LECTURE 1 deepening or clearing channels, harbors, rivers,

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING and other bodies of water.

 It is the branch of surveying which deals with 10. SUBAQUEOUS CONTOUR – an imaginary
water bodies e.g. Lake, river etc. line on the surface of the earth found
 Is the process employed in gathering underwater, all points of which are of the same
information concerning any body of water and elevation. They are sometimes known as depth
its adjacent land areas. curves or bathymetric contours.
 The usual fundamental principles of surveying THE HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY (PROCESS)
and leveling are adopted for acquiring data for 1. Reconnaissance
determination of: 2. Establishment of Horizontal Control
1. Water volume 3. Establishment of Vertical Control
2. Rate of flow 4. Topographic Survey
3. To determine the shape of the area underlying 5. Hydrography
the water surface etc 6. Preparation of Hydrographic Map
PURPOSE
1. To determine the quantities of subaqueous
excavations. EQUIPMENT FOR HYDROGRAPHY
2. Measure areas subjected to scouring or silting in 1. SOUNDING CRAFT – various types are used
harbours or docks. for hydrographic surveys. These includes
3. Locate rocks and other objects such as buoys, rowboats, motor launches, and small vessels.
lights etc to aid safe navigation. 2. SOUNDING POLE – a graduated and rounded
4. To prepare navigation charts exhibiting the piece of lumber, about 3 meters long, used for
depths available for navigation. taking soundings. It is suitable for use where the
5. Control floods, and to plan water supply and water depth does not exceed 2 ½ meters.
storage from rivers. 3. LEADLINE – a leadline or sounding line is
6. To develop water resources for power, irrigation usually a length of sash or hemp cord, braided
and recreation. flax, or nylon cord, with sounding lead attached
HYDROGRAPHIC TERM to one end.
1. HYDROGRAPHY – the study, description, 4. SOUNDING MACHINE – a simple device in
and mapping of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers which piano or stranded wire is used and wound
especially with reference to their navigational on a reel mounted on a stand.
and commercial or other uses. 5. FATHOMETER – a measuring device which
2. SOUNDING – the process of measuring the automatically records soundings taken on a
depth of a body of water at a particular point. moving vessel.
3. STREAM GAGING – the process of making 6. SIGNALS – signal are constructed In a variety
measurements in streams and rivers for the of ways but they should be seen and easily
purpose of predicting the rate of discharge at distinguished from each other.
various water levels or stages. 7. TIDE GAGE – are instruments for measuring
the height of the tide (non-recording gages &
4. FATHOM – a unit used for the measurement of
automatic or self registering gages).
water depth and is equivalent to six (6) feet.
8. SEXTANT – a portable device and hand-held
5. HYDROGRAPHIC CHART – a map or chart
instrument used for measuring horizontal and
used in navigation. It is basically similar to
vertical angels.
topographic map except that water depths,
SOME POINTS TO NOTE
navigational markers, and the character of
 The measurement of depth of water at various
underwater surface are indicated.
points is termed as sounding.
6. TIDAL DATUMS – are specific tide levels
 Depth of Sounding is referred to the water level
which are used as surfaces of reference for
at the time it is made.
depth measurements in the sea and as a base for
 Thereafter, the soundings are reduced to datum
the determination of elevation on land.
water level, to account for tidal waters which
7. DISCHARGE – the volume of water flowing
undergo continual change of elevation, with the
past a section of a stream, canal, flume, and
help of gauges.
other waterways. It is usually expressed in cubic
 A number of benchmarks (B.M.) are established
feet per second or cubic meters per second.
at frequent intervals along the shorelines, and
8. STREAM – a current or steady flow of water
gauges are set on them.
running along the earth’s surface.
 The field work consists of both horizontal as
9. DREDGING – the process of scooping or well as vertical control.
sucking up mud, sand, rocks and other materials
underwater for the purpose of enlarging,
  The horizontal control is established by
traversing or triangulation.
 For vertical control, the tide gauges are kept in
operation continuously since the water level at
the gauge must also be known when soundings
are recorded.
TIDES
1. Rise and fall of sea levels caused by the
combined effects of the gravitational forces
NEAP TIDES
exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the
• In about 7.5 days when the moon is in quadrature, the
rotation of the Earth.
crest of lunar tide coincides with the trough of a solar
2. These are periodical variations in the water
tide.
surface of oceans due to the attraction of
• High water level is below the average, whereas low
celestial bodies.
water level is above the average.
3. The principal tide producing agents are the sun
• Such a tide is known as neap tide of the first
and moon, of which moon is more powerful tide
quarter/third quarter.
producer.
4. Tides produced by unbalanced attracting forces
between the moon and earth are known as lunar
tide.
5. Tides produced by unbalanced attracting forces
between the sun and earth are known as solar
tides.
6. Since the sun and moon act simultaneously, the
lunar and solar tides are superimposed. TIDAL TERMINOLOGIES
IMPORTANCE 1. TIDE – the half-daily cycle of rhythmic rise and
 Tides played important part in many different fall of the surface of oceans, seas, lakes, bays,
ways, such as; launching of ships, and in rivers, and other bodies of water connected with
floating vessels free from drydock. them due to the gravitational attraction of the
 They are of vital importance to navigation in sun and moon acting upon the rotating earth.
enabling ships to clear reefs, sandbars and 2. TIDAL CURRENT – the horizontal movement
shoals, and to enter shallows channels. Most of water accompanying tides and which is
diving and salvaging operations are contingent produced by the combined action of
upon the tides, as are dredging, harbor astronomical, hydrological, and meteorological
construction projects, and marine engineering. factors.
 Fishermen are dependent on tides for their day’s 3. FLOOD TIDE – the period within which the
catch. water surface is rising and moving toward the
 Boating, swimming, and aquatic sports activities shore.
are affected by tide-induced conditions of surf 4. EBB TIDE – the period within which the water
and sea. surface is falling and moving seaward.
5. SLACK WATER – the instant at which the tidal
current is changing direction and flows neither
in or out.
6. SET – refers to the direction of current flow.
7. DRIFT – refers to the speed of current flow.
8. HIGH WATER – refers to the maximum height
to which the water surface rises above the
SPRING AND NEAP TIDES SPRING TIDE standard datum plane during a given period. It is
1. At new moon, the sun and moon have the same also known as “HIGH TIDE”.
celestial longitude and cross a meridian of earth 9. LOW WATER – or “LOW TIDE” refers to the
at the same instant. greatest depression of the water surface below
2. The three bodies are in one plane. the standard datum plane during a given period.
3. The high-water level of the resulting tide is 10. TIDE RANGE – the difference between the
above the average, whereas the low water level high and low tide at a certain location on a given
is below the average. date
4. The tide is known as spring tide of new moon. 11. TIDAL DAY – consist of an idealized average
5. Same is the case for full moon. period of 24 hours and 50 minutes between the
 occurrence of two successive high tides of the • Staff gauge.
same type at the same location. • Float gauge
12. STAND – is the period around which the • Weight gauge
greatest peak or depression of the tides is STAFF GAUGE.
reached and during which any change in height • Simplest type of gauge.
of the tide is scarcely noticeable. • It consists of a graduated board, 150 to 250 mm
13. TIDAL WAVES – consist of a large head or wide and 100 mm thick, fixed in vertical
front of water generated at the surface of the position
ocean by force winds of hurricanes or typhoons,
or by isostatic adjustment of the ocean floor
accompanying a submarine earthquake.
TIDAL DATUMS
 Are specific tide levels which are used as
surfaces of reference for depth measurements in
the sea and as a base for the determination of
elevation on land. The height of these surfaces
will depend on local conditions and therefore it
cannot be transferred from some other locality
by levels or computed from geodetic mean sea
level.
PRINCIPAL TIDALS DATUMS USED:
1. Mean sea level
2. Mean low water
3. Mean lower low water FLOAT GAUGE
4. Mean low water springs • The float gauge is designed to overcome the
TYPES OF TIDES difficulty in reading a staff gauge when the
1. SEMIDIURNAL TIDES – are those intensity of tides is high and the variations of
characterized by two high and two low waters water level is more.
each tidal day. • It consists of a float to which a graduated
2. DIURNAL TIDES – are those which, in the vertical staff is attached.
long run, display but one high and low water
each day.
3. MIXED TIDES – a type of tide which has two
high waters and has two low water each day.
TIDE GAUGES
1. These are used to determine the exact water
surface level.
2. The movement of tides during the time
soundings are made.
3. The gauges are read at regular intervals, varying
from 10m to 30 min WEIGHT GAUGE
𝒉 = 𝒉𝟎 + 𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝒕/ 𝑻 ) • The weight gauge consists a weight attached to
 h is height of water level at time of sounding brass chain or wire.
 𝒉𝟎 is mean sea level • The chain passes over a pulley, and is laid
 𝒕 is time between high tide and time of sounding horizontal along the side of a graduated scale.
 𝑻 is time between high tide and low tide • The weight is lowered to touch the water
 𝒚 is rise of tide above MS surface, and the reading is taken on the
graduated scale against an index attached to the
chain.

1. These gauges may be non-registering or self-

registering types.
2. Non registering types requires an observer to
record the water level.
 SELF REGISTERING GAUGES 3. The spacing between the sounding lines and
• Self-registering tide gauges automatically record between the sounding points depends upon the
the variation of water level with time. nature of submarine surface as well as on the
object of the survey.
4. Usually Spacing between sounding lines is kept
30 m and spacing between sounding points is
kept 7.5m to 15 m.

MEAN SEA LEVEL

• Mean sea level is defined as the main level of
the sea obtained by taking the mean of all the RANGE LINE
heights of tides measured at regular interval of • A range or a range line is the line along which
one hour over a stated period (about 19 years) soundings are made.
covering entire number of complete tides. • These are usually fixed perpendicular to the
• Mean sea level shows appreciable variations shoreline and are parallel to each other.
from day to day, from month to month and even
from year to year.
SOUNDING
• The process of determining depths below the
water surface is called sounding.
• Sounding is analogous to leveling on land.
• The reduced level of any point on the bottom of
a water body is obtained by subtracting the EQUIPMENT FOR SOUNDING
sounding from the mean sea level. • The essential equipment and instrument
PURPOSE OF SOUNDING employed for taking the sounding may be
1. Preparation of accurate charts for navigation. grouped as :
2. Determination of the quantities of the material a) Shore signals and buoys.
to be filled. b) Sounding equipment.
3. Obtaining information for design of c) Angle measuring instruments
breakwaters, sea wells etc.
SOUNDING PARTY SHORE SIGNALS AND BUOYS.
1. Chief of Party • Shore signal are required to mark range lines.
2. Instrument man • Each range line is marked with two signals, at
3. Recorder some distance apart, along it on each shore.
4. Leadsman • The signals are usually wooden tripods with a
5. Coxswain white and coloured flag on the top.
6. Lookout • A buoy is a float made of light wood or hollow
7. Signalman air tight vessel properly weighted at the bottom,
8. Fathometer Attendant and is anchored in a vertical position by means
LOCATING SOUNDINGS of wires.
1. Time Interval Along Range Line 2 • In deep waters, the range lines are marked by a
2. Range Line and an Angel from Shore signal at shore and buoys in water.
3. Intersecting Range Lines
4. One Angle and Stadia Distance from Shore
5. Two Angles from Shore
6. Two Angles from Boat
7. Distance Along a Cross Rope or Wire
8. Direction and Vertical Angle
SOUNDING
1. The sounding points should be selected keeping
in mind that all the important irregularities are
recorded.
SOUNDING EQUIPMENT
2. The soundings are thus made along a series of
1. SOUNDING BOAT
straight lines at right angles to the shoreline.
• The sounding operation is carried out from a flat • The spindle is connected through gears to two
bottom boat of low draft. reading dials.
• The boats are generally provided with opening, • The outer dial records the depth in meters and
called wells through which soundings are taken. the inner records in centimeters.
• The motor should have adequate control both • A standard machine designed to measure
for low speed and for rough waters. maximum depths up to 30m to 40m.

2. SOUNDING POLE OR ROD

• These are made of strong well seasoned timber
usually 5 to 10 cm in diameter and 5 to 8 m in
length.
• The sounding rods consist of two or three
lengths screwed together so that unnecessary
length may be removed when not required in
shallow water.
5.ECHO SOUNDING MACHINE /
• A lead shoe of sufficient weight is fitted at the
FATHOMETER
bottom to keep the rod vertical in flowing water,
• Where the depth of water is too much, an echo
and to avoid sinking in mud or sand.
sounding machine known as fathometer is used.
• The graduations on the rod are marked from
• It measures the depth below the boat on which it
bottom upwards.
is installed.
• Thus, the reading corresponding to the water
• It works on the property echo property.
surface, is directly the depth of water
• It consists of a transmitter and a receiving
3. LEAD LINE
oscillator, recorder unit and a power unit.
• It consists of a graduated line or chain to which
• The sound waves emitted at the surface of the
a lead is attached.
water are recorded back after these return from
• Under ordinary tension, when wet, the line
the underwater surface
should not change its length.
• Since the velocity of sound waves in water is
• Every one feet of the lead is marked with a
known, the distance travelled by sound waves
cloth.
can be calculated.
• The mass of the lead is generally between 5 to
• D=½Vt
10 kg, depending upon the strength of current
• This method is very accurate and can be used in
and depth of water.
strong winds.
• A correction is required to be applied to the
• It is more sensitive than other methods, and
measured length to get the true depth when
produces continuous record in the form of
using lead line.
curves when boat is in motion.
• Due to drag, the measured length will be greater
ADVANTAGES OF FATHOMETER
than the true depth.
1. It is more accurate than the lead line.
2. It can be used in strong currents or streams.
3. It is more sensitive than the lead line method.
4. It can be used on days, or in any weather, when
the ordinary lead line method would be
impossible.
4. WEDDELL’S SOUNDING MACHINE 5. It is much more rapid in use than the ordinary
• When there is a lot of sounding work, some method.
form of sounding machine attached to sounding
line is used.
• Weddell’s hand driven machine consists of a
cast iron casing carrying on a spindle gun metal
barrel.
• A lead weight (8kg) carried at the end of a
flexible wire cord attached to the barrel, can be
lowered at a desirable rate, the speed of the
drum being controlled by a brake.
ANGLE MEASURING EQUIPMENT Responsible for steering the boat on selected
• Most common angle measuring instruments are: compass bearing or ranges.
1. Theodolite
2. Prismatic compass Signalman
3. Sextant. Person who alerts the shore party that sounding
• The theodolite and prismatic compass are not is about to begin. He is equipped with a set of colored
suitable for angle measurements from sounding flag.
boats due to instability of rowing boats.
• Sextant has been found to be most suitable for
measuring angle in any plane.

Lookout
In waters where there are expected dangers to
• Navigators and surveyors measure angles from
navigation a lookout is employed. He is stationed at the
sounding boat by sextant only.
most suitable elevated position in the boat. He should
• When observations are made from the shore,
report all possible hazards so that proper action can be
theodolite and prismatic compass are used.
taken.
• The sextant used in hydrographic surveying is
known as the sounding sextant.
• It slightly differs in construction from the
astronomical sextant. Points to be kept in mind
while using sextant:
1. Angle measured with a sextant is an oblique
unless three points sighted lie in horizontal
plane.
2. The size of the angles and length of sights affect
the precision of angle measurement. Fathometer Attendant
3. A sextant is not recommended for angle In deep water surveys where a fathometer is
measurements when the angles are less than 15 employed, the attendant focus full attention on this
degrees and the sights are less than 300 m. instrument.
4. Vertical angles can also be measured with a
sextant in a similar manner to that of horizontal
angles.

LECTURE 2
SOUNDING PARTY
When locating sounding for a hydrographic
survey, the composition of the boat party will depend
upon the survey method used. Usually the following
Range Line
personnel will form the boat party.
Are well-defined lines on courses whose
Chief of the Party
position are known and along which sounding are taken.
Person who directs all survey operation of the
party, he is responsible for the accurate gathering of the
required survey data which will be needed in the
preparation and compilation of the hydrographic chart.
Instrumentman
Person who is responsible for setting up the
different instruments to be used in the hydrographic
survey.
Recorder Survey Buoys
Person whose task us to record all the survey Buoy is a floating object anchored in place in a
data gathered. body of water by a heavy weight to which buoy is
Leadsman attached by a rope or chain.
Handles the leadline or the sounding rod, he also
serves as a lookout.
Coxswain
 instrument used can be set up at stations having a
commanding view of the lake.

Locating Soundings
The following are the principal method to employed:
• Time interval Along a range line
• Range line and an Angle from shore
• Intersecting range line
• One angle and stadia Distance from Shore
• Two Angles from shore
• Two Angle from Boat
LECTURE 3
• Distance along a cross rivers or wire
ELECTRONIC POSITIONING
• Direction and Vertical Angle
SYSTEMS
Time interval along a range line
 Designed to measure the time of transit or
Is generally used when the required accuracy of
difference in transit times of electromagnetic
the survey is not high. This Method is simple and
waves in the atmosphere.
economical to undertake.
 A typical system consists essentially of
Range line and an Angle from shore
transmitting on a fixed frequency, an
Is Commonly used on small lakes or range lines
unmodulated radio wave from the ship to the
extend only to relatively short distances towards the
three triangulation stations of known position.
water from the shore area.
 Requires a relay unit on shore which must be
Intersecting Range Line
equipped with a transmitter, receiver and an
The fixed range lines are located on shore and
amplifier.
so laid out to intersect at approximately right angles.
 The accuracy of any measurement by an
Signals are used to mark each range line. The boar
proceeds to the intersection of any two range lines and electronic positioning system is highly
sounding are taken. dependent upon the temperature, humidity, and
pressure at the time the measurement is made.
One angle and stadia Distance from Shore
Is performed in a manner similar to that of CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIONING
stadia surveying. It is convenient for surveys of small SYSTEMS
bodies of water.  Short-range
Two Angles from Shore  Intermediate-range
A common method of locating sounding is to  Long-range
direction to the boat simultaneously from to instrument TRADE NAMES OF ELECTRONIC
station. This method is adapted when it is difficult to POSITIONING
establish range signals on shore. SHORT-RANGE NAVIGATION ( Shoran)
Two Angle from Boat  Originally developed for blind bombing by
In order that the position of the boat used in military aircraft and aerial photographic
sounding could be located and plotted on a map, to reconnaissance.
angles need to be simultaneously observed from the boat  Usually employed when a rapid determination
to three fixed points on shore. This method of locating of position is required even under adverse
sounding is an application of the three point problem. weather conditions.
Distance along a cross rivers or wire  Widely used now often in most offshore
Locating sounding by stretching a graduated measurements and in establishing triangulation
wire or cross rope across a narrow stream is a method stations for horizontal control networks.
suitable for surveying detailed cross-section of rivers and  Operates on low frequencies and has a working
channels. The procedure, which is sometimes called the range of from about 80 to 120 kilometers
“Tag-line” method, is very accurate but more expensive depending largely on the height of antennas
to undertake as compared to locating sounding along used.
range lines.  With Shoran, distances can be determined to
Direction and Vertical Angle hundreds or even thousands of a kilometer.
A convenient method of locating sounding LONG-RANGE NAVIGATION ( Loran)
where there is a cliff or high bluff is by observing vertical  Principle employed is similar to Shoran except
(depression) angles with a transit or a theodolite. for the use and transmission of high pules of
This method, which is also known as the electromagnetic energy.
“Norwegian Method” is particularly useful when the
  High frequency waves are employed in the  Operated by dry batteries and can be easily
Loran method since these waves allow the shifted from one boat to another.
measurement of greater distances; it also  Read by means of a meter or a scale since they
follows the curvature of the Earth better than do not have the capability to move and mark a
low-frequency waves and thus more suitable for paper strip.
extensive hydrographic and geodetic  Depths up to about 60 meters can be determined
measurements. by use of portable fathometers.
ELECTRONIC POSITION INDICATOR (EPI)
 Combines some of the principles and techniques
used in long-range and short-range navigation.
 US Coast and Geodetic Surveys developed this NON-PORTABLE FATHOMETERS
system in order to increase the measuring  Considered part of the navigation or survey
capability of the two systems developed earlier equipment of the sounding vessel.
while still maintaining a comparable degree of  Designed to measure sounding to depths of over
accuracy. 60 meters to an accuracy of about 1⁄2
 By EPI method, a survey ship can be located centimeter.
with accuracy similar to that of Shoran and for  These fathometers are very sensitive and have
distances of from 500-800 kilometers. the capability to record reflections from layers
RADIO-ACOUSTIC RANGING (RAR) of different density.
 Another method of control used in hydrographic  Graphic recording and draw continuous profiles
surveying used to determine the position of a of the sea-bed on a moving strip of paper.
survey vessel. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITTATIONS OF ECHO
 Advantage of RAR- Independence of the SOUNDERS
conditions of visibility (as it is functional even  Proven to be suitable for measuring depths from
at night or during times of low visibility) a few centimeters to about 11000 meters.
ECHO-SOUNDING  The ease and rapidity with which depths can be
 Method of measuring the depth of water by measured by echo sounding is remarkable
 determining the time required for sound waves compared with other means.
to travel from a point near the surface of the  Sounding vessel cruising at full speed can obtain
water to the bottom and back. depth measurements by echo sounders in just a
 Accuracy of echo-sounding is directly few seconds.
dependent upon the knowledge of the velocity  With other methods the boat must be stopped or
of sound and on the precision with which the moving very slowly while the sounding is taken,
travel time of the sound can be measured. and too much time is spent to take a deep
FATHOMETER sounding.
 Instrument used for determining the depth of  Echo sounding can easily provide a continuous
water by echo-sounding by which has an profile of the bottom while the vessel is moving
indicator scale which is graduated to read depths through the water.
directly instead of time.  When the instrument is properly adjusted, the
 Fathometers are designed to: results obtained are far more accurate than those
 produce the sound obtained by conventional sounding methods.
 transmit the sound downward  Echo soundings are not subject to the inherent
 receive and amplify the echo
errors difficulties encountered when using depth
 measure the intervening time interval
 automatically convert the interval into units of depth
measuring devices such as the leadline and the
measurement (feet, fathoms, or meters) sounding pole.
Differs considerably in design and construction ✓For echo sounding, the medium is the water and
and have varying characteristics. the reflecting surface is the sea bed.
 Some display the depth visually in digital form CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ECHO
and others produce an analog graph or strip SOUNDINGS
chart on a roll of specially prepared paper. These conditions for echo sounding would be ideal if :
 Every line in echo soundings provides a profile  there is a constant physical characteristic
of the bottom beneath the course of the survey throughout the entire depth of water
even though the boat proceeds at full speed.  zero attenuation of sound
TYPES OF ECHO SOUNDERS  100 percent reflection of sound waves from the
PORTABLE FATHOMETERS bottom and;
 Mounted on a small boat or suspended over the  bottom is parallel to the water surface
side.  We know that these ideal conditions
 1.Variation in the water temperature
2.Degree of salinity in the water
3.Absorption of transmitted sound waves by the
water
4. Turbulence
5. Characteristic and slope of the bottom surface
6. Aeration or air entrainment along the bottom of
the vessel
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN ELECTRONIC
SOUNDING EQUIPMENT
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND
PLOTTERS
 Recently copied by echo sounders to provide an
intermediate printout of sounding depths and ORBITING SATELLITES
their related positions.  Allow remote measurements of water depths.
 Systems are based on the principle that less
energy is returned from deep waters than from
shallow waters, calibration of such a system is
done by comparing returned energy with known
water depths.

COMPUTER PROGRAMS
 Developed to allow interpolation between
plotted depths and plotters are utilized to draw
the depth (bathymetric)contours automatically
just as in automated plotting for topographic
surveys.

LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING (LIDAR)

 Employs lasers, offers high accuracies but is
applicable only to depths less than 50m.

PHOTOBATHYMETRY
 Another type of airborne hydrographic system
being developed, in this method, an aerial
camera is used to photograph the water areas
using standard techniques of photogrammetry.
 Natural color film is used in photography.
MULTISPECTRAL SCANERS (MSS)
 Has been found to be accurate in locating depths
 Soon expected to replace conventional
up to 20m in clear water.
hydrographic survey methods performed on
board sounding vessels.

AIR BORNE LASERS MULTISPECTRAL TECHNIQUES

• An air borne lasers system, a pulse-type laser is The interpretation of multispectral imagery is
used to emit a burst of light which is reflected at primarily based on the tones of the objects viewed.
the water surface and at the bottom of the body Depending upon the spectral reflectance of the object,
of water. tone varies with the wavelength. Any surface that reflects
strongly in a certain band of the spectrum is said to have
a high response in that band.
In multispectral remote sensing, the imagery is
obtained in several bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Electromagnetic energy reflected from a
ground object is isolated by multispectral sensors in a
number of wavelength bands. Each type of reflected
energy is recorded separated on film which could then be
processed and evaluated to suit various applications such The scanner records images in designated wavelength
as in mapping and hydrographic work. bands.
Green Band
 Wavelengths range from 500-600nm.
 Water is quite transparent in this band and it
tends to enhance features such as sediment with
water.
The scanner records images in designated
wavelength bands.
Red Band
EARTH RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY  Wavelengths ranges from 600-700nm.
SATELLITE  Penetrates the atmosphere and is suitable for
FIRST LANDSAT SATELLITE land-use studies.
 Launched by the United States of America in  Regional population patterns are contrasted
July 23, 1972 into a sun-synchronous orbit against patterns of vegetation.
around the Earth at an altitude of 919kms.  Show good contrast between natural surface
 Butterfly-shaped observatory weighing 891 kg cover and man-made structures.
which circled the Earth the Earth every 1 hour  Artificial structures appear very bright against
and 43 minutes. the dark appearance of vegetation.
 The spacecraft was equipped with a
multispectral scanner which had the capability LECTURE 4
to view a 185-km wide strip of the Earth’s DRAGS AND SWEEPS
surface on an 18-day repetitive cycle. Drags and Sweeps
The method of taking leadline sounding at
certain intervals will usually give a satisfactory
representation of the shape of the bottom of a body of
water which is uniform and without abrupt changes.
However such a method could not be relied upon to
locate the least depth or no reveal the presence of rock
pinnacles, corals, and sunken vessels. These submerged
 In 1974, it was decided to rename ERTS to objects, which are marine hazards, usually cover such
Landsat. small areas that it is a slim chance if their presence are
 The spacecraft transmits images to NASA revealed by a sounding line.
receiving stations.
 Four bands of the spectrum—red, green and 2 To detect and locate such obstruction or
infrared. menaces to navigational and to provide definite assurance
 Nanometer (nm)- unit used in remote sensing to that a certain minimum navigational depth exist
express the wavelength of an electromagnetic employed. These devices came into general use
spectrum sometime in 1900 when sweeps 60 to 300 m long were
first used. This method has been widely adapted that
sweeps 3000 to 4500 m long were later employed to
cover several square kilometers of area in one working
day.

The Wire Drag – this device consist of a horizontal

bottom wire of suitable length which may be set at any
desired depth it is used to locate underwater obstruction.
The wire is supported at regular intervals by adjustable
upright cables which are suspended from surface buoys.
These supporting cables may be lengthened or shortened
to allow sweeping at any desired depth and to permit steel pipe, or a structural steel section. It is held by two
adjustments for the rise and fall of the tide. vertical cable.

The cables are kept vertical by weights or DREDGING OPERATIONS

sinkers attached to their lower ends. To reduce sagging Dredging is the process of widening, enlarging, cleaning,
between the cables, intermediate wooden floats are or deepening of channels in harbors, rivers, and canals.
fastened directly to the wire at intervals of about 30m. Such types of work are frequently encountered in civil
engineering constructions. In removing the dredged
material to scow or hoppers dredges are employed.

Dipper and clamshell dredges are use when the

excavated material are loaded into scows which are
towed to a deep water dumping site. When the material
being dredged are dumped into hoppers within the hull of
the dredged, hopper dredges are utilized. A hydraulic
dredge is another type of dredge which pumps the
material to low lying areas ashore where it is used as fill
such as in reclamation projects.

What is Dredging?
Dredging, as a process, is used to remove the
deposits percolated underwater for the purpose of
The drag is pulled through the water by two clearing the water pathway for ships to pass; to create
power launches or boats. These launches have to be adequate space to construct important bridges, dykes and
steered at slightly divergent courses to keep the drag taut. dams and to weed out silt, intoxicants and pollutants
During dragging the wire and buoys assume a parabolic from the bottom of the water.
cure due to the resistance of the water. When an What is Dredging Process?
obstruction is encountered, the wire and the buoys Dredging process mainly involves carrying out
assume the position of two straight lines form the excavation, of either naturally deposited sediments or
obstruction toward the two launches. Personnel on board man-made debris such as rocks, bottom sediments,
a third launch or a small sounding boat are then assigned construction debris, and refuse, and plant or animal
to locate the obstruction by reading sextant angles matter on the bottom of either shallow seawater or
between signals established on shore. A marker buoy is freshwaters. In general terms, dredging implies digging
also set up over the obstruction to identify its location. up of the gathered sediments from the seabed and
disposing them off at some other site.
Careful leadline soundings are made to
determine the minimum depth over the obstruction. Once The oldest known dredging activities are:
the obstruction is plotted the wire is cleared by dredging for peat excavation and maintenance dredging.
shortening the vertical cables, and the dragging is Maintenance Dredging is a broader term which includes
continued. A drag is later passed over the same spot at a clearing of deposits and cleaning, widening or deepening
slightly lesser depth in order to verify the result. of a water body using either a suction or scooping device
(generally called a dredger).
Wire Sweep – a wire sweep is similar to a wire drag
except for a few modifications. The lengths of the Regular maintenance dredging is of huge
vertical cables supporting the bottom wire cannot be importance in coastal regions which have large tidal
adjusted, and these cables are positioned much farther activity and also in water bodies which are susceptible to
apart. Also, no intermediate floats are fastened to the become silted with sediments, sand and mud. The
wire such that there is no provision for presenting the sag Lowlands of Netherlands and Flanders are the best
of the wire between cables. The wire sweep is faster to example of such regions which require regular
put into operation than the drag. It is used primarily in maintenance dredging.
areas where few obstruction are likely to be expected and
where the depth of the water is greater than that required For dredging, equipment called dredger is used to remove
for navigation. the deposited sediments from an inlet creek, waterway or
ocean floor. Dredging process is a blended essence of
Sweep Bar – is to determine minimum clear depths. following three independent elements: excavation,
They locate obstruction and navigation dangers in transportation of excavated material and then usage or
confined areas, such as shoals, rock pinnacles, reefs, or proper disposal of dredged material.
wreck. The sweep bar is a heavy section of rail road rail,
 dredgers. So standardizations of dredgers and equipment,
and advancement in control and monitoring systems of
dredgers improved dredging to a great extent.

IMPORTANCE OF DREDGING
Dredging is an activity of huge importance in the
maritime industry. It serves the following purposes:
 It helps in safer voyages by pacifying
underwater traffic and by maintaining proper
HISTORY OF DREDGING
bottom clearance
With the beginning of civilization, there started
 In some cases, dredging is indeed employed for
the transportation of commodities by inland waterways
the extraction of ocean gems such as shellfish
and oceans. But this transportation depended on the
and mollusks. So, dredging can help in
ability of ships, which in turn largely depends on the
exploring amazing varieties of these sea
water depth. Silting, the natural phenomenon of
creatures.
deposition of silt and sediments over the seabed created a
constant threat to the voyages of ships. People started  To channelize the construction of a network of
fighting with the problem of siltation to ensure the safety bridges, dams or other civil engineering works
of voyages but due to lack in equipment for removing in water, dredging is a primary
siltation, they started manual digging up of the mud by  requirement. These are only proper dredging
hand which was not that efficient and limited to shallow tools which remove the requisite amount of
waterways. underwater silt and other compositions and
make the excellent constructions true that a civil
In 15th Century increase in trade at seas engineer wonders
necessitated the development of some bed scratcher such  Dredging is also important to make the marine
as “Zeeuwse Krabbelaar”, which was a primitive bed eco-system pollution-free. It helps in eco-
leveller. These bed levellers cum scratchers were used to friendly disposal of deposited polluting
pick the sediments and dispose them. Development in toxicants and harmful materials, without causing
these dredgers was carried out in certain phrases starting any harm to the marine ecosystem.
from ancient mills to modern suction dredgers.  Dredging helps not only in preserving flora and
fauna in water bodies but also used for
Mills were developed around 1575, these were a recreational activities.
sort of dredging equipment which was primarily
employed for digging in ports. Mills had a rotating chain TYPE OF DREDGING METHODS
connected with wooden boards, these wooden boards dig The dredging process is a combination of
up the mud. At the primary stage of development of mills digging the soil in the waterbed and removing or
they were manually driven later they were powered by extracting that soil from the excavated surface. Hence,
steam engines. Mills had gone obsolete in 1857 with the the types of dredging methods can be classified into three
development of a suction dredger in the United States. categories depending upon the how the debris is
extracted from the site.
Mechanical Dredging:
Mechanical dredging is the process in which the
sediments are picked up using mechanical tools such as
buckets, grabs etc. Mechanical dredging is usually
carried out near the shoreline. Hence for removing
sediment on land or shoreline, mechanical dredging is
used. The dredged sediment is picked up and placed in
nearby land or in water or most of the times in another
In 1867 there came a revolutionary development
barge dedicated to carry the sediment. If the dredging is
with the evolution of the design of suction dredger by a
done near the shoreline, the sediment can be directly
French engineer. He used successfully this suction
transferred to a truck or railway wagon.
dredger in dredging the Suez Canal. From then on,
dredging by suction became more and more common.
The mechanical dredging operation can be done
Then came cutter suction dredger and trailing suction
using a barge or operated from shore as well. If the
hopper dredgers in the 19th century. These are the
mechanical dredger is an onshore dredger it has a
modern dredgers and can avail efficient dredging. These
limitation of covering the area as it can
were so efficient that they allowed shipping and dredging
only be used near the shoreline. With barge type
simultaneously without hindering the traffic. Recent
mechanical dredgers it can be operated in any water,
evolutions in dredging have optimization of dredging
however, it will be most effective near docks, piers etc.
process on its main focus rather than developing new
The mechanical dredging can be a continuous process; There can be different designs of the grab and it can be
however the quantity of the sediment will be limited to used for deep water dressing.
one scoop which is lifted every time to remove the Backhoe Dredger: Also known as fixed arm dredger, it
sediment. The mechanical type can dredge hard is a stationary type dredger which is usually mounted on
compacted sediments and water carryover is way less a barge or work near the banks. The dredging equipment
than hydraulic dredging. is a half open shell with a fixed length hydraulic arm and
is used in shallow waters and near harbor sites.

Hydraulic Dredgers:
Hydraulic Dredging:
Suction Dredger: It is a stationary dredger normally used
In the hydraulic dredging process, the sediment
for mining sand. The suction pipe of this dredger is
is removed from the dredged site by using pumps,
inserted into the sand deposit and water jets are used to
usually centrifugal pumps, sucked into the pipe used to
bring the sand up from the excavation site. The sediment
transport the sediment. The sediment is mixed with water
can be pumped by sucking the sediments into the pipeline
and made into a slurry mixture which makes it easier for
and transferring it to the reclamation site or loaded into
the pump to transfer it. Depending on the pumping
barges, depending upon the location and available
distance, a booster pump can be fitted in line to transfer
transfer arrangement.
the sediment to the nearest shore to maintain constant
Cutter Suction Dredger: It is another stationary dredger
production rate. One of the major advantages of
with a cutter head as a dredging equipment to loosen the
hydraulic dredging process is the elimination of
base which is to be dredged. Similar to the suction
additional transport medium or equipment as the
dredger, the sediments are sucked and pumped via a
sediments can be directly transported to shore facility,
pipeline ashore or into barges. The cutter head can be of
saving additional expenditure and time.
different designs and materials, depending upon the
properties of the surface to be dredged.

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger: This is a self-

propelled ship carrying the dredger equipment having a
hold or hopper arrangement to fill it with excavated
material while following a pre-set dredging operation.
This type of dredger has an arrangement to open the
bottom of the hold to unload the dredged material into
the designated site. This kind of dredger is mainly used in
Advantages of hydraulic dredging are: open water such as canals, rivers, estuaries etc.
 Reduces capital costs Reclamation Dredger: This is actually an assisting
 Reduces use of equipment and transportation equipment in the dredging operation and not a dredger
 Reduces energy and emissions compared to itself. It is used to empty the hopper barges sediments
mechanical dredging process using suction pipe which can be lowered in the hopper
 Safe and efficient barge hold. Additional water can be sprayed to make the
 Hydrodynamic Dredging sediment slurry for easier suction and transfer to the
Different types of dredging ships or dredging vessels dedicated site or shore depot.
Mechanical Dredgers:
Bucket Dredger: The bucket dredger is usually a fixed
type stationary dredger which rotates in arc by winches
around the dredging site. The scrapping end is fitted with
a bucket, which removes the sediment and when turned
upside down, the sediments are unloaded on a barge.
Grab Type Dredger: This is a stationary dredger which
has a grab as a dredging tool
(Two equivalent scoops or shell operated hydraulically). Other types of dredger ships are:
Due to its design It is also known as clamshell dredger . Amphibious dredgers: These ships have the unique
constructional feature of working out of the water surface
using long legs as their base. They can be equipped with  Ls = length of vertical side of scow
grabs, buckets or a shovel installation.  Ll = length of waterline when the scow is loaded
Air-lift dredgers: This dredger uses high pressure air jets  Lu = length of waterline when the scow is
instead of water jets for material flow at the mouth of the unloaded or light
suction pipe.  Du = Draft of unloaded or light scow
Bed leveler: This type is used to level the bed surface  Dl = draft of loaded scow
which has recently been dredged. It consists of a long flat FORMULAS:
blade or heavy bar which is connected to a tugboat at the  Vw = (1/2)(Lu + Lb)(Du)(Wd)
end and when it is pulled, it will level the surface on the  Disp = (1/2)(Ll + Lb)(Dl)(Wd)
dredged surface over short distances.
 Ww = (Disp – Vw)(WtDw)
EFFECTS OF DREDGING
 Vm = Ww/WtDm
These are the negative effects of Dredging;
Example:
 When dredging is carried out for marine
A rectangular deck scow 30.50 m. long, 6.10 m. wide and
engineering purpose or constructional work, a
3.66 m. high has a draft of 1.22 m. when light and a draft
large amount of water is to be removed and
of 3.05 m. when loaded. The bottom length of the scow is
stored at some other location. This creates a
23.15 m. The waterline is 29.26 m. long when the scow is
minor storage problem but extensively affects
loaded with rocks and 25.60 m. long when light. If sea
the life of flora and fauna prevalent in that
water weighs 1026 kg/cu.m. and the loaded dredged
water. This is due to change in mineral
material weighs 3208 kg/cu.m., determine the following:
composition of water before and after both
a) Volume of water displaced when unloaded or
dredging and depositing it back in its source
light
after construction.
b) Displacement loaded
 Dredging impacts the crops badly in the regions c) Weight of the water displaced by the load
where it is carried out to de-silt the rivers which d) Volume of the loaded rock
are primarily intended to quench the irrigation
demand of the region. Because along with silt
essential minerals also get dredged out leaving
the resultant water and land lacking in nitrates
and phosphates.
 Also if dredging is carried out to serve the
cleaning purpose, the toxic waste to be removed
alarms the safe disposal problem. If it is
disposed on land to make the land barren and if
in other less important water body harms the
living creatures in that water body.
SCOW MEASUREMENTS

The quantity of material dredged from anybody

of water can be determined either by sounding or scow
measurements. Depth measurement are obtained before
and after when soundings are used. The spacing of the
soundings will depend upon the smoothness or
irregularity of the bottom and upon the difficulty of
excavating material. Soundings taken in tidal waters or in
rivers at different stages of the stream must be reduced to
a common datum.
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION SURVEYS

The constructions of dams and reservoir require

extensive topographic and hydrographic surveys. Dams
are barriers which are built to hold back or impound
water. The impounded water forms an artificial lake or
pond, called reservoir, in which water is collected and
stored usually for purpose of irrigation, water supply, and
hydroelectric power production and transmission. A
survey is made the reservoir site to determine its capacity
 Lb = length of the scow bottom at various stages of the water surface.
 Ld = length of scow deck
 Wd = width of scow deck
 Series of sounding are taken a the site in order Possible arrangements of three-point problem
to plot the reservoir map. The prepared map should
portrait primarily underwater or depth contours of the
reservoir. A planimeter is commonly use to determined
the areas within successive contour lines plotted on the
map.

MARINE CONSTRUCTION AND

MAINTENANCE SURVEYS

The involvement of a civil engineer during the

early stages in the planning and development of ports,
wharves harbors, and other marine structure is highly
essential. His task usually includes the preparation of
plans and design, supervision of all new marine
construction, the execution of related hydrographic
survey, and the subsequent maintenance of existing
marine structure.

Different kinds of boat, ships and other Reasons if the discrepancy is unreasonably large:
watercraft using ports and harbors have become bigger,
faster, more sophisticated and have increased in number. 1. A mistake was made in the computations.
It when follows that port have to be expanded, harbors 2. The given coordinates of a control point may be
need to be deepened and marine structures and related erroneous.
facilities be made more responsive and sensitive to 3. A mistake was made in observing the two
existing conditions and requirements. angles from the boat.
4. A sight must have been taken on a wrong
control point.
LECTURE 5
THREE POINT RESECTION If any of the above listed causes is evident, it would then
be advised to repeat the observation, or a different set of
The three-point resection problem in surveying control points should be sighted.
involves occupying an unknown
point and observing angles only to three known points. INDETERMINATE AND WEAK RESECTIONS

Today, with the advent of total stations/EDMs,

the problem is greatly simplified. If the unknown point P
lies on a circle defined by the three known control points,
then the solution is indeterminate or not uniquely
possible.

There are, theoretically, an infinite number of

RESECTION OF FOUR POINTS
solutions for the observed angles. If the geometry is close
A three resection can always made to check
to this, then the solution is weak.
mathematically, however the mathematical checks do not
provide a check on the fieldwork or on control point
There are, theoretically, an infinite number of
used. By sighting on a fourth control point the value of a
solutions for the observed angles. If the geometry is close
three-point resection may be increased considerably. It
to this, then the solution is weak.
becomes a conditioned three-point resection since there
are two independent solutions that should give the same
Such problems are solved either by mechanical,
position for the unknown point.
graphical or analytical methods. The method presented in
this lesson is a typical analytical solution and is but one
of the many available methods.

In hydrographic surveys, the three-point

problem involves the determination of the position of the
instrument by measuring the horizontal angles between
three points of known position.
DERIVATION OF EQAUTION FOR THE KNOWN
QUANTITIES OF A THREE-POINT RESECTION