 cm, and the pile
acquisition system, and is used to apply the pile pressure end was flat, as shown in Fig. 2. According to Qi et al.
and measure the driving depth of the static pile. The load is (2015), the slenderness ratio for buckling is mainly affected
by the material and the slenderness ratio of the pile. The
imposed with a constant velocity displacement rate (0～10 pile used in this study is a rigid pile with a moderate
mm/min), and the pile driving speed in the test was 10 slenderness ratio, so it is not easy to occur buckling
 Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation during pile driving using PIV technology 141

Table 1 Physical and mechanical properties of the silt Table 3 Direct shear test program for the unsaturated
Specific Liquid Plastic Maximum dry Optimum
Yudong silt
Plastic density,
gravity, limit, limit, Water contents, Initial water Normal stress,
index, Ip Dry density, ρd (g/cm3)
Gs wL (%) wP (%) ρd(g/cm3) wopt (%) content, w0 (%) σv(kPa)
2.7 25 19 6 1.72 12.7 3.5
9.5
1.45 11.5 100, 200, 300, 400
13.4
17.3

Fig. 3 Particle size distribution of Yudong silt

Table 2 Suction paths

Path type Suction path
1 kPa→10 kPa→20 kPa→40 kPa→80 kPa→160
Drying
kPa→320 kPa
Fig. 4 Model test specimen

instability failure. The relative buckling length of the rigid

pile is not considered in this study, which can be suction, it was removed from the GCTS unsaturated soil
theoretically calculated in future research. According to odometer. Its volume and water content were obtained by
Bolton et al. (1999), when the pile diameter is 20 times measuring its size and mass. The relationship between
higher than the average soil diameter, and the distance water content and matric suction can be obtained by
between the pile and the boundary is at least ten times integrating the experimental results of each suction balance.
greater than the pile diameter, the particle size effect and
boundary effect are tolerable. Both of the above conditions 2.2.2 Direct shear testing program
are met in this model test. During sample preparation, the dry silt density was
controlled at 1.45 g/cm3, and water contents of 3.5%, 9.5%,
2.1.4 Physical and mechanical properties of silt 11.5%, 13.4%, and 17.3% were applied to five separate
Soil samples were collected from Yudong in eastern sample groups. As shown in Table 3, four specimens from
Henan at a depth of ~3 m. The main physical and each group were then applied with a normal vertical
mechanical properties of the specimens are listed in Table 1. pressure of 100, 200, 300, and 400 kPa, respectively, for
The liquid limit and plastic limit of the samples are 25% quick shear testing using a shear rate of 0.8 mm/min.
and 19%, respectively, and the the plasticity index of the silt The time of direct shear test completed at this shear rate
is 6. As shown in Fig. 3, the silt particle content was up to is the closest to the time of pile driving. And it is more
60%, and the soil specimen is sandy silt with a low liquid convenient to explain the test mechanism of pile driving
limit. process with the change law of unsaturated silt cohesion
obtained by direct shear test.
2.2 Testing program
2.2.3 PIV Model testing program
2.2.1 Testing program for SWCC Matric suction is an important parameter to study the
The initial specimen size used in the tests was d0=6.18 engineering properties of unsaturated soil and is closely
cm and h0=2 cm. The water content (w) and dry density of related to water content (Gu et al. 2019, Satyanaga and
the specimen were 12.7% and 1.55 g/cm3, respectively. The Rahardjo 2019). We therefore study the properties of
specimen was then saturated using a vacuum pump. unsaturated soil by controlling the water content to 3.5%,
As shown in Table 2, the SWCC test was conducted at 9.5%, 11.5%, 13.4%, and 17.3%. The core emphasis of this
net stress of 1 kPa. The specimen was first placed on the study is to analyze the influence of water content on the
clay plate in the pressure chamber, and the desired air displacement field of soil around the pile and installation
pressure was applied. The specimen was then applied with pressure during pile driving in a silt foundation. A fixed dry
different matric suction to measure the SWCC along the dry density of 1.45 g/cm3 was therefore applied. The dry soil
path. After the specimen reached a balance with a given quality of each group is consistent. After the soil sample is
142 Tong Jiang, Lijin Wang, Junran Zhang, Hang Jia and Jishun Pan

(a) w-s (b) Sr-s

Fig. 5 Soil-water characteristic curve of unsaturated Yudong silt with an initial dry density of 1.55 g/cm3

prepared according to the target water content, it is screened The relationship between the degree of saturation (Sr)
firstly and then placed in the moisturizing tank for 24 hours and the suction (s) is shown in Fig. 5(b). The saturation
to make it evenly mixed. After distributing the soil curve can be divided into three distinct stage characteristics,
according to the required total soil, it is divided into three which are the boundary effect section, the transition section,
layers and compacted at a certain height, so as to ensure that and the unsaturated residual section. In the boundary effect
the dry density of each group is consistent. A prepared stage, the variation of suction value is small, and the water
specimen with the water content of 9.5% is shown in Fig. 4. in the soil sample is discharged by gravity. In the transition
The PIV measurement system and loading system were stage, the water in the soil sample is largely discharged with
turned on and the camera was calibrated with a special increasing suction, the saturation decreases, and the final
calibration board. After calibration, the camera frequency reduction rate decreases. As the saturation continues to
and photo number of the PIV measurement system were set. decrease, the liquid phase in the soil gradually ceased to be
To record the entire pile-driving process, the pile loading continuous. At this time, the soil gradually entered the
rate was set to 10 mm/min, and the photo collection unsaturated residual section, and the pore water changed
frequency of the high-speed camera was one sheet/s. The from gravity water to combined water and capillary water.
loading system and the image capture system are controlled The silt used in this paper has a relatively large particle size
by two people, and the test is started at the same time with a and large pore size. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 5(b), the air
stopwatch to ensure that the test can be synchronized. After entry value is 8.1 kPa, pore water can be discharged under
the test, all pictures were converted to grayscale images and small matric suction conditions (Wang and Li 2015). When
imported into the computer programs PIVview2C and s reaches 320 kPa, the drainage rate decreases, and the soil
tecplot10 for PIV analyses. The soil deformation at different saturation is already low at this time (Zhang et al. 2018,
stages was determined by comparing the pictures at the Zhang et al. 2019). Tao et al. (2018) tested the soil-water
beginning and end of each stage. characteristic curves of various soils. The silt air entry value
is relatively low and the water retention capacity is weak,
which is consistent with the experimental results in this
3. Results paper.
3.1 SWCC test results
3.2 Direct shear test results
The obtained SWCCs are shown in Fig. 5. Water content
(w) and degree of saturation (Sr) decrease with increasing The relationship between vertical stress and shear
suction (s). The relationship between water content (w) and strength of silt with different water contents is shown in
suction (s) is shown in Fig. 5(a). When s is relatively small, Fig. 6. When the water content is low, the shear strength of
the water content decreases slowly with increasing suction, soil increases with increasing water content. When water
and the slope of the curve is lower. When s reaches 10 kPa, content reached 11.5%, the shear strength of soil began to
pore water in the specimen is discharged in large quantities, decrease with increasing water content. The slope of the
the water content decreases rapidly, and the slope of the strength envelope of silt with different water contents is
curve abruptly increases. When s is greater than 40 kPa, essentially the same, and the angle of internal friction
pore water continues to be discharged, and the water ranges between 20° and 23°. Silt cohesion initially increases
content decreases gradually. When s reaches 320 kPa, the with increasing water content and then decreases, as shown
water content is already very low. The shape of the SWCC in Fig. 7. Cohesion is the largest (i.e., 39.4 kPa) for the silt
is closely related to the basic silt properties. The clay specimens compacted with the water content of 11.5%.
content of silt is low and the water retention capacity is not These findings are consistent with the results of Wei et al.
strong, so it is reflected that the slope of the soil-water (2019). From the above test results, it can be seen that the
characteristic curve is steep and the residual water content effect of water content on shear strength is mainly through
is low. reducing or enhancing cohesion, and the effect of water
 Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation during pile driving using PIV technology 143

is sandy silt with a low liquid limit and its engineering

properties are between silt and sand. Therefore the shear
strength of the soil increases and then decreases with
increasing water content.

3.3 Relationship between the installation pressure P

and the depth of pile H with different water contents

The relationship between the installation pressure P and

the pile depth H is shown in Fig. 8. When the water content
is 3.5% and 17.3%, the P-H curve morphologies are mostly
the same, both showing an upward convex trend. When the
water content is 9.5%, 11.5%, and 13.4%, the P-H curve
Fig. 6 Relationship between the vertical stress and the morphologies are also essentially the same, but tend to be
shear strength of silts with different water content convex first and then concave. The P-H curve changes the
most significant when the water content is 11.5%. The P-H
curve can be roughly divided into three stages based on its
morphology characteristics. The relationship curve between
P and H is therefore related to the water contents of the
unsaturated silt.
In the first stage, there is a linear phase in the P-H
curve, and P increases linearly with increasing H. It is
consistent with the well-known increment of
preconsolidation stress in unsaturated soils (Gens 2010).
According to Lalicata et al. (2019), this stage cannot be
found in saturated condition. Then, as the pile depth
increases, the soil around the pile undergoes plastic
deformation, and P continues to increase, but the derivative
of P decreases rapidly. P initially increases with increasing
Fig. 7 Relationship between the silt cohesion and the water content and then decreases, and is the largest when
water content the water content is 11.5%. In the second stage, the soil
under the pile end continues to be compressed. With
increasing pile depth, P does not increase significantly, or
even remains unchanged or decreased. The stress of the soil
under the pile end exceeds its shear strength, and it can be
considered that the soil at this stage has been damaged.
These observations are similar to those of Kong et al.
(2015) and can be called the destruction stage. For
specimens compacted at 9.5%, 11.5% and 13.4% water
content, the inflection point of the curve is more obvious, as
shown in Fig. 8; For specimens compacted at 3.5% and
17.3% water content, strain hardening occurs in the soil
when the pile depth is relatively large.
3.4 Deformation field of soil around the pile during
pile driving

Comparative analysis was performed by comparing

Fig. 8 Relationships between the pile installation pressure
pictures recorded at the beginning and end of each stage
and the depth during pile driving
PIVview2C and tepclot 10 software were then used to
generate a cloud map and contour map, respectively. The
content on the angle of internal friction is less. displacement contour maps are given immediately after
loading.
Gao et al. (2020) pointed out that the shear strength of
different soil types over a wide suction range can be broadly
3.4.1 Specimens compacted with 3.5% and 17.3%
classified into three groups. For sand, the shear strength
water content
usually increases with increasing suction to a marked peak
The comprehensive analysis of specimens compacted at
value and then decreases sharply to a fairly constant value.
water contents of 3.5% and 17.3% (Figs. 9 and 10) show
For silt or silty clay, as the suction increases, the shear that the displacement field characteristics of the soil around
strength increases to a fairly constant value or a maximum. the pile are similar and can be roughly divided into two
For some silty clay or clay, the shear strength always stages by the morphological characteristics of the P-H
increases with the increasing suction. The soil of the paper curve.
144 Tong Jiang, Lijin Wang, Junran Zhang, Hang Jia and Jishun Pan

(a) Displacement field in the first stage (b) Displacement field in the second stage
Fig. 9 Displacement field of soil around the pile during different stages (w=3.5%)

(a) Displacement field in the first stage (b) Displacement field in the second stage
Fig. 10 Displacement field of soil around the pile during different stages (w=17.3%)

In the first stage, at a depth of ~10 mm, the upper soil is 3.4.2 Specimens compacted with 9.5% ,11.5% and
continuously disturbed, and its displacement changes 13.4% water content
greatly. With increasing pile depth, the soil under the pile The comprehensive analysis of specimens compacted at
end is continuously compressed, the soil force is water contents of 9.5%, 11.5%, and 13.4% (Figs. 11, 12,
continuously strengthened, and the soil displacement field and 13) show that the displacement field characteristics of
increases significantly. In the figure, it appears as two sets the soil around the pile are similar and can be roughly
of elliptical rings that are concentratedly distributed in the divided into three stages in accordance with the
upper soil and the soil under the pile end. Soil disturbance morphological characteristics of the P-H curve. In the first
on both sides of the static pile is essentially the same, stage, at a depth of ~10 mm, under the pile end, the soils is
showing a fundamental symmetric trend. The maximum compressed and the displacement field is shown as an
displacement field appears below the pile end. independent elliptical ring in the figure. Soil disturbance on
In the second stage, at a depth of ~88 mm, the squeezing both sides of the pile is essentially the same, showing a
effect becomes more apparent with increasing pile driving essential symmetric trend. The maximum displacement
depth and the dense disturbance area moves down. As field appears below the pile end.
shown in Figs. 9 and 10, a set of displacement contours in In the second stage, at a depth of ~62 mm, the soil under
the shape of an elliptical ring appears below the pile end. the pile end is compressed and the displacement field
The distribution of the contours is more concentrated, and moves down, presenting a symmetrical trend of gradual
the values are larger than other situations. The displacement downward movement. The soil under the pile end is
field is essentially symmetrically distributed on both sides damaged when the stress exceeds its shear strength. The soil
of the pile. The soil disturbance around the pile due to large disturbance around the pile due to large deformation and
deformation and extrusion is more concentrated and extrusion is more concentrated and distributed. The
distributed. The maximum displacement field also appears maximum displacement field also appears below the pile
below the pile end. Due to the destruction of soil around the end.
pile, the maximum displacement field increased In the third stage, at a depth of ~88 mm, according to
significantly compared with the previous stage. the morphological characteristics of the P-H curve, this
 Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation during pile driving using PIV technology 145

(a) Displacement field in the first stage (b) Displacement field in the second stage

(c) Displacement field in the third stage

Fig. 11 Displacement field of soil around the pile during different stages (w=9.5%)

(a) Displacement field in the first stage (b) Displacement field in the second stage

(c) Displacement field in the third stage

Fig. 12 Displacement field of soil around the pile during different stages (w=11.5%)
146 Tong Jiang, Lijin Wang, Junran Zhang, Hang Jia and Jishun Pan

(a) Displacement field in the first stage (b) Displacement field in the second stage

(c) Displacement field in the third stage

Fig. 13 Displacement field of soil around the pile during different stages (w=13.4%)

increasing pile depth, the upper soil is continuously

disturbed, and the soil under the pile end is compressed,
resulting in larger deformation. With increasing pile depth,
the distribution of displacement contour is more
concentrated, that is, the distribution of soil around the pile
caused by large deformation and extrusion becomes more
concentrated, while the soil deformation in other regions
does not change significantly.

4. Discussion

Comparative analyses are shown in Figs. 6 and 8. In the Fig. 14 The maximum total deformation of samples with
first stage, under the same settlement depth condition, the different water contents
installation pressure (Fig. 8) and shear strength (Fig. 6) both
first increase and then decrease with increasing water
content. The water content of the silt has a significant the liquid bridges appear at most contact points of particles.
influence on the relationship curve between the installation The liquid bridges among particles will disappear gradually
pressure P and the pile depth H. For unsaturated soils, the with further increasing water content, resulting in a
change of microstructure with water content should be decrease in the shear strength. Therefore, the installation
considered (Trabelsi et al. 2018, Xin et al. 2020). Most of pressure is the maximum for specimens compacted at water
the water is stored inside aggregate pores at low water content of 11.5%.
contents, and it is very difficult to form liquid bridges (Gens The total deformation field under each condition was
and Alonso 1992). The soil shear strength depends mainly obtained by comparing pictures recorded at the end of the
on the liquid bridges among particles. When w is less than experiment with the reference picture taken before testing
the optimum water content, the liquid bridges form under different water contents conditions, as shown in Fig.
gradually with increasing water content, thus the shear 14. The total deformation first decreases and then increases
strength increases with increasing water content. When the with increasing water content and is the smallest near the
water content increases up to the optimum water content, optimal water content. The deformation variables of the
 Effect of water content on near-pile silt deformation during pile driving using PIV technology 147

region of the SWCC, water content and saturation decrease

rapidly. Silt has poor water retention capability, so when s is
high, the water content is small.
• In the process of pile driving, as the depth of the
driving pile increases, there is a linear phase in the load-
displacement relationship, which cannot be found in
saturated condition. And then the soil will undergo plastic
deformation. Finally, when the stress on the soil exceeds its
shear strength, the soil is damaged. For specimens
compacted at water content of 9.5%, 11.5% and 13.4%, the
damage stage is more obvious; For specimens compacted at
water content of 3.5% and 17.3%, strain hardening occurs
in the soil when the pile depth is relatively large. The water
Fig. 15 Soil remains upright after the pile is pulled out content of silt has an important influence on the relationship
curve of P-H, and the installation pressure is the largest for
specimens compacted at water content of 11.5%.
samples with five different water contents are 0.66, 0.32, • In the process of pile driving, the displacement fields
0.22, 0.36, and 0.50 mm, respectively. As shown in Figs. 7 on both sides of the pile are essentially symmetrically
and 14, the displacement field of the soil around the pile is distributed. With increasing pile depth, the densely
related to the cohesion of the unsaturated silt during pile disturbed area moves downward, and the concentrated
driving. When the water content is exceedingly high or low, distribution of the disturbed area caused by large
the effective surface tension on the shrink film of the gas- deformation and extrusion becomes more apparent. In this
water interface between the powder particles will decrease, process, the upper soil is continuously disturbed, the soil
resulting in decreased cohesion. The relationship between under the pile end is continuously compressed, and the
suction and water content is shown in Fig. 5(a). When the maximum displacement occurs under the pile end. When
water content is in the transition zone of the SWCC, the the damage is reached, the deformation of soil around the
water and air in the soil are connected and belong to a pile is more significant.
double open system. The reaction force of the surface • The total deformation first decreases and then
tension on the shrink film of the gas-water interface acts on increases with increasing water content. When the specimen
the soil particles, causing compressive stress on the soil is compacted with optimal water content, the unsaturated
particles, resulting in increased soil cohesion. When the silt has the largest cohesion and strong self-stability. The
water content is close to optimal, the cohesion of the soil around the pile is therefore less disturbed during pile
unsaturated silt is the largest, the self-stability is strong, and driving, resulting in the smallest deformation value. The
the soil around the pile is less disturbed during the pile- results show that variation of the PIV deformation field of
driving process, therefore reducing the displacement field. the soil particles reflects the macroscopic soil mechanical
In other words, the deformation field characteristics of the properties.
soil around the pile with different water contents are closely
related to the cohesion of the unsaturated silt. Variation of
the PIV deformation field of the soil particles also reflects Acknowledgments
the macroscopic soil mechanical properties.
The displacement contour of unsaturated soil around the This study is financially supported by the National
pile during pile driving indeed differs from the test results Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
of a pile in dry sand published in the literature. In particular, 41602295), the Foundation for University Key Teacher by
because unsaturated silt has a certain suction or cohesion, the Ministry of Education of Henan Province (Grant No.
the soil around the pile end keeps the soil upright after the 2020GGJS-094), the Key Scientific Research Projects of
pile is pressed into the soil. A photograph that shows how Colleges and Universities in Henan Province (Grant No.
the model soil remains upright after the pile is pulled out 21A410002), and the Doctoral Student Innovation
(e.g., w = 11.5%) is shown in Fig. 15. Foundation of NCWU.

5. Conclusions References

A series of comparative model tests based on particle Ahmadi-Naghadeh, R. and Toker, N.K. (2019), “A new isotropic
image velocimetry was performed, and a model test system specimen preparation method from slurry for both saturated and
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