Wolkite University F&Th.

Phys

College of Natural and Computational Science

Department of Physics

Fluid and Thermal Physics

By: Fikru Abiko (Ph.D)
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

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 Outlines
➢Fluid Statics and fluid dynamics
➢Hydrodynamics and Aerodynamics
➢Thermodynamics
➢The First Law of Thermodynamics
➢Second Law of Thermodynamics and Heat engines
➢The Kinetic Theory of Gases
➢Thermal conductivity and black body radiation

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 Unit 1:Fluid Mechanics

➢This branch of physics deals with the study of fluids and the forces
acting on them.

➢Fluids are substances that have the ability to flow and do not have a
definite shape.

➢Fluids include liquids, gases, and plasmas.

➢A fluid is a substance that continually deforms under an applied shear

stress.

➢Fluid static is fluid at rest and fluid dynamics in motion

3
 Con’t…

➢Basically the fluids are classified into 5 types and these are

1.Ideal fluid:-a perfect fluid, is a hypothetical concept in fluid dynamics

used to simplify the mathematical modeling of fluid behavior.

E.g. Incompressibility, Non-viscous, Steady Flow, and Irrotational Flow

2. Real fluid:- exhibits properties such as viscosity, compressibility, and

thermal conductivity, and unsteady flow, and non-Irrotational Flow

4
 Con’t…

3.Newtoniain fluid:a type of real fluid that exhibits a linear relationship

between shear stress and shear rate, as described by Newton's law of
viscosity

E.g. Air and other gases, water, Kerosene, gasoline, and other oil-based
liquids

4.Non-Newtonian fluid do not follow the linear relationship between

shear stress and shear rate described by Newton's law of viscosity.

➢ The viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid is not constant and can vary

with the applied stress or shear rate.
5
 Con’t…

5.Ideal plastic fluid:- A fluid having the value of shear stress more than
the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the shear strain
(velocity gradient) is known as ideal plastic fluid.

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 Fluid statics

➢Fluid statics is a branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the study of
fluids at rest.

➢When a fluid is at rest, it is in a state of equilibrium, and the forces

acting on it are balanced.

➢ In fluid statics, we examine the behavior of fluids under the influence

of gravitational forces.

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 Fluids and elasticity

➢Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or

stress and to return to its original size and shape when the stress is
removed.
➢ If pressure acting on mass of fluid increases: fluid contracts
➢ If pressure acting on mass of fluid decreases: fluid expands
➢ Elasticity relates to amount of deformation for a given change in
pressure
−1
dV  Vdp dV = Vdp Ev = bulk modulus of elasticity
Ev
Small dV/V = large modulus of elasticity

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 Surface tension and capillarity actions
• Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both involving molecular
interactions
– Cohesion: enables liquid to resist tensile stress
– Adhesion: enables liquid to adhere to other bodies

➢ Surface tension, σs: the force resulting from molecular attraction at

liquid surface [N/m]
➢ surface tension varies with temperature
σs =Fs/ L
Fs= surface tension force [N]
σs = surface tension [N/m]
L = length over which the surface tension acts [m]

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 Capillarity

• Capillarity : property of exerting forces on fluids by fine tubes or

porous media
– due to cohesion and adhesion
– If adhesion > cohesion, liquid wets solid surfaces at rises
– If adhesion < cohesion, liquid surface depresses at pt of contact
– water rises in glass tube (angle = 0o)
– mercury depresses in glass tube (angle = 130-140o)
𝐹 = 𝜎𝐿 = 𝜎(2𝜋𝑟)
𝐹 = 𝜎(2𝜋𝑟)(𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)
➢ The weight of this water is 𝑤 = 𝑀𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
➢ Newton’s second law for equilibrium
𝜎 2𝜋𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝜌𝑔𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

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 Cont…

concave convex
θ < 900
Wetting

θ > 900 non-wetting

❖ When cohesive forces between molecules of a liquid exceed adhesive
forces, the level of the liquid in the capillary tube is below the surface
of the surrounding fluid.

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 Con’t…
❖Mass Density(ρ):The “mass per unit volume” is mass density.
𝑚
𝜌=
V
❖Specific weight of a fluid(γ) is defined as the weight of the fluid per
unit volume .
γ = ρg  = the density of the material (kgm-3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)

❖ Specific Gravity(S) The ratio of specific weight of a given liquid to

the specific weight of water at a standard reference temperature (4
oC)is defined as specific gravity,

𝜌𝑙 𝛾𝑙
𝑆= = γ water, 4°C = 9810 N/m3 for T = 4°C
𝜌𝑤 𝛾𝑤

The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure is 9810 N/m3

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 Cont…

➢Specific volume is ratio of volume to mass.

1
𝑉𝑠 =
𝜌
➢In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers.
➢Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it.
➢The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
➢Normal stress is due to pressure
➢Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields.
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 Pressure

➢Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid divided by the

area that the force acts over and therefore has units of F/A .

➢It can be a result of an applied force (for example pumping) or

hydrostatic(weight of a column of fluid).

➢Applications of fluid statics:

Pressure measurement with hydrostatics,

Floating or submerged bodies,

water dams and gates, liquid storage

➢tanks 14
 Pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure in a Liquid

➢ The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result of the

weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any
pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.
➢ The hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid in
equilibrium owing to gravity at any given period.
➢ When a downward force is applied, hydrostatic pressure is
proportional to the depth measured from the surface as the weight of
the fluid increases.
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 The variation of Pressure with depth

➢Unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which equal (N/m^2 )

➢The pressure due to the liquid alone at a given depth depends only
upon the density of the liquid ρ and the distance below the surface of
the liquid h

P = ρg h

P = F/A i.e: m*g/A

P= V ρg / A = ρg (V/A)

P=ρgh
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Cont…

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 Cont…

• Pressure is independent of the shape of the container.

• The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in
the same fluid.
• ρgh – is called hydrostatic pressure

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 Variation of pressure with direction at a point
in a fluid at rest

➢ A similar balance on the forces in the z direction must take into

account the weight of the wedge of fluid, in addition to the pressure-
induced forces, yielding:

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 Cont…

➢If dz shrinks to zero, so that wedge becomes a point, p2 = p3. Thus, at

a point, p1 = p2 = p3,i.e., pressure is identical in all directions.
➢This derivation is for a fluid at rest, but a similar result is obtained in
an ideal flowing fluid (i.e., a fluid with zero viscosity, known as an
inviscid fluid)
➢Variations of pressure with location in a fluid at rest

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 Cont…

for any arbitrary points 1 and 2 in a static fluid of uniform specific

weight (i.e., density):

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Cont…

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 Pascal’s law

➢Pascal’s law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted

undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the
containing vessel.

➢ The area ratio A2/A1 is called the

ideal mechanical advantage of the
hydraulic lift.
➢ Lifting of a large weight by a small
force by the application of Pascal’s
law

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 Measuring Pressure

➢Barometer – an instrument that measures pressure

Mercury barometer

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 Cont…

➢The Manometer
a device to measure pressures.

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 Cont…

➢Absolute Pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is

measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).

➢Gage Pressure: Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to

read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.

➢Vacuum Pressure: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure = True Pressure

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Cont…

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 Hydrodynamics

➢Kinematics ;deals with the motion of the fluid without considering the
factors that are affecting the motion.

➢Fluid dynamics: focuses on the factors that are affecting fluid motion,
for example, pressure, momentum, force, etc.

➢It is based upon the conservation of energy theory, which gives us the
formula of Bernoulli’s equation or the continuity equation..

➢For example, steady and unsteady flow, laminar and turbulent flow,
uniform and non-uniform flow,

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 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’ Principle

➢ Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid,

the fluid exerts an upward force (the “buoyant force”) on the body equal to the weight

of the fluid displaced by the body.

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Cont…

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 Ideal Fluid Flow

➢Many features of fluid motion can be understood by considering the

behavior of an ideal fluid, which satisfies the following conditions:
1. The fluid is no viscous, which means there is no internal friction force
between adjacent layers.
2. The fluid is incompressible, which means its density is constant.
3. The fluid motion is steady, meaning that the velocity, density, and
pressure at each point in the fluid don’t change with time.
4. The fluid moves without turbulence. This implies that each element
of the fluid has zero angular velocity about its center, so there can’t be
any eddy currents present in the moving fluid.

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 Types of Fluid Flow

➢Laminar flow
✓Steady flow
✓Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path.
✓The paths of the different particles never cross each other.
✓Every given fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same
velocity.
➢Turbulent flow
✓An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
✓ Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical
speed.

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 Factor affecting fluid flow

▪ It affected by the viscosity, density, and velocity of the fluid.

• Changes in the fluid temperature will change the viscosity & density of
the fluid.
• The length, inner diameter, and in the case of turbulent flow, the
internal roughness of the pipe.

• The position of the supply and discharge containers relative to the

pump position.

• The number & types of bends in the pipe layout.

• The number & types of valves, & other fittings, in the pipe layout.

• Entrance & exit conditions of the

33 pipe work.
 The continuity equation
❖ The product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along the
pipe is constant.

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 Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications

❖If the speed of a fluid element increases as the element travels along
a horizontal streamline, the pressure of the fluid must decrease, and
conversely.

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 Transform from laminar to turbulent flow

Reynolds Number

➢At sufficiently high velocities, fluid flow changes from simple

streamline flow to turbulent flow, characterized by a highly irregular
motion of the fluid. It is determine by Reynolds number (RN

𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑁 =
𝜇

where r is the density of the fluid, v is the average speed of the fluid along the direction

of flow, d is the diameter of the tube, and 𝜇 is the viscosity of the fluid.

➢ RN is below about 2,000 streamline flow above 3000 turbulence occur.

➢ occurs 36
 Aerodynamics

➢Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low sp

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 Cont…

➢Weight?

✓Weight is the downward force that an aircraft must overcome to fly.

➢Lift

✓Lift is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the
opposite of weight.

✓Everything that flies must have lift. For an aircraft to move upward, it
must have more lift than weight.

➢A helicopter’s lift comes from the rotor blades.

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 Cont…

➢Drag

✓Drag is a force that pulls back on something trying to move.

✓Drag provides resistance, making it hard to move.

✓The shape of an object also affects the amount of drag.

✓Round and Narrow surfaces usually have less drag than flat ones.

➢Thrust

➢Thrust is the force that is the opposite of drag.

✓ It is the push that moves something forward.

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 Exercises

1. The reciprocal of density is called:

a. Specific gravity
b. Compressibility
c. viscosity
d. Specific volume
3. Find the height to which water would rise in a capillary tube with a 5 x 10-5 m radius. Assume
the contact angle between the water and the material of the tube is small enough to be considered
zero.
3. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by
2
𝑈 = 𝑦 − 𝑦2
3
in which u is velocity in meter per second at a distance y meter above the plate, determine the
shear stress at y = 0 and y= 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.863 Ns/m^2.

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Cont…

for your attention

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