General Physics III - PHS203

Interference

Dr. C. Eid

NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY

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Outline

1 Interference

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 Interference

Light as a wave

The first person to advance a convincing wave theory for light was the Dutch physicist
Christian Huygens in 1678. It was simpler mathematically than electromagnetism of
Maxwell. Its great advantage are that it accounts for the laws of reflection and
refraction in terms of waves and gives physical meaning to the index of refraction.

All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical

secondary wavelets. After a time t, the new position of the
wavefront will be that of a surface tangent to these
secondary wavelets.

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The law of refraction

This figure shows three stages in the refraction of several

wavefronts at flat interface between air and glass. The speed
of light in air is v1 and v2 in glass (v2 < v1 ).
Angle θ1 is the angle between the wavefront and the
interface, it has the same value as the angle between the
normal to the wavefront and the normal to the interface.
Thus θ1 is the angle of incidence.
The time needed for the light to pass from e to c is the same
λ1 v1
from h to g and is λ1 /v1 or λ2 /v2 =⇒ =
λ2 v2
λ1
And we have in the triangles hce and hcg, sin θ1 = and
hc
λ2 sin θ1 λ1 v1
sin θ2 = =⇒ = =
hc sin θ2 λ2 v2
c
We define the index of refraction n to be n =
v
sin θ1 c/n1 n2
We have n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 =⇒ = =
sin θ2 c/n2 n1
And we have the law of refraction : n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

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Wavelength and Index of refraction

We have seen that the wavelength of light changes when the speed changes. For a
monochromatic light having a wavelength λ and speed c in vacuum and wavelength λn
and speed v in a medium with a index of refraction n. We have :

v λ
λn = λ =
c n
The frequency f = v /λ :

c/n c
fn = = =f
λ/n λ
The frequency of light in the medium is the same as it is in vacuum.
The phase difference between two light waves can change if the waves travel through
different materials having different indexes of refraction.

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Wavelength and Index of refraction

The number N1 of wavelength travelling L in medium 1 is

L Ln1 L Ln2
N1 = = . In the medium 2 N2 = = .
λ n1 λ λn2 λ
L
The new phase difference is : N2 − N1 = (n2 − n1 )
λ
L ∆L
N2 − N1 = (n2 − n1 ) is equivalent to
λ λ
∆L
Φ = 2π(N2 − N1 ) = 2π
λ
Fully constructive Φ = 2nπ
Fully destructive Φ = (2n + 1)π
This is important for interference. A path difference (∆L) of
0.5 wavelength puts two waves exactly out of phase (fully
destructive interference). If the difference is 0 or 1
wavelength =⇒ constructive interference.

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Diffraction

The first experiment that proved that light is a wave. We will introduce the idea of
diffraction of waves. We will explore much more in detail the diffraction in the next
chapter.
If a wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of dimensions similar to the
wavelength, the part of the wave that passes through the opening will spread out (will
diffract) into region beyond the barrier. Diffraction occurs for waves of all types.
The narrower the slit, the greater the diffraction

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Young’s Interference Experiment

In 1801, Thomas young experimentally

proved that light is a wave. He did so by
demonstrating that light undergoes
interference, as do water waves, sound
waves, and waves of all other types.
Light from a distant monochromatic source
illuminates slit S0 in screen A. The
emerging light then spreads via diffraction
to illuminate two slits S1 and S2 in screen
B. Diffraction of light by these two slits
sends overlapping circular waves into the
region beyond screen B, where the waves
from one slit interfere with the waves from
the other slit.

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 Interference

Young’s Interference Experiment

Screen C intercepts the light. Points of

interference maxima from visible bright
rows called bright bands, bright fringes, or
maxima that extend across the screen.
Dark regions are called dark bands, dark
fringes or minima result from fully
destructive interference and are visible
between adjacent pairs of bright fringes.
This pattern is called Interference Pattern.

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Locating the fringes

A plane wave of monochromatic light is

incident on two slits S1 and S2 in screen B,
the light diffracts through the slits and
produce interference pattern on screen C.
We pick an arbitrary point P on the screen,
at angle θ to the central axis. This point
intercepts the wave of ray r1 and r2 .
These waves are in phase when they pass
through the two slits because they are just
portions of the same incident wave.
However when they pass the slits, the two
waves must travel different distances to
reach P. The chang in phase difference is
due to the path length difference ∆L in the
paths taken by the waves.

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Locating the fringes

When ∆L is zero or an integer number of

wavelengths, the waves arrive at the
common point exactly in phase and they
interfere fully constructively and P is a
bright point. When instead ∆L is is an odd
multiple of half a wavelength, the waves
arrive at the common point exactly out of
phase and they interfere fully destructively
and P will be a dark point.
Or
∆L = d sin θ
d sin θ = mλ maxima-bright fringes
d sin θ = (m + 21 )λ minima-dark fringes

m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...

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Locating the fringes

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Coherence

For the interference pattern to appear on the screen C, the light waves reaching any
point P on the screen must have a phase difference that does not vary in time. In this
case the light from S1 and S2 are said to be coherent.

If we replace the double slits with two similar but independent monochromatic light
sources, such as two incandescent wires, the phase difference between the waves
emitted by the sources varies rapidly and randomly. This occurs because the light
emitted by vast numbers of atoms in the wires, acting randomly and independently for
extremely short time. As a result, at any given point on the viewing screen, the
interference between the waves from the two sources varies rapidly and randomly
between fully constructive and fully destructive. The eye cannot follow such changes,
and no interference pattern can be seen. The fringes disappear and the screen is seen
as being uniformly illuminated. The light at the slits would be incoherent.

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Intensity in Double-slit interference

The light leaving the two slits are in phase. Let us assume that the light waves are not
in phase when they arrive to P.
The two electric field components are :

E1 = E0 sin ωt

E2 = E0 sin(ωt + φ)
The phase difference does not vary =⇒ the waves are coherent

To combine the field components E1 and

E2 at any point P, we add their phasors
vectorially. The value of the vector sum is is
the amplitude E of the resultant wave at
point P and has a certain phase β. The
angles β are equal because they are
opposite equal length sides of a triangle.
2β + 180 − φ = 180 =⇒ β = φ2

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Intensity in Double-slit interference

φ
β=
2
Thus we have

E02 = E 2 + E02 − 2EE0 cos β

1
E = 2E0 cos φ
2
1
E 2 = 4E02 cos2 φ
2
I ∝ E2
I E2
= 2
I0 E0

I = 4I0 cos2 12 φ
2π
The phase difference is equal to × path length difference
λ
2πd
φ= sin θ
λ

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Intensity in Double-slit interference

I = 4I0 cos2 12 φ
2πd
φ= sin θ
λ
I0 is the intensity of the light that arrives on the screen from one slit when the other slit
is covered.
To have maxima, we have seen that d sin θ = mλ =⇒ φ = 2πm
To have minima, we have seen that d sin θ = (m + 12 )λ =⇒ φ = 2(m + 12 )π

φ = 2πm maxima
1
φ = 2(m + 2
)π minima

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Interference from thin films

This figures shows a thin transparent film of uniform thickness L and index of refraction
n2 , illuminated by bright light of wavelength λ from a distant point source. We assume
that air lies on both sides of the film and thus that n1 = n3 . For simplicity we assume
that light rays are perpendicular to the film (θ ≈ 0). We are interested in whether the
film is bright or dark to an observer viewing it almost perpendicularly.
The incident light, represented by ray i, intercept the front surface of the film at point a
and undergoes both reflection and refraction there.

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Interference from thin films

The reflected ray r1 is intercepted by the observer’s eye. The refracted light crosses the
film to point b on the back surface where it undergoes both reflection and refraction
there. The light reflected at b goes to c where it undergoes both reflection and
refraction there. The light refracted at c, represented by ray r2 is intercepted by the
observer’s eye.
If the light waves of rays r1 and r2 are exactly in phase at the eye, they produce an
interference maximum and region ac on the film is bright to the observer. If they are
exactly out of phase, they produce an interference minimum and region ac is dark to
the observer (even though it is illuminated).
Because θ is about zero, we approximate the path length difference between r1 and r2
to be 2L.
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Interference from thin films

Refraction at an interface never causes a phase change but reflection can, depending
on the indexes of refraction on the two sides of the interface.
If the light is passing from n1 to n2 with n1 < n2 , the reflected light will have a difference
of phase of π with respect to the initial one. Otherwise, if n1 > n2 , the phase of the
reflected light will not change.
In case of a phase difference of π :

λ λ
2L = (m + 12 ) maxima-bright film in air 2L = m minima-dark film in air
n2 n2

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Film thickness Much less than λ

A special situation arises when a film is so thin that L is much less than λ, say,
L < 0.1λ. Then the path length 2L can be neglected, and the phase difference between
r1 and r2 is due only to reflection phase shifts.
No calculations are done here but you can read the examples in the text book.

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Michelson’s Interferometer

An interferometer is a device that can be used to measure lengths or changes in length

with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. We describe the form originally
devised by A.A. Michelson in 1881.
Consider light that leaves point P on extended source S and encounter beam splitter
M. A beam splitter is a mirror that transmits half incident light and reflects the other half.
On half proceeds to mirror M1 at the end of one arm, the other proceeds by reflection
toward mirror M2 at the end of the second arm. The waves are entirely reflected at
these mirrors and are sent back along their directions of incidence, each wave
eventually entering telescope T.
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Michelson’s Interferometer

What the observer sees is a pattern of curved or approximatively straight interference

fringes.
The path length difference for the two waves when they recombine at the telescope is
2d2 − 2d1 , and anything that changes this path length difference will cause a change in
the phase difference between these two waves at the eye.
A shift in the fringe pattern can also be caused by the insertion of a thin transparent
material into the optical path of one of the mirrors, say M1 . If the material has thickness
L and index of refraction n, then the number of wavelengths along the light’s path
L
through the material is ( from Eq. N = seen before)
λ n1
2L 2Ln
Nm = =
λn λ
The number of wavelengths in the same thickness 2L of air before the insertion of the
material is
2L
Na =
λ
The phase change is :
2Ln 2L 2L
Nm − Na = − = (n − 1)
λ λ λ

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Michelson’s Interferometer

For each phase change of one wavelength, the fringe pattern is shifted by one fringe.
Thus by counting the number of fringes through which the material causes the pattern
to shift, and substituting that number for Nm − Na , you can determine the thickness L of
the material in terms of λ.
Using this technique, Michelson defined the standard of length, the meter (for more
detail, read the text book).

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