Chapter 5

Coteaching, Collaborating, and

Differentiating Instruction: Working
with Professionals and Families

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  Learning Outcomes

5.1 Identify some of the challenges of working in inclusive settings.

5.2 Distinguish among the three major models for consultation and

collaboration.

5.3 Describe effective practices for differentiating instruction.

5.4 Describe the principles of communication, and give examples of

how teachers can communicate effectively with parents and

professionals.

5.5 Analyze the special education teacher’s role as a consultant to

general education teachers.

5.6 Summarize the teacher’s role in addressing the needs of the

entire family.

Mrs. Tupa works in a hospital emergency room, so she is accustomed to

talking to people who are grieving. Mrs. Tupa states:

I often speak to parents about the recovery of their children.

Fortunately, most of the children have injuries or illnesses from

which they will recover completely. I’ve been trained in the

importance of telling the parents as quickly and completely as

possible all we know about their child’s condition. The only

reason I’m telling you this is that I want you to understand that I

am accustomed to dealing with difficulties. But I was unprepared

for the inconsistent information I would receive about our son.

When our third child, Chad, was born, my husband and I couldn’t

have been happier. Our first two children were girls, whom we
enjoy immensely, but both of us were hoping for a boy. Chad
walked and talked later than the girls, but I knew that boys are

often developmentally slower than girls, so we were not

concerned. When Chad was a preschooler, he often had difficulty

thinking of the right word for an object and his language was
often difficult to follow. When the girls told stories about events

that happened to them, we could understand clearly what they

were communicating. This was often not the case with Chad.
When we spoke with his pediatrician, the doctor informed us that

this was not uncommon.

When Chad entered kindergarten, he did not know all of his

colors and showed little ability to remember the names of the

letters in the alphabet. He was just not very interested in the

school part of kindergarten though he enjoyed the playing part.

His kindergarten teacher said that she had seen a number of

students like Chad, often boys, and suggested that we keep Chad

in kindergarten another year. Our neighbor, who is a teacher,

thought this might not be a good idea, since Chad was already
large for his age. We spoke with the principal, who seemed very

busy and thought we should take the advice of the kindergarten

teacher. We retained Chad. Spending another year in

kindergarten seemed to do little good, however. Chad was still

unable to identify letters, though he was very popular because of

his size and knowledge of the kindergarten routine.

First grade was worse yet. Chad showed no signs of reading and
was confusing letters. His writing resembled that of a much

younger child. By now we were very concerned and made several

appointments with his first-grade teacher. She was very
responsive and suggested that we have Chad tutored during the

summer. The tutor said that Chad had an attention problem and
 was having trouble with letter and word reversals. She suggested
that we have him tested for learning disabilities. The school

psychologist agreed to do the testing, and it was late in the fall

before we were called and given the results.

Though both my husband and I are professionals, we felt

somewhat intimidated by the number of school personnel at the
meeting. On our way home, as we tried to reconstruct what we
heard, we realized that we had misunderstood and missed a lot of

information. I heard the school personnel say Chad’s intelligence

was normal, but my husband thought that it couldn’t be normal
because his verbal intelligence was low. We decided to make a
list of questions to ask at our next meeting. We felt that we had
made a major stride forward, since Chad would now be receiving

special instruction for 1 hour each day from a learning disabilities

specialist; however, we still felt we understood very little about
his problems. I only wish we had been told more completely and
quickly about Chad’s problem.

Many parents have had similar experiences. They have noticed that their
child is different in some areas from other children of the same age. These
parents seek advice from friends, medical professionals, and school
professionals and often feel confused and frustrated. When the child is

identified as having learning disabilities or emotional disorders, many

parents at first feel relieved, hoping that this identification will lead to
solutions that will eliminate the child’s learning or behavior problem. The
difficult adjustments are that the child will probably always have learning

or behavior problems and that the special education teacher will be

unable to provide any magic cures, and certainly no quick solutions.

Learning disabilities and emotional disorders are complex phenomena,

and knowledge of all the factors that they involve is incomplete. Special
education teachers work effectively with parents when they are sensitive
to parental concerns about identification and intervention, yet speak

honestly about what they know and do not know. Families need
educators to provide them with encouragement about what they can do
at home and about an effective plan for providing instructional supports
for their child. Families need to know about the educators’ best
knowledge of their child’s learning and behavior problem and also need

to be informed of what educators are less sure of.

This chapter focuses on the special education teacher as a coteacher who

facilitates differentiated instruction in the classroom. One of the essential

roles of special education teachers is coteaching and communicating

effectively with other professionals (e.g., general education teacher,
school psychologist), as well as communicating with family members and
between special education teachers and other school-related
professionals. This chapter deals with the issue of the special education

teacher as a leader in differentiating instruction, communicating with

professionals and parents, and collaborating with key stakeholders.
Successful Inclusion and Coteaching
What are some of the challenges and opportunities of working in an

inclusive classroom and working with general education teachers?

Considering the many complexities of teaching and the increasing

demands for high performance and preparing students for postsecondary

success, classroom teachers are required to provide instruction for

increasingly diverse student populations and are still held accountable for

covering the prescribed curriculum in a manner that ensures most

students learn that content. Classroom teachers sometimes feel that they

must choose between covering the content adequately and differentiating

instruction appropriately for the range of special learners in their

classroom. One of the significant roles of the special education teacher is

to support general education teachers in meeting content goals and

Common Core State Standards while also providing appropriate

instruction for students with special needs.

Many special education students need more time to master new concepts

and skills, and they master those concepts and skills only if instruction is

presented to them in a manner that enables them to grasp the new

material. Teachers must know and use a variety of instructional strategies

to ensure that all students have an opportunity to learn. This takes time

and planning.

In general, teachers at the middle and high school levels indicate that it is
often not feasible for them to plan specifically for students with special

needs (Isherwood & Barger-Anderson, 2007; Schumm et al., 1995a,

1995b). Furthermore, when coteaching has been compared to other

models such as resource-room settings, the findings for students are

mixed (Solis, Vaughn, Swanson, & McCulley, 2012). This suggests that
the model of service delivery may not be the issue; rather, the quality of

instruction provided to students is what makes the difference (Zigmond,

2003). General education teachers are willing to work with special

education professionals to make accommodations for students with

special needs as they teach—particularly when those accommodations are

useful to other learners in the classroom. Special and general education

teachers have many opportunities to align their knowledge and skills and

improve outcomes for students with disabilities. One of the successful

ways to improve transition planning is through developing interagency

partnerships. See Apply the Concept 5.1 for pointers on establishing

partnerships for promoting successful transition.
5.1 Apply the Concept
Establishing Partnerships for Promoting Successful Transition

A critical role for special education teachers is to facilitate

transition from the world of school to the world of adulthood.
Establishing partnerships to promote transition includes the

following tasks:

Implement the transition plan for each student with a

disability that is required by age 16.
Consider ways to connect with appropriate postsecondary

resources: postsecondary education, including junior

colleges and vocational training; employment; and

community participation.
Organize transition services as a set of coordinated

activities oriented toward producing results.

Consider the student’s preferred interests and goals and

facilitate access to appropriate partnerships.

Design activities aimed at easing the young person’s

movement into the postschool world.

Consider that students are at the center of planning their
transition and your role is to facilitate their success.

Establish coordinated relationships with these four primary

agencies: Vocational Rehabilitation, the Social Security

Administration, state-level agencies, and independent living

centers.
Challenges to Special Education
Teachers
Two special education teachers at different schools had very different

points of view about their experiences working as coteachers with general

education teachers to improve learning for students with disabilities. One
teacher said, “It was the best year of my teaching career. Ms. Walberg was

terrific and taught me so much about what to expect from general

education. I think all of the students benefited because we worked so well
together and shared so much of the teaching.” Another teacher at a
different school said, “This year was enough to get me to leave education.
I never really felt like I was an equal partner in the classroom. I always

felt like I was the teaching assistant. Furthermore, it was so painful to

watch how practices were implemented for students who needed help
and weren’t getting it. Yet I never really felt anyone was listening to me.”
 MyLab Education Video Example 5.1

In this video, a sixth-grade special education teacher shares his

memories, experiences, and professional growth during his 11-
year career. Based on his perspective, what are the benefits

and challenges of his job?

Ms. Peres, a special education teacher, states it this way:

I am convinced that students with disabilities need to be in

general education classrooms if at all possible. However, I have

learned that we need to prepare them both socially and

academically. Much of what we do in special education
classrooms does not prepare them for general education. They
are used to individual and small-group instruction, receiving lots
of feedback and lots of reinforcement, and being relatively free to
ask for and receive assistance. This does not reflect what happens
in the general education classrooms in this school. Although the
teachers are great, they have 28 to 32 students in each class.
Large-group instruction and cooperative and independent

learning are the most frequently used instructional arrangements.

The first key to making inclusion work is to cooperate with the

general classroom teachers and to observe their classrooms to
determine the learning and social demands.

The second key is to gain a commitment from the student. He or

she has to want to work toward the goal. I always describe the
classroom demands to the student, and sometimes he or she goes

to observe. Then we plan how we’re going to get ready for “going
to Mrs. Fereira’s class for math.”

The third key is to begin simulating those learning and social

demands to assure the inclusion process is successful. I start

gradually, typically focusing on the academic demands. I get the

lessons and textbooks from the classroom teacher, and I begin to
assign the lessons. At first, the rate of learning is matched to the
student’s learning rate. But once the student is succeeding with

the assignments, I begin to increase the rate until it matches that

of the general education classroom. As this procedure continues, I
gradually reduce the amount of reinforcement and feedback and
work with the student to become a more independent learner.

The fourth key is to monitor the student and to continue to work

with the classroom teacher to modify and adapt materials,
methods, and the teaching–learning environment as needed.
 I’ve been very successful with this strategy. I have all but 4 of my
14 students included for most of the school day.

Ms. Peres’s discussion of how she provides effective instruction and

behavioral support for her students in the general education classroom
demonstrates that she values communication, collaboration, and

consultation with the general education classroom teachers.

Web Resources

What you need to know about special education is described on

the Office of Special Education Programs website

http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep/index.html.
Understanding the Challenges of
General Education Classrooms
Special education teachers need to understand what students with special

needs can reasonably expect in general education classrooms so that they

can provide the support and skills necessary for success. Although

teachers’ expectations vary considerably, some common expectations can

be noted:

General education teachers report that they are willing to make

adaptations and accommodations that do not require preplanning

and can occur during the instructional process. If additional

modifications are required (e.g., assignments or tests), then the

special education teacher can provide them (see Apply the Concept

5.2).
Teachers are not willing to provide significant modifications for

students with disabilities, particularly at the middle and high school

levels.

Students with disabilities may not participate frequently during class

and rarely respond to teachers’ questions.

Undifferentiated large-group instruction is representative of what

occurs in general education classrooms, yet one-on-one or small-

group instruction is better for students with learning difficulties.

5.2 Apply the Concept
Adaptations General Education Teachers Are Willing to Make

Teachers identified the following as highly feasible to

implement:

1. Provide reinforcement and encouragement to assist

students with learning.

2. Establish a personal relationship with included students.

3. Involve included students in whole-class activities.

4. Establish routines that are appropriate for included

students.

5. Establish expectations for learning and behavior.

Teachers identified the following as not likely to be

implemented:

1. Adapt long-range plans to meet the needs of included

students.
2. Adjust the physical arrangement of the room to meet the

needs of included students.

3. Use alternative materials or adapt current materials for

students with special needs.

4. Adapt scoring and grading criteria for students with special
needs.

5. Provide individualizing instruction to meet students’ special

needs.
Web Resources

For more information about meeting the needs of all students in

inclusive classrooms, see the IRIS website on inclusive education
resources and collaboration http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/.
Consultation and Collaboration
What are three major models for consultation and collaboration?

Although both terms—consultation and collaboration—are often used to

describe the role of many special education teachers, teachers prefer the

term collaboration. Why? Teachers indicate that they prefer collaborative

modes of working on student problems rather than handing over

problems to experts or working on them independently (Arguelles,

Vaughn, & Schumm, 1996; Ronfeldt, Farmer, McQueen, & Grissom,

2015). Teachers perceive that the term collaboration more accurately

describes the nature of their relationships. As one special education

teacher noted, “We actually work together to solve problems. It’s not like

I have all of the answers or she has all of the problems. We really help

each other come up with ideas that work.” We have found that general

education teachers feel much the same way.

What is collaboration? Collaboration refers to the interaction that occurs

between two professionals, often between special education teachers and

general education teachers, and to the roles that they play as equal

partners in problem-solving endeavors. When teachers collaborate, they

Work together to solve problems and generate feasible solutions that

they implement and evaluate.

Reflect on their own instructional practices and are eager to make

changes that improve outcomes for students.

Share lessons and instructional practices.

Observe and provide feedback to each other.

What are some of the ways in which special education teachers might

expect to collaborate with other professionals? A significant part of their

role is to collaborate with parents and any other specialist who is

associated with the teacher’s students with special needs. Whether

working as a resource-room teacher, a self-contained special education

teacher, or a coteacher, special education teachers also have considerable

opportunities to collaborate with general education teachers. They may

also work in a program in which most of the workday involves

collaboration with other teachers.

One important way in which special education teachers collaborate with

general education professionals is in developing ways to make curricula

more accessible to students with special needs. Curriculum planning can

address such important issues as identifying changes in curriculum that

are forecast by national boards and professional groups, identifying the

ways in which these new trends will affect the curriculum and students

with special needs, examining the scope and sequence of the present

curriculum and determining where changes best fit, identifying new goals

and discussing the prerequisite skills needed for students with special

needs, and identifying areas of mismatch or in which new curriculum is

inappropriate for target students.

Additional ways in which special education teachers collaborate with

general education teachers include:

Coteaching—Working with classroom teachers to provide instruction

together in general education classrooms. For example, a special

education teacher might coteach with an English teacher at the

secondary level who has several students with disabilities in his class.
The goal would be for the special education teacher to provide access
to the general education curriculum for the students with disabilities.

The special education teacher might provide small-group instruction

within the classroom, modify homework assignments, and assist with
test preparation and other accommodations for students with
disabilities, as needed.

Consultant teaching—Working with classroom teachers to solve

problems for students with disabilities who will be included in

general education classrooms. For example, the special education

teacher may be asked to observe the students with disabilities in the

general education classroom as a means to identifying behavioral or

instructional practices that might facilitate success for the target
students. Another example may be that the special education teacher

modifies particular tests or assignments to promote access to the

general education curriculum for students with disabilities.

Consultant teaching differs from coteaching in that the special

education teacher observes, assesses, and helps plan for instruction

but typically does not provide direct instruction in the general

education classroom.

Coordination of paraprofessionals—Working with classroom teachers to

coordinate and support the activities of paraprofessionals who assist

students with disabilities in the general education classroom. For

example, the special education teacher may have a paraprofessional
assigned to a student with severe behavior problems during science

and math in the general education classroom. The student may have
the knowledge and skills to benefit from the general education

classroom but may not have the appropriate behaviors. The special
education teacher could provide the paraprofessional with the

guidelines for positive behavioral support to enhance the student’s

success in the classroom.

Teacher assistance teams (TATs)—Participating in school-based teams

of professionals, classroom teachers, and administrators that assist

classroom teachers in meeting the instructional and behavior needs of

individual students. For example, the special education teacher might
organize grade-level meetings at the elementary level (e.g., all fourth-

grade teachers meet at the same time) or content-area meetings at the

middle school level (e.g., all social studies teachers meet at the same
time) to discuss ways to promote successful learning and behavior for

students with learning and behavior problems.

Collaboration Within a Response to
Intervention Framework
What is the role of the special education teacher within a response to
intervention (RTI) framework? RTI has provided new opportunities and

expectations for cooperation between special education teachers and

general education teachers. Special education teachers may meet and
plan with general education teachers about the Tier 2 interventions
provided in math and reading and may also play a significant role in

providing interventions for students in Tier 3. What are some of the

collaborative activities that special education teachers may engage in
within an RTI framework? A few considerations follow (Ciullo et al.,
2016; Haager & Mahdavi, 2007; Hoover & Patton, 2008):

Organize screening and progress-monitoring measures, and

determine cut points for which students will be provided reading and
math intervention.
Determine how interventions should be implemented and organized.

Develop a checklist for high-quality implementation of interventions.

Develop training for teachers and paraprofessionals to provide high-
quality intervention.
Determine how to adjust interventions to meet the needs of students

performing at a range of grade levels and with varying instructional

needs.
Determine how to adjust instruction when students make minimal
progress in interventions.
Observe for evidence-based practices during classroom instruction

and intervention and provide feedback and suggestions as needed.

In summary, the critical role for the special education teacher is to

collaborate with all key stakeholders in the school, including school

psychologists, speech and language specialists, general education

teachers, and school leaders, to make critical decisions about (1)
determining and implementing research-based practices, (2) collecting
and using ongoing data to make effective decisions for students with
learning and behavioral problems, (3) identifying appropriate practices

for differentiating instruction within the classroom and interventions, and

(4) communicating effectively with all key stakeholders so that
appropriate instruction is provided to all students with learning and
behavior problems. Check out the National Association of State
Directors of Special Education website for interesting resources on

collaboration and response to intervention.

Resources Needed for Collaboration
No resource impedes successful collaboration more than time. Special

and general education teachers confirm the difficulties of finding

adequate time to effectively collaborate during the workday (R. Goddard,

Y. Goddard, Sook Kim, & Miller, 2015; Stivers, 2008). If time is not built

into teachers’ schedules, collaboration is unlikely to occur on a regular

basis. Furthermore, if it is not part of the schedule, then teachers come to

resent having to collaborate because it means taking time from their

personal schedules. Another critical aspect of time management for

special education teachers is finding mutually available time when they

can collaborate with the many teachers with whom they work. Time

management is especially challenging at the secondary level. Following

are some ways in which collaborative time can be arranged (Vaughn, Bos,

& Schumm, 2017):

Administrators designate a common time for collaborating

professionals (e.g., all fifth-grade team members) to work together.

School boards pay professionals for one extra time period each week

that can be used to collaborate or meet with families.

School districts provide early dismissal for students one day a week

so that team members have a common planning time.

Teachers meet for brief but focused planning periods on a regularly

scheduled basis.

Resources such as administrators, families, volunteers, and university

students are used to help cover classes. For example, short planning

sessions may be scheduled during recess when larger groups of

students can be monitored by a teacher and a volunteer.

Space for meeting is another necessary resource. Special education

teachers are often fortunate because they have an office or a small

classroom for their materials. But finding a quiet place to meet is

particularly challenging in schools where overcrowding is the norm.

Additionally, participants in collaborative models need to be familiar with

procedures for successful collaboration. An orientation that addresses

basic questions about their roles and responsibilities is helpful to all

personnel who are involved in collaboration. Administrative support can

be crucial to ensuring that teachers are given appropriate time, space, and
knowledge of procedures to implement an effective collaborative model.

Like other educational approaches, consultation and collaboration models

have the potential for benefit as well as misuse and misunderstanding.

Apply the Concept 5.3 describes potential benefits and challenges.

5.3 Apply the Concept
Benefits and Challenges of Consultation and Collaboration

Consultation and collaboration models have several potential

benefits and challenges.

Potential Benefits

1. Coordinated academic and behavioral support provided to

students with disabilities by special and general educators.

2. A better program for students resulting from better

understanding across education disciplines.

3. On-the-job training for general and special education

teachers, increasing knowledge and skills for effectively

meeting the requirements of students with special needs.

4. Reduced mislabeling of students as disabled.

5. Suitability in meeting the needs of secondary school
students.

6. Spillover benefits to general education students from

working cooperatively with the special education teacher.

Potential Challenges

1. Excessive caseload management for special education

teachers.

2. Unrealistic expectations from viewing the consulting model

as a panacea and/or undertraining and overloading the

special education teacher.

3. Inadequate support and cooperation from classroom

teachers.
4. Converting the model to a tutoring model or perceiving the

role of special education teachers as paraprofessional.

5. Providing inadequate funding to implement the model.

6. Faulty assumptions about cost savings or program

effectiveness.

7. Unrealistic expectations for student changes in academic

and/or behavioral outcomes.
8. Inadequate preparation for vocational experiences after

school.
9. Inadequate time to plan, communicate, and effectively
instruct target students.

Overall, the most important question to address is whether

students with learning and behavior problems are having their

needs met through a consultation and collaborative model. The
model may be highly effective for some students and less so
for others.
Collaboration Issues and Dilemmas
All special education teachers work collaboratively with general
education teachers, and many special education teachers work with
general education teachers at least 50% of the time. Consequently, special
education teachers need to recognize several issues and dilemmas to
perform their job effectively.

1. Student ownership. Traditionally, special education students have been

the responsibility of the special education teacher, even if they were
placed in a general education classroom for part of the day. This

perspective is no longer feasible or desirable. The new perspective is one

of shared ownership whereby all educators feel responsible for the
success of the student with special needs.

2. Individual versus class focus. General education teachers have the

responsibility for all students in their class. Particularly at the upper

elementary and secondary grade levels, general education teachers focus
on teaching the content and less on teaching individual students. This
contrasts with the focus of special education teachers, whose planning

and instruction aim at the needs of individual students. These differing

perspectives may mean that general and special education teachers need
to develop solutions that promote content support within a model that
provides the necessary instructional support for students with special

needs. Mrs. Vermillion put it this way, “I am a special education teacher,

and so the direction of my interest is always with the individual student
and how the educational setting can be altered to meet his or her needs.
During the last few years, I realize that I’ve needed to adjust my
perspective if I am to work effectively with classroom teachers. When

they think about planning for students, they think about the class as a
whole.” What are some of the changes Mrs. Vermillion has instituted so
that she can have a more successful connection with the general
education teacher?

• Develop materials, including assessments and homework, that are

content appropriate, enhance learning for all students, and meet the
needs of students with disabilities.

• Spend additional time learning the content so that she can provide
appropriate accommodations for students.

• Look for resources for the general education teacher (e.g., books,
charts, videos) that provide content instruction but also support learning
of students with disabilities.

3. Content versus accommodation. When classroom teachers discuss their

planning and instruction, one of the most consistent themes is content
coverage (Kloo & Zigmond, 2008; Solis et al., 2012). Classroom teachers
recognize that state and national laws pressure them to cover more

content. Jon Lau, a ninth-grade science teacher, says, “Waiting until the
students understand would result in lack of adequate coverage of
material. It is my responsibility to cover the content in the time I am
allocated.”

This notion of content coverage as the horse leading the instructional

wagon is a consistent and pervasive problem in general education and
now directly influences the instruction of students with special needs.

The focus on content coverage is particularly heightened in light of the

adoption of the Common Core State Standards in many states
(http://www.corestandards.org/; states that have not adopted the
Common Core State Standards have their own progressive state
standards with similar requirements. There is some consensus that “less is
more” and that a reduced focus on content coverage might enhance the
quality of instruction for all learners.

You can imagine the difficulty for classroom teachers who feel pressured
to cover extensive amounts of content when special education teachers
make suggestions that slow down the pace or require them to make

adaptations for students’ special learning needs. This issue is not

insolvable. Teachers are willing to make adaptations and
accommodations they believe will help students and do not require
extensive amounts of preparation.

4. New roles for special education teachers. Perhaps one of the greatest
challenges for teachers who are learning to work collaboratively with

other teachers is that they assume different roles than those they

previously had. These roles can include supporting special education

students in the general education classroom; teaching with another

teacher in a content area in which they have little or no background

knowledge, particularly at the secondary level; helping students with

assignments; and engaging in disciplining and classroom management of

a range of students. A veteran special education teacher tells of the

changing roles and responsibilities of moving from her own classroom to

coteaching with other teachers. She discusses this role shift with the kind

of nostalgia that shows that she misses many of the comforts of her own
classroom and routines, yet realizes that many students are benefiting

from her engagement in the general education classroom (Klingner &

Vaughn, 2002).

What are some of the activities of special education teachers who are
working more collaboratively with general education teachers? They

spend the majority of their time in general education classrooms either

monitoring the learning and behavior of target students or teaching a

large group of students (six or more but not the entire class) (Harbort et
al., 2007). Less frequently occurring activities include responding to

students’ comments or questions, small-group instruction (fewer than six

students), extended individual student interaction, and managing

behavior.

5. Real world versus the student’s world. Another dichotomy between

general and special education teachers is the purpose of education.

Classroom teachers feel they are preparing students for the “real world.”
From their perspective, people in the real world do not make

accommodations for different learning styles. Fundamentally, they view

the real world as expecting the same from everybody and therefore, to
best prepare young people, their role as teachers is to expect the same

from every student.

Ms. McDowell, a secondary special education teacher, handles the

problem this way: “When classroom teachers talk to me about the real
world, I’m prepared. First, I present them with the idea that students are

never going to be successful in the real world if they do not have an

opportunity to learn and experience success in their present world. Their

present world is that teacher’s classroom. Second, I present them with the

fact that employers are required by law to make reasonable

accommodations for individuals with disabilities. Also, I never ask

general education teachers to make adaptations or accommodations that

aren’t useful to most students in the classroom.” In fact, instructional

interventions that are used to improve learning for students with

disabilities are at least as effective—and sometimes more effective—for

students without disabilities (Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000; Vaughn et

al., 2009).
Web Resources

See Student Progress https://rti4success.org/essential-

components-rti/progress-monitoring for descriptions of

screening and progress-monitoring measures.

Coteaching
Coteaching, or cooperative teaching, occurs when general and special

education teachers work cooperatively to ensure that all students in the

classroom, including those with disabilities, are provided appropriate

instruction. Coteaching can be conducted in several ways but typically

involves the general and special education teachers’ sharing planning,

presentation, assessment, and classroom management to promote

successful outcomes. Villa, Thousand, and Nevin (2008) also remind us

what coteaching is not. Coteaching is not one person teaching while

another prepares materials, not one person’s views dominating

instructional decision making, not tutoring, and not one person watching

while another teaches.

What are some of the models for coteaching and collaborative instruction

between general and special education teachers? Table 5.1 provides a

description of several approaches and the roles of teachers in their

implementation (Solis et al., 2012). It is important to note that it is likely

that each of these approaches would be used while coteaching,

depending on instructional goals and students’ needs.

Table 5.1 Coteaching Approaches

See Apply the Concept 5.4 for a description of questions to consider in

preparing for a successful coteaching experience.

5.4 Apply the Concept
Coteaching Perceptions

Consider asking and answering these questions with your

coteacher as a means for determining areas of strength and
potential areas to focus on within your coteaching setting:

1. We both have equal access to all information about general

education students in the class?

2. We both have equal access to all information about special
education students in the class?

3. We both are perceived by key administrators as appropriate

contacts for issues about the class?

4. We both are perceived by parents as appropriate contacts

for issues about the class?

5. If a problem with a student arises, we are both comfortable

addressing it and communicating with each other about it?

6. We have adequate time to plan?

7. We both have access to materials in the classroom?

8. The desks and chairs for both teachers are equivalent?

9. Decisions about what to teach are shared?
10. Decisions about how to teach are discussed and agreed

upon?
11. Decisions about adaptations to meet the special learning

needs of students are discussed and agreed upon?

12. Decisions about adaptations to tests and other evaluations

are discussed and agreed upon?

13. We provide each other with feedback that is useful and

improves our instruction?

14. We coteach effectively and with few difficulties?

15. We respect the contributions of our coteacher?

 16. We communicate and problem solve problems effectively?

Although some debate has arisen over the effectiveness of coteaching as a

way to meet the needs of students with disabilities (Isherwood & Barger-

Anderson, 2007; Murawski & Bernhardt, 2016), limited data indicate that
coteaching can have a positive impact on student achievement (Scruggs,
Mastropieri, & McDuffie, 2007). Of course, the effectiveness of coteaching
is related to what students need to learn and whether they can learn it

well within a coteaching setting. Generally, teachers report that they

benefited professionally from coteaching. They also report increased
cooperation among students within their class and additional time and
attention for students with disabilities. Teachers did consistently express

concerns that many of the students with disabilities demonstrated

significantly low academic skills with learning needs that were difficult to
meet in the general education classroom (Scruggs et al., 2007).

One successful model for coteaching engaged the special and general

education teacher in an embedded professional development within the

coteaching situation so that both professionals have opportunities to
“learn together” and improve their knowledge (Shaffer & Thomas-Brown,
2015). This way each teacher acquires expertise and learns to appreciate

both what she knows and what she can learn from her coteacher.

Villa and coworkers (2008) indicate that coteaching is likely to be

beneficial when:

Teachers’ use of collaborative skills increases teacher responsiveness.

When teachers share ideas, work together, and promote each other’s
successes in the classroom, all students are provided improved
instruction. When collaboration is effective, a broader range of
students has access to the curriculum.

Teachers support and identify the use of research-based practices. In

coteaching settings, teachers can structure classrooms to use various
grouping practices, reducing the prevailing use of whole-class
instruction and increasing small-group and peer teaching. Coteaching
also provides opportunities for teachers to identify research-based

practices and inform each other of ways to more effectively

implement these practices.
Teachers use problem solving to provide individualized learning and
meet all students’ needs. Teachers who identify learning and behavior

problems in their class and solve problems to more effectively meet

the needs of students are likely to yield beneficial learning outcomes.
Teachers empower each other through coteaching. Teachers who
effectively coteach can empower each other through collaborative
decision making, confirming effective practices, and sharing difficult

situations.
How Coteaching Works
When coteaching, special and general education teachers plan broad,

overall goals and desired outcomes for the class as a whole as well as for

specific students in the class. Both special and general classroom teachers

lead instruction during the same instructional period. Although one

teacher may provide some instruction to the group as a whole, most of

the instructional time involves both teachers working with small groups

or with individual students. Because students are frequently grouped

heterogeneously, the special education teacher works with many

students, including those who are identified as benefiting from special

education. Complementary instruction and supportive learning activities

are part of the teachers’ coplanning and instruction.

MyLab Education Video Example 5.2

In this video, a teacher describes the importance of

collaboration with other professionals. She discusses

coteaching and the process of learning and sharing ideas with

an experienced teacher. From her perspective, what are the

benefits and challenges of coteaching?
Coteaching Models
Coteaching involves much more than just putting a special and a general

education teacher in the same classroom. For example, Weiss and Lloyd
(2002, 2003) found that in coteaching situations it was often difficult for

special education teachers to provide the type of focused, explicit

instruction that they used in special education classrooms. Therefore, to
be successful, both teachers must carefully plan what role each will take

and the type of instruction they will each provide.

Teachers can implement a variety of coteaching models. Many teachers

select a coteaching model based on both overall instructional goals and

the individual needs of students in the classroom. Before choosing a

coteaching model, the general and special education teachers need to

decide what lesson or unit will be taught, being careful to consider

general education curriculum requirements as well as the individual

needs of students with disabilities specified on their individualized

education program (IEP). Most teachers find that they use more than one
model during a week and even during a day. Following are several

coteaching models that teachers have found useful (Conderman,

Bresnahan, & Pedersen, 2009; Vaughn, Schumm, & Arguelles, 1997). For

further information on coteaching, check out the website of the National

Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities.
Model A: One Group; One Lead Teacher, One
Teacher “Teaching on Purpose”
Many teachers in coteaching situations end up spending their time

grazing, that is, going from student to student, to make sure they are
following along, but without a specific plan or goal in mind. “Teaching on
purpose” is a method of checking for understanding and providing short

installments of explicit instruction that are related to key ideas, concepts,

or vocabulary from the main lesson. When teaching on purpose, one of
the teachers gives short lessons to individuals, pairs, or small groups of
students during or as a follow-up to whole-group instruction. In 1 or 2

minutes, the teacher who is teaching on purpose might approach a

student after instruction by the lead teacher to follow up on key ideas and
concepts, encourage participation, answer questions, or review
directions. In about 5 minutes, the teacher can review concepts and
vocabulary or check for understanding. If further instruction is needed,

the teacher can take a bit longer to provide a mini lesson that is related to
the main lesson (e.g., how to find the main idea). When coteaching is
used effectively, the teacher has a specific objective in mind and targets
particular students to ensure that they are learning specified material.

Some examples of what coteachers can do when they teach on purpose

include:

Reinforce big ideas of the lesson to one or two students.

Ask a student a question related to the overall instruction to see if the

student is learning.
Ask students to write the key word or words about what they are
learning.
Connect what students are currently learning to previous learning.

Check written work, and provide specific feedback and suggestions.

Model B: Two Mixed-Ability Groups; Two Teachers
Teach the Same Content
In Model B, the class is divided into two mixed-ability groups, and each

teacher instructs one group. The purpose of this coteaching model is to

reduce the group size to increase the number of opportunities for
students to participate and interact with one another and to have their
responses and knowledge monitored by a teacher. This format is often
used when difficult new content is introduced or when smaller groups are

beneficial for certain instructional activities, such as discussion. For

example, the coteachers may divide the class into two heterogeneous
groups during the discussion of a book that has been read as a whole
group. At the end of the lesson, the two groups come together to

summarize what they learned and to integrate information between

groups. Some other examples of when you might use this grouping
format include:

One teacher is doing a science lab experiment with half of the class

while the other teacher is reviewing key ideas related to learning

from the experiment.
One teacher is teaching about a controversial issue in social studies
(e.g., socialism versus capitalism), and the other teacher is teaching

the same content, but the small groups allow students more
opportunities for discussion.
One teacher is reviewing key grammatical functions related to
paragraph writing with half of the students who need the lesson,

while the other teacher is working on composing five-paragraph

essays.
Model C: Two Same-Ability Groups; Teachers
Teach Different Content
Students are divided into two groups on the basis of their skill level in the
topic area. One teacher reteaches, while the other teacher provides
alternative information or extension activities to the second group. For

example, during a unit on fractions, one teacher can lead a reteaching

activity on dividing the parts of a whole, while the other teacher facilitates
an activity on creating story problems using fractions. In effective
coteaching, the general education teacher does not always assume the
role of lead teacher, nor does the special education teacher always

reteach. Teachers share responsibilities and alter roles from one lesson to
the next.
Model D: Multiple Groups; Teachers
Monitor/Teach
Model D is often used during cooperative learning activities and in

reading groups and learning centers. One option for Model D is to have
several heterogeneous groups and one or two homogeneous groups
based on skill level. One or both teachers work with groups for the entire
period. For example, during reading in Ms. Chamber’s fifth-grade class,

the special education teacher, Mrs. Scholar, provides reading instruction

to a group of students with low reading ability that includes several
students with disabilities. The classroom teacher has two other groups
who rotate between working in centers and working with her in a group.

Another example is Mr. Young’s third-grade math class in which Mrs.

Scholar and he arrange for four groups of students to rotate between

them and two centers during a 50-minute period. This allows each

teacher to work with a relatively small group of students (approximate

five to seven) for 25 minutes every day. Another possibility during social

studies or science is to have students move in small groups through four

or five centers. Two centers are teacher assisted, and the remaining

centers have activities that can be done independently by groups.

Students might also work in cooperative groups or pairs while both

teachers provide mini lessons and monitor progress.
Model E: Whole Class; Two Teachers Teach
Together
In this model, teachers work cooperatively to teach a lesson. One teacher
may lead the whole-class lesson, while the other teacher interjects to

clarify the material. Often the general education teacher provides

curriculum material, and the special education teacher adds strategies to

help students with disabilities remember key ideas and organize

information. For example, teachers might spend 10 minutes modeling

problem-solving techniques and explaining directions for a science lesson

on observation in which students will work cooperatively to record

observations and make predictions about a “mystery matter.” One teacher

lists the steps of the activity, while the other points to a flowchart

indicating the correct sequence to follow. The next section on coteaching

with secondary students contains a description of activities that Mr.

Prudhi (a special education teacher) might use to support instruction.

These examples are very relevant for the model of two teachers teaching

together.

What do we know about which of these models are most frequently used

for coteaching between special and general education teachers? Pancsofar

and Petroff (2016) report that teachers most frequently indicated that they
implemented a coteaching approach in which one of the teachers designs

and delivers a lesson and the other teacher provides individualized

support to specific students with disabilities. The model that teachers

indicated was used least frequently was one in which the general and

special education teacher coplanned and co-instructed instructional

lessons. Consider the frequently large number of student cases for which

special education teachers are responsible; it may be that time limits their
coplanning and instructing, and thus assuming roles in which one teaches

and the other provides individualized support to the student(s) with

disabilities is the most efficient.

Web Resources

To learn more about coteaching, look for the www.youtube

presentation: Successful Co-Teaching: Keys to Team

Development for great coteaching ideas.

Coteaching with Secondary Students
Coteaching varies necessarily between elementary and secondary levels.

At the elementary level, it is not uncommon for coteaching to occur for as

much as half of the day. In these settings, the special education teacher
may have as many as six to eight students in two target classrooms for

most or all of the day. The special education teacher could then spend

several hours a day in each of those classrooms coteaching with the

general education teacher. For example, the special education teacher,

Ms. Gentry, coteaches with the fourth-grade teacher, Mr. Marcus, and the

fifth-grade teacher, Ms. Lau. She teaches reading and math in the
morning with Mr. Marcus and then again with Ms. Lau in the afternoon.

The special education teacher coplans reading and math activities with

the general education teacher, and both decide how to target and support

the learning of the students with disabilities.

At the secondary level, coteaching is different for the special education

teacher, Mr. Prudhi. He would describe his role as more of a supportive

teacher (Villa et al., 2008), meaning that the content-area teachers for

math, social studies, and science take primary responsibility for designing

and delivering the lesson, and his role is to support instruction for

students with disabilities. What are some of the activities that Mr. Prudhi

might perform within the supportive teaching role?

He might

Determine the big idea of the instructional unit that week, and make

it clear to the students with special needs.

Identify the key academic vocabulary and concepts related to learning

the unit, and teach those to students with special needs to ensure that

they can learn the content.

 Identify resources that would facilitate learning for students with

special needs, such as supportive texts written at levels the student

can read, technology that would provide access to visual images or

other information to promote learning, and/or a video that would

make some of the key concepts more accessible.

Conduct a pretest on the material to be taught that week to determine

what students know and what they need to know to successfully

master the information that week.

Provide modifications to assignments, homework, or assessments so

that they are accessible to students with disabilities.

Communicate with key personnel at the school to facilitate learning

for target students.

Communicate with parents to facilitate learning for target students.

Develop resources, such as overheads, PowerPoint slides, graphs, and

other learning devices, to facilitate learning for all students.

Provide 60-second lessons to key students to reinforce ideas taught

and ensure learning.

Provide small-group lessons to key students as needed.

Follow up with students to ensure learning is sustained and

connected to previous learning.

Apply the Concept 5.5 provides guidelines for effective coteaching in

elementary school classes for students with learning and behavior

problems.
5.5 Apply the Concept
Guidelines for Effective Coteaching

Effective coteaching involves the following:

1. Voluntary participants. Teachers choose to work together

and do not perceive that they are forced into a collaborative

teaching situation (Scruggs et al., 2007). Ms. Andrews is a

special education teacher who has been coteaching in three

fourth-grade classrooms for several years to assist children

with learning and behavior problems. She began collaborating

after attending a workshop on coteaching with the fourth-

grade team from her school. She says the reason she and her

team are successful is because “we enjoy working together,

have compatible teaching styles, and feel comfortable
discussing differences.”

2. Shared responsibility. Teachers combine their knowledge

and resources to plan instruction. Therefore, they also share

the accountability for the outcomes of those decisions.

3. Reciprocity of ideas. While the amount and nature of input

will vary by teacher, both teachers must accept each other’s

contributions as integral to the collaborative process.

4. Problem solving. Not only must teachers collaborate to

identify and find solutions to meet student needs, they also

must accept that problems will arise when two professionals

work together to coordinate instruction. Dealing with problems

that arise during collaboration is not so different from finding

solutions to student problems. To solve a problem, it is helpful

to identify concerns, share information regarding the problem,
brainstorm possible solutions, evaluate the ideas, create a

solution plan, try the solution, and evaluate its success (Villa et
al., 2008).

5. Interactive communication. Effective communication

occurs when teachers trust each other and are not afraid to

voice either their agreement or their disagreement, when they

communicate accurately and directly, and when they remain
sensitive to differences (Villa et al., 2008).

6. Conflict resolution. Disagreements and even arguments are

inevitable in any collaborative process. Implementing a plan to
resolve conflicts can lead to better solutions than if the

problem is ignored (Idol, Nevin, & Paolucci-Whitcomb, 2000).

Coplanning
Special education teachers often coplan with general education teachers
for the students with special needs who are in their classrooms.

Sometimes special education teachers also coteach in those classrooms; at

other times, they assist the teacher in planning and making adaptations
for students with special needs to lessons that will be taught without their
assistance or facilitate development of appropriate evaluations or

homework assignments.

In long-range coplanning, special education and general education

teachers plan broad overall goals and outcomes for a class and the
specific students with disabilities who are in that class. This coplanning of

broad goals occurs quarterly or more frequently, as needed, and

accommodates the IEPs of students with disabilities.

Special education and general education teachers may also coplan specific

lessons and outcomes for a unit of study or for a designated period (e.g.,
weekly). The planning pyramid (Schumm, 2006; Schumm, Vaughn, &
Harris, 1997) provides a process for coplanning by special and general
education teachers to meet the needs of students with disabilities in

general education classrooms. As can be seen in Figure 5.1, a form for

unit planning, and in Figures 5.2 and 5.3, forms for lesson planning, forms
can be used to facilitate the process. Working together, teachers complete
the forms to identify their objectives, materials needed, and their roles
and responsibilities in delivering the instruction. While planning, the

special education teacher can provide ideas for adaptations, clarification,

scaffolding, and use of materials to facilitate learning. Essential to the
success of the planning pyramid is the identification of core ideas,
concepts, vocabulary, and/or principles that the teachers determine to be

essential for all students to learn. This information is entered at the base
of the pyramid. Information that the teacher deems important for most
students to learn is written in the middle of the pyramid. Information for
a few students to learn is written at the top of the pyramid. Teachers who
implement the planning pyramid find that it not only facilitates the
organization of the material they intend to teach, but also provides

guidelines for instruction.

Figure 5.1 Unit-planning Form

Figure 5.2 Weekly Coplanning Form
Figure 5.3 Example Elementary Coteaching Lesson Plan
Successful Coteaching
Joyce Duryea is an elementary special education teacher who has worked

as a resource-room teacher for 9 years (Klingner & Vaughn, 2002, provide

a case study of Joyce if you would like to read more about her). She was

asked to work collaboratively with three general education teachers who

had approximately five students with disabilities in each of their

classrooms. Joyce said, “When I was preparing to be a special education

teacher, it never occurred to me that I would need to know how to

coteach in a general education classroom. I always thought I would have

my group of students with special needs and that is the way it would be.”

However, she has found her new role exciting and challenging. Joyce puts
it this way: “I think I’m a better teacher now, and I definitely have a much

better understanding of what goes on in the general education classroom

and what kinds of expectations I need to have for my students.”

Several core issues must be addressed if coteaching partnerships are

likely to succeed (Pugach & Winn, 2011; Scruggs et al., 2007):

• Who gives grades, and how do we grade?

Perhaps the issue that warrants the most discussion before coteaching is

grading. Special education teachers are accustomed to grading based on

the effort, motivation, and abilities of their students. General education

teachers consider grades from the perspective of a uniform set of

expectations. Communicating about grading procedures for in-class

assignments, tests, and homework will reduce the friction that is

frequently associated with grading students with disabilities in the

general education classroom. Grading can be particularly challenging at

the secondary level, where grades can be used to make high-stakes

decisions about access to postsecondary education, rank in class, and

graduation. Review Apply the Concept 5.6 for information on questions

to consider about grading when coteaching.

• Whose classroom management rules do we
use, and who enforces them?
Most general and special education teachers know the types of academic

and social behaviors they find acceptable and unacceptable. Rarely is

there disagreement between teachers about the more extreme behaviors;

however, the subtle classroom management issues that are part of the

ongoing routines of running a classroom can cause concerns for teachers.

It is beneficial for teachers to discuss their classroom management styles

and their expectations for each other in maintaining a smoothly running

classroom. Critical to success is determining when and with whom the

special education teacher should intervene for discipline purposes.

• What space do I get?

When a special education teacher spends part of his day instructing in

another teacher’s classroom, it is extremely useful to have a designated

area for the special education teacher to keep materials. Special education

teachers who coteach for part of the school day in another teacher’s
classroom feel more at home and are better accepted by the students

when they have a legitimate claim on space, including a designated desk

and chair.
• What do we tell the students?
Teachers often wonder whether students should be told that they have
two teachers or whether they should reveal that one of the teachers is a

special education teacher. We think that it is a good idea to inform the

students that they will be having two teachers and to introduce the
special teacher as a “learning abilities” specialist. Students both accept

and like the idea of having two teachers. In interviews with elementary

students who had two teachers (special education and general

education), the students revealed that they very much liked having two

teachers in the classroom (Klingner, Vaughn, & Schumm, 1998).

Similarly, early in the school year, the teachers should inform parents that

their child will have two teachers and that both will be responsible for

their child’s learning.

• How can we find time to coplan and

coordinate?
The most pervasive concern of both general and special education

teachers who coteach is finding enough time during the school day to
plan and discuss their instruction and the learning of their students. This

is of particular concern for special education teachers who are working

with more than one general education teacher. Teachers need a minimum
of 45 minutes of uninterrupted planning time each week if they are to

have a successful coteaching experience. One suggestion that has been

made by several of the teacher teams with whom we have worked is to

designate a day or a half-day every 6 to 8 weeks when teachers meet

exclusively to plan and discuss the progress of students as well as changes

in their instructional practices.
• How do we ensure parity between teachers?
Teachers consistently report that having equal footing in the classroom is

the preferred working arrangement for successful coteaching. There may

be occasional examples of a teacher having considerably more knowledge

and expertise and thus serving as the mentor for the coteacher, but

typically when teachers view themselves and each other as having skills
and knowledge to benefit the coteaching situation, success is more likely.

Neither teacher wants to think of himself as a paraprofessional working

alongside the “real” teacher.

• How do we know if it’s working?

Many teachers work so hard to make coteaching work that they overlook

the most important goal: ensuring that students learn. Teachers must
collect and evaluate student data to determine whether instruction is

effective. A general rule to follow if students are not making adequate

progress is to increase the intensity of instruction and decrease the

teacher–student ratio. In addition to student learning, it is important that

coteachers take time to evaluate the coteaching process. Dieker (2001)

found that effective coteachers discussed their roles and responsibilities

on an ongoing basis and made adjustments as needed.
5.6 Apply the Concept
Considerations About Students’ Grades When Coteaching

When coteaching, it is important to determine the role each

teacher will have in determining grades for students.

Are both teachers involved in determining grades for all

students? Are students assigned to a particular teacher for

a grade?
What is the classroom grading policy? How is that

communicated to students?

For specific assignments, what criteria will be applied for

grading and who will do the grading?

How do we consider modification and accommodations for

students with disabilities in our grading policy?

How do we determine final grades for the class?

Who communicates grades to family members and

discusses grades if there are issues?
Differentiating Instruction with
Collaborative and Coteaching
Approaches
Classrooms have students demonstrating a range of academic and

behavioral needs. Students who are gifted and students with significant

cognitive challenges are often in the same classroom, requiring

instruction that is appropriate to facilitate their progress. It is essential

that teachers are able to apply principles of differentiated instruction,

which can be defined as (Schumm & Avalos, 2009):

Aligning instructional practices to the special needs of the learner.

Determining the learning interests of students and refining

instruction and assignment to meet learning goals and also reflect

their learning interests.

Generating many options for responding to the instructional and

behavioral needs of the range of learners without requiring a fixed

approach or response for everyone.

Considering curriculum enhancement and modification (Alquraini &

Gut, 2012).

Developing fluency with skills and concepts already learned.

Applying what students have learned to new situations.

Reviewing previously learned skills and concepts.

Extending what students know through research and other project-

based activities.

Learning stations or centers provide a way to facilitate differentiated

instruction. For example, Jana Smithers uses literacy stations during her

reading/language arts block. While Jana works with one of her four

guided reading groups, the other three groups move through one of three
stations with resources and materials. Apply the Concept 5.7 provides

guidance for how to use learning stations.

5.7 Apply the Concept
Using Learning Stations to Differentiate Instruction

Consider the following guidelines for establishing learning

stations or centers that differentiate instruction for the range
of learners in your classroom:

Are students in groups that maximize the likelihood for

success for all students? For example, if the task at the

center has some challenging aspects, ensure that the
groups are heterogeneous, representing a range of learning

abilities. If the tasks at the center are reviewing previously

learned materials representing a range of abilities, arrange

same-ability groups.
Provide directions that are clear and contain icons or

pictures as well as written directions to ensure that all

learners will know what to do. It is often helpful to

demonstrate expectations at each center prior to releasing

students to work in the group centers.

Specify the expected outcome for each center and whether

there is an expected product for each student or one group
product.

Ensure that the task at the center is reasonable to complete

in the time specified, typically 15 to 30 minutes. It is often

helpful to differentiate expectations so that some students

may be expected to complete more during the center time

than other students.

Provide opportunities for feedback and support so that

students know whether they are completing the center

activities correctly prior to the end of center time.
 Provide adaptations for how the task can be completed to

differentiate learning needs; for example, some students

may complete the task in writing, others may tell their

response to other students, or others may illustrate with a

diagram or drawing.

When differentiating instruction for students, consider what they can do

well, the ways in which they demonstrate learning, and any behavior

challenges they may have. Consider adjusting “where” they work, “with
whom” they work, “how they work,” and the materials and resources they
need to work successfully. Adjusting with whom they work can be as
simple as providing them a partner who can facilitate their learning and

behavior success or keeping them in learning settings that exclude

individuals who seem to instigate their learning or behavior problems.
Working with Other Professionals
What is the role of the special education teacher as a consultant to

general education teachers, and what are the considerations and

barriers for successful inclusion? Consulting and communicating with

professionals is an important task for teachers of students with learning

and behavior problems. Teachers need to develop and maintain contact

with the school psychologist, counselor, speech-language therapist,

physical therapist, occupational therapist, principal, and other related

professionals. Because 90% of all students with learning and behavior

disorders are included for all or part of the day in the general classroom, a
positive, cooperative working relationship with general classroom

teachers may be most important of all.

Communication with General
Education Teachers
When a student with a learning or behavior problem is placed in the

general education classroom, the special education teacher can take

several steps to communicate effectively with the general education

teacher:

1. Describe the type of learning or behavior problem the child has

and some general guidelines for how to deal with it in the general

classroom.

2. Provide a copy of the child’s IEP to the classroom teacher, and

discuss the goals, objectives, special materials, and procedures

needed.

3. Describe the progress reports you will be providing to the home

and putting in your files.

4. Develop a schedule for regular meetings, and discuss other times

that both the classroom teacher and special teacher are available

for meetings.
5. Ask the classroom teacher how you can help, and describe the

special accommodations that are needed.

Even when special education teachers develop and maintain an effective

communication program with general education teachers, a number of

potential barriers to successful inclusion still remain:

1. The general education teacher may feel unable to meet the needs of the

included student with disabilities. Ms. Huang has been teaching second
grade for 2 years. When she was informed that Omar, a student who has

been identified as having an emotional disorder, was going to be included

in her general education classroom for several hours each morning, she

panicked. She explained to the principal that she had not taken any
coursework in special education and did not feel able to meet the needs
of the new student. The special education teacher met with Ms. Huang to

describe Omar’s behavior and explain the progress he was making. She
assured Ms. Huang that Omar would be carefully monitored and that she

would check with Omar and Ms. Huang daily at first and then less
frequently as he adapted to the new setting and schedule. She asked Ms.

Huang to explain what types of activities usually occurred during the time
Omar would be in her room, and she identified ways for Ms. Huang to
succeed with Omar. The special education teacher took careful notes and

asked many questions about Ms. Huang’s expectations so that she could
prepare Omar before his transition to the general education classroom. In

this situation, communication that provided specific information about

the student’s learning problems and what the classroom teacher could do

to ensure a successful learning environment proved most helpful. In

addition, the special education teacher obtained expectations about the

general education classroom so that she could best prepare the student
for the transition.

2. The general education classroom teacher may not want to work with the
included student with disabilities. Mr. Caruffe, a seventh-grade science

teacher, expected all students to perform the same work at the same time,
with no exceptions. He was particularly opposed to having special

education students in his classroom because he felt that they required

modifications to his core program. His philosophy was, “If students need

modifications, they don’t belong in the general education classroom; they

belong in special education.” Dealing with teachers like Mr. Caruffe can

be particularly challenging for special education teachers. Despite

continuous attempts to work out a collaborative effort, educational

philosophies can be sufficiently different that special education teachers

feel it is hopeless to attempt inclusion in certain classrooms. Problems
arise when alternative classrooms are not available without reducing the

content areas available to special students. If multiple teachers are

available for each content area, students may be included into classes
where teachers are more accepting. Principals can help by setting a

school policy that rewards teachers for working appropriately with pupils
who have learning and behavior problems.

3. Finding time to meet regularly with all classroom teachers is difficult. At the
elementary level, special education teachers meet regularly with all
classroom teachers who have students included for all or part of the day.
This consultation includes discussing students’ progress, planning

students’ programs, adapting instruction in the general classroom, and

solving immediate academic and social problems with students. It is
better to meet weekly with classroom teachers for a short period (10 to 15
minutes) than to meet less often for longer periods.

At the secondary level, continued involvement with all classroom

teachers is a challenge. In large schools, the exceptional students’ general
education classroom teachers vary within content area and by year. It is
possible for special education teachers to have over 25 teachers with

whom they consult. Special education teachers manage this by meeting

with teachers in small groups. Sometimes they organize these groups by
content area to discuss successful adaptations made within a common
content. Sometimes meetings are organized to focus on the needs of a
particular student, and all teachers who work with this student meet at

the same time. Finding time and maintaining contact with general
education teachers requires creativity and persistence.

4. Students may not be accepted socially by peers in the general education

classroom. This problem occurs not just with students who have behavior
problems, but also with students who have learning disabilities.
Following is a list of behaviors that are considered important by both
general education and special educators for success in general education

classrooms:
 Follows directions
Asks for help when appropriate

Begins an assignment after the teacher gives the assignment to the

class
Demonstrates adequate attention
Obeys class rules
Tries to complete a task before giving up

Doesn’t speak when others are talking

Works well with others
Respects the feelings of others
Refrains from cursing and swearing

Avoids getting in fights with other students

Interacts cooperatively with others
Respects the property of others
Shares materials and property with others
Refrains from stealing the property of others

Tells the truth

Special education teachers may want to focus on teaching these behaviors

before and during a student’s transition to inclusion.
Collaboration with Paraprofessionals
and Families
In addition to working closely with general educators, special education

teachers must also collaborate frequently with paraprofessionals and

families. While some of the same principles for collaborating with general

educators apply when collaborating with paraprofessionals and families,

it is important to keep in mind that the differences in roles and expertise

between you and the paraprofessionals and families will influence how

you communicate and collaborate. However, you all should share a

common goal: student success. Check out Reading Rockets for excellent
information about working with parents and other educational

professionals:
Collaborating with Paraprofessionals
Schools often rely on paraprofessionals to provide support to general and

special education teachers and students. Often, the special education

teacher is in charge of supervising paraprofessionals. Many exceptional

education specialists work closely with paraprofessional teaching

assistants. Although teaching assistants never have complete

responsibility for planning, implementing, or evaluating a student’s

program, they often participate in all of these areas. It is important that

paraprofessionals not be assigned to students whom the teacher then

spends little time seeing. Paraprofessionals need to have their teaching

responsibilities rotated among many students so that the teacher spends

frequent intervals teaching and evaluating all students. Because

paraprofessionals are often responsible for implementing class rules, they

need to be completely familiar with class and school rules and their

consequences. Many paraprofessionals comment that they are successful

in their roles when they have confidence that they understand what is

expected of them. Suggestions for working with paraprofessionals are

provided in Apply the Concept 5.8.

5.8 Apply the Concept
Working with Paraprofessionals

Jamie DeFraites is a first-grade teacher in New Orleans. Her

multicultural classroom of 22 students includes 11 Vietnamese
children and 2 Hispanic students who are English language

learners. Jamie explains, “I love my class and was actually

asked to loop to second grade—so I’ll have the same students

next year!”

Jamie is fortunate enough to work with two paraprofessionals,

who join her classroom at different times during the day. Here
are Jamie’s tips for working with paraprofessionals:

1. It’s important to have mutual respect and trust. I let the

paraprofessionals know how fortunate I feel to have

additional adults in the classroom and how important their
job is in helping all students learn. I also thank them every

chance I get—in the presence of the principal, parents, and

students.

2. At the beginning of the year, I talk with the

paraprofessionals individually about their interests and skills

and try to match their duties with their strengths. Both

paraprofessionals are bilingual (one in Vietnamese and one

in Spanish), so assisting me with parent communication is

very important. One of the paraprofessionals is very creative

and helps me design learning centers. The other is very

interested in math and helps me with review and extra
practice for students with challenges in that area.

3. Each of the paraprofessionals is eager to learn new skills

and strategies. It is worth my time to explain instructional
 strategies to them so that they can do more than grade

papers—they can actually interact with children in small

groups or individually. It took me a long time to learn to

teach—I’m still learning. I don’t assume that the

paraprofessionals automatically know how to teach. If I can
share some of my training, the payoff is big for my students.

4. At the beginning of the year, we also clarify roles,

responsibilities, classroom routines, and expectations for
student learning and behavior. Spending that time in
planning and communicating is time well spent. We’re on
the same page.

5. The paraprofessionals both work with several other

teachers, so their time in my class is very limited. We have to
make each minute count. Their tasks have to be well
defined. I also plan a backup—what to do when there is

nothing to do.
6. Finally, I encourage the paraprofessionals to get additional
professional training. I let them know about workshops and
other opportunities to learn. The more they learn, the more
my students benefit!

Jamie admits that she would like to have a regular planning

time with the paraprofessionals. As she says, “Often, we have
to plan on the run.” Also, her school district does not require

periodic feedback or performance review sessions. This is

something Jamie definitely recommends. “Fortunately, I have
not run into problems with either paraprofessional, but if I did,
it would be a good idea to have a system for giving feedback in

a systematic way.”

Source: S. Vaughn, C. S. Bos, & J. S. Schumm, Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn &
Bacon, 2017). Copyright © 2018 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of
the publisher.
What skills are important in working with paraprofessionals?
Competencies that administrators, teachers, and paraprofessionals

identified as important for teachers to have when working with

paraprofessionals (Ashbaker & Morgan, 2005; Giangreco, Suter, & Doyle,
2010) include:

Open communication. Teachers share student-related information and

explain the role of the paraprofessional to the paraprofessional and to

all other personnel.
Planning and scheduling. Coordinating the paraprofessionals’
schedules is the responsibility of the special education teacher at

most schools. It may be helpful to have a written schedule that is

evaluated and revised based on students’ needs and observation of
effective practices.
Instructional support. Teachers provide regular feedback to
paraprofessionals about their instruction. Schedule time frequently

initially, and then less often as paraprofessionals’ skills are

established, to observe instruction, provide feedback, and then model
the instructional practices that you need the paraprofessional to
implement.

Modeling for paraprofessionals. Modeling instructional strategies and a

professional manner of interacting with students are part of a
teacher’s responsibility when supervising paraprofessionals.
Training. Special education teachers are often responsible for

providing on-the-job training for paraprofessionals. This includes

expectations about communicating with others, communicating with
students, managing student behavior, and completing appropriate
paperwork.
Providing support for RTI. Many paraprofessionals are asked to serve

key roles in the implementation of RTI models. These roles include

screening students, scoring screening and progress-monitoring
measures, and providing interventions to individual students or small
groups. Paraprofessionals work much more successfully when they
are fully and adequately prepared for these roles and are provided
ongoing support and feedback from the special education teacher.
Responding to students, teachers, and families in ethically responsible

ways. One of the critical roles of the special education teacher is to

adequately prepare paraprofessionals for their ethical responsibilities
related to confidential student and family information as well as
grades and student behavior. The Council for Exceptional Children
(CEC) provides guidelines for paraprofessionals on ethical practices).

Ethical practice skills recommended by CEC for paraprofessionals

include their ability to (1) respond to professionals, students, and
family members in ways that are consistent with laws and policies;
(2) demonstrate problem solving, flexible thinking, conflict

management techniques, and analysis of personal strengths and

preference; (3) act as a role model for students with disabilities; (4)
demonstrate a commitment to supporting learners in achieving their
potential; (5) demonstrate that they can separate personal and
professional issues as a paraeducator; (6) maintain a high level of

competence and integrity; (7) use prudent judgment; (8) demonstrate

proficiency in oral and written communication as well as other
academic skills as needed; (9) engage in activities to increase their
own knowledge and skills; (10) engage in self-assessment; and (11)

accept and use constructive feedback.

Management. Teachers need to maintain regular and positive
interactions with paraprofessionals and support their skill
improvements. Consider providing ways to support both academic

and behavioral practices with paraprofessionals.

Collaborating with Families
Family involvement and collaboration are fundamental to student

success. Perhaps the most essential element of a strong and productive

partnership with families is trust (Grant & Ray, 2018). How do you
establish a trusting relationship with families? You establish it the same
way you establish trust with friends or coworkers. You consistently

behave in ways that assure them that you have their best interest in mind
and that you are committed to developing a partnership that will yield the
best academic and behavioral outcomes for their child. This requires
ongoing collaboration.

“There is no program and no policy that can substitute for a parent who is involved in their child’s

education from day one.”

—Barack Obama, 2010

What can you do to help increase family and school collaboration?

Dettmer, Thurston, and Selberg (2004) provide some key ideas:

Place the focus of discussions and goal setting on the needs of the

family and the students, not on their values.

Accept the family and the student as they are. Stop wishing that they
were different.

Remember that most family members are not trying to provide poor

parenting. Rather, they are often doing the best they can in their
given circumstances.

Respect the family’s right to have different values than you do.
 MyLab Education Video Example 5.3

In this video, a parent meets with her son John’s high school

teachers to discuss her concerns about John’s academic and

behavior issues. How does this kind of collaboration benefit

the student?

In addition, remember that family members are often experts on their

child. In most circumstances, they know their child much better than you
do. Approach them with this knowledge in mind. Do your best not to talk

down to parents; treat them as you would like to be treated if your roles

were reversed. By establishing a collaborative relationship with parents,

you may obtain insights about your students that you would not be able

to get in any other manner. Furthermore, you will increase the likelihood
that you establish a trusting relationship with family members, which is

the foundation to a successful partnership likely to benefit the child.

When working with families from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds, it is important to learn as much as you can about your

students’ backgrounds. A minimal but important step is to learn the

correct pronunciation of the family’s name and a few words in their native
language. Enlist the support of a translator, if possible. Ideally, the

translator should be trained in special education. Families can bring a rich

set of cultural and personal experiences to the educational process that

can be integrated into your work with the child but also integrated into

your teaching (Moll, 2010; Protacio & Edwards, 2015).

Matuszny, Banda, and Coleman (2007) developed a four-step plan for

collaborating with culturally and linguistically diverse families. The plan

is designed to aid teachers in better understanding a particular family’s

needs as well as to strengthen the trust between the family and the
teacher. The steps are as follows:

1. The first phase is initiation. During this phase, which preferably

occurs before the school year begins, the family members and

teacher get to know each other. This contact should be informal

and fun. True collaboration is difficult if the relationship between

a family and teacher remains impersonal and/or uncomfortable.

2. During building the foundation, the second phase, teachers

establish trust with families by providing them with choices (e.g.,

how they would like to be involved in the classroom or how they

would like to receive information from the teacher) and asking for

input on certain classroom routines or behavioral procedures.

3. The third phase, maintenance and support, involves positive

communication, which is delivered according to the families’

preferences for how they would like to be contacted.

4. Wrap-up and reflection is the last phase of collaboration. The

teacher and the family reflect on what worked and did not work
 in terms of their collaboration. This information can be used to

plan for the next year or passed on to the next teacher.

See Apply the Concept 5.9 for more information on communication with
the families.
5.9 Apply the Concept
Working Toward Effective Parent Communication

Ask parents and family members what they think about

problems you identify and listen until they are finished.

Difficult as it might be to listen until parents and family

members are finished, particularly if they say things that do

not align with your classroom experiences with the target

child, this listening is likely to provide you with their

perspective as well as give you valuable information.

Take notes. Write down key phrases that parents say,

summarize key ideas, and jot down what you want to

remember. Do this in a manner that shows you are listening

and continue to make as much eye contact as possible.

Summarize their concerns or interpretations of the problem.

Before providing your suggestions or ideas, summarize their

ideas and do your best to reflect and integrate them into

your comments.

State your observations calmly. State your position calmly

and succinctly and clarify any observations you have that

align with those of the parents as well as those that

contradict their comments. Ask parents if they understand

your point of view.

Resolve any issues and develop a plan. Summarize the issue

and propose potential solutions with consideration of the

comments parents have made. Ask whether any of the

solutions seem more reasonable to them. Here is an

example: “I appreciate that you do not find it acceptable

that Jessie stays after school to complete work he did not

finish at school; let’s see if one of the following might be a
better match for you. Would you prefer that he took the

work home and did it as homework, or would you prefer that

he miss lunch or recess to complete his work?”

Communication with Other
Professionals
What are the principles of communication, and how can teachers

communicate with parents and professionals? In addition to assessment,

intervention, curriculum development, and classroom management, a

major role for the teacher of students with learning and behavior

problems is communication. Effective special education teachers

communicate regularly with general education and other special

education teachers, school administrators, and other educational and

psychological professionals, such as the school psychologist, speech-

language therapist, and so on. Ability to communicate effectively is a skill

that significantly affects an educator’s job success. Despite the importance

of this skill, most teachers finish school with no formal training in

communication.
Principles of Communication
Successful communication with parents, teachers, and other professionals

is built on certain principles. Particularly within inclusion models and

frameworks that emphasize RTI, teachers’ success with communication

influences positively their success as professionals and the learning

outcomes of their students.

MyLab Education Video Example 5.4

The reading specialist in this video discusses student concerns

with a guidance counselor. These professionals exhibit respect

and trust in their efforts to help students succeed.

Mutual Respect and Trust
Building mutual respect and trust is essential for successful

communication. As a special education teacher, you are likely to work

cooperatively with the school psychologist in several important ways,

including screening students and evaluating students who are referred for
special education or who have been placed in special education for
several years and require another evaluation. You may also work with the

speech and language specialist, because many of the students with

disabilities also demonstrate speech or language problems currently, or

have done so previously. It is very likely you will be coteaching,

coplanning, or cooperating on an ongoing basis with several general

education teachers. All of these individuals will have more confidence in

you and be more willing to work with you to benefit students with

disabilities if you establish a relationship of respect and trust with them.

Acceptance
People know if you do not accept them or do not value what they have to

say. Parents or guardians are aware when teachers do not really want to
see them during conferences but are merely fulfilling a responsibility.
Acceptance is communicated by how you listen, look, respond, and

interact with others.

Pointers for communicating acceptance include the following:

Demonstrate respect for the knowledge and needs of each of the

professionals with whom you work. Often special education teachers

assume that general education teachers do not “understand” the
needs of the target student with disabilities.
Demonstrate respect for the diverse languages and cultures that

families and their children represent.

Introduce professionals to other members of the education team in a
way that sets the tone for acceptance.
Give each professional working with the student an opportunity to

speak and be heard.

Ensure that a language of acceptance is used by all professionals and
families.
Listening
Effective listening is more than waiting politely for the person to finish. It
requires hearing the message the person is sending. Effective listeners

listen for the real content of the message as well as for the feelings in the
message. Often this requires restating the message to ensure
understanding.

Mrs. Garcia, the mother of 12-year-old Felipe, telephoned his special

education resource-room teacher, Mr. Sanchez.

Mrs. Garcia: Felipe has been complaining for the past couple of weeks that
he has too much work to do in his biology and math classes and that he is

falling behind. He says he is flunking biology.

Mr. Sanchez: How much would you say he is studying each night?

Mrs. Garcia: It’s hard to say. He stays out with his friends until dinner, and
then after dinner, he starts talking about all his homework. Sometimes he
sits in front of the TV with his books, and sometimes he goes to his room.

Mr. Sanchez: He has mentioned in my class how much work he has to do.
I wonder if he is feeling a lot of pressure from different teachers,
including me?

Mrs. Garcia: Well, he has said he thinks you are working him too hard. I

know sometimes he is lazy, but maybe you could talk to him.

Mr. Sanchez: Felipe works very hard in my class, and I expect a great deal
from him. I will talk with him after school and arrange a meeting with his

other teachers as well.

Mrs. Garcia: Thank you, and please do not tell Felipe I called. He would
be very upset with me.
Questioning
Knowing what type of questions to ask can help individuals to obtain the

information they need. Questions can be open or closed. An open question

is a question that allows the respondent a full range of responses and
discourages short yes-or-no answers. Open questions begin with how,
what, tell me about, and similar phrases.

Mrs. Lishenko suspected that Matt, one of her students, was staying up
very late at night, because he was coming to school very tired and seemed
to drag all day. He was also resting his head on his desk in the afternoon.
She decided to call Matt’s father to discuss the problem. She started the

conversation by giving Matt’s father some information about a meeting of

family members that was going to be held in the school district that she

thought would be of particular interest to him. She then proceeded to

describe Matt’s behavior in class. Finally, Mrs. Lishenko asked, “What do

you think might be happening?” Matt’s father began to confide that he

was not paying much attention to Matt’s bedtime and that Matt was

staying up late watching movies on the new DVD player. Mrs. Lishenko’s
question gave Matt’s father the opportunity to explain what he thought

was happening. Rather than posing several possibilities or telling Matt’s

father that Matt was staying up too late at night, Mrs. Lishenko asked an

open question, which allowed Matt’s father to interpret the situation.

Matt’s father suggested that he would establish a firm bedtime. In this

situation, asking an open question allowed Matt’s father both to indicate

how he felt and to offer a solution.

Involving people in identifying problems increases the likelihood that

they will not feel threatened and that they will be willing to make
necessary changes.
Staying Directed
Follow the lead of professionals, paraprofessionals, and parents whenever

they are talking about a student. A skillful consultant can respond to

others and still keep the discussion focused. It is not uncommon for

families to mention other related home factors that may be influencing

their child’s progress in school, such as marital difficulties, financial

problems, or other personal problems. When professionals or parents

discuss serious problems that are beyond our reach as educators, we need
to assist them in finding other resources to help them with their

problems. Ms. Lopez, a special education teacher at the middle school,

keeps the name and telephone number of the school counselor as well as

other community outreach resources near her telephone. She is ready to

refer parents and other professionals for assistance when needed.

Apply the Concept 5.10 provides a list of tips for effective communication

with professionals and families.

5.10 Apply the Concept
Facilitating Effective Communication with Professionals and

Families

1. Indicate respect for their knowledge and understanding of

the child.

2. Demonstrate respect for the diverse languages and cultures

families and their children represent.

3. Introduce them to other members of the education team in a

way that sets the tone for acceptance.

4. Give each person an opportunity to speak and be heard.

5. Ensure that a language of acceptance is used by all

professionals and family members.

6. Even when you are busy, take the time to let professionals

and family members know that you value them, and that you
are just unable to meet with them at this time.

7. Avoid giving advice unless it is requested. This does not

mean that you can never give suggestions; however, the

suggestions should be given with the expectation that the

person may or may not choose to implement them.

8. Avoid providing false reassurances to colleagues or families.

False reassurances may make them and you feel better in

the short run but in the long run are harmful. When things
do not work out as you predicted, everyone can become

disappointed and potentially lose trust.

9. Ask specific questions. Using unfocused questions makes it

difficult to conduct a consistent, purposeful conversation.

10. Avoid changing topics too often; this requires that you
monitor the topic and direct others to return to the topic.
11. Avoid interrupting others or being interrupted, which
disturbs the conversation and makes effective collaboration

difficult.

12. Avoid using clichés. A cliché as a response to a problem

situation makes the other person feel as though you are

trivializing the problem.

13. Respond to colleagues and family members in ways that

attend to both the content of their message and their

feelings.
14. Avoid jumping too quickly to a solution. Listening carefully

and fully to the message will help you get at the root of the

problem.

Source: S. Vaughn, C. S. Bos, & J. S. Schumm, Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn &
Bacon, 2017). Copyright © 2018 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of
the publisher.
Developing Interviewing Skills
Interviews are the key to open communication and effective intervention.

Special education teachers often work as consultants to paraprofessionals,

general education classroom teachers, other educational and

psychological specialists, and families. These interviewing skills help to

meet the need to ask questions that inform and to follow up appropriately
on information provided. Good interviewing consists of five steps:

1. Ask open questions. Open questions permit respondents a full range of

answers, allowing them to bring up a topic or problem they have on their

mind. Open questions are generally followed by questions that require

more specificity. Mr. Schwab, the special education resource-room

teacher, began his interview with Mrs. Francosa, the fourth-grade teacher,

by asking an open question: “How is Yusuf’s behavior lately?”

2. Obtain specificity. This requires asking questions or making

restatements that identify or document the problem. After Mrs. Francosa

describes Yusuf’s behavior in the general education classroom, Mr.

Schwab attempts to identify key points and to obtain specificity in

describing the behavior: “You said Yusuf’s behavior is better in the

classroom but worse on the playground. Can you identify which

behaviors in the classroom are better and which behaviors on the

playground are worse?” Without drilling the interviewee, an attempt is

made to identify the problem and provide documentation for its

occurrence so that an appropriate intervention can be constructed.

3. Identify the problem. Problem identification can be based on information

obtained, or problems can be identified by the person being interviewed,

often in the process of answering questions: “It seems like there is good
progress in terms of completing classroom work. Let’s figure out a way of

reinforcing that behavior. There’s a problem with Yusuf’s responding to

teasing on the playground. His response has been to fight, which is

getting him in more trouble. Any thoughts about how we might change

that behavior?”

After listening to suggestions from the teacher, Mr. Schwab might add,

“Let me provide some suggestions that have been effective in the past

with other students.”

4. Solve problems. Suggestions for solving identified problems and

implementing the solutions are generated. Both the professional being

interviewed and the consultant contribute suggestions to solving the

problem. Often, other professionals are included in the suggestions:

“Perhaps we could discuss Yusuf’s problem with his counselor and ask

her to teach him some strategies for coping with teasing. We could also

identify the students who are teasing him and reinforce them for not

teasing.”

The tone for problem solving should be one of flexibility. There are often

many possible solutions but only a few that will work with a particular
student. The goal is to find a solution the teacher is willing to implement

that is effective for the student.

5. Summarize and give feedback. Summarize the problem and the plan of
action. Be sure to indicate who is responsible for what. Whenever

possible, establish a timeline for completing the tasks: “You will send
home notes to Yusuf’s parents, informing them of his progress in
seatwork in the classroom. I will meet with the counselor about his

problem on the playground, and you will talk with his peers and arrange
a system for reinforcing them for not teasing. I’ll check back with you

during lunch this week to see how things are going. I’m very pleased with
this progress, and I am sure much of it is due to your hard work and
follow-up.”
Collaboration in an RTI Model
Collaboration among the various personnel involved in a school’s RTI
model is essential for a number of reasons. First, remember that using an

RTI framework can help a school identify what supplemental instruction

or intervention students may need to “catch up” to their grade-level peers.

To ensure that a student is receiving appropriate intervention,
communication among the classroom teacher, intervention provider, and
other school personnel (e.g., the reading coach, special education teacher,

or school psychologist) needs to be consistent and frequent. Many

schools implementing RTI set aside regular weekly or monthly meeting
times and space for teachers and specialists to discuss student data and
make instructional changes, if necessary.

Collaboration between professionals also helps schools address what

several administrators have identified as the number-one challenge to
successful implementation of RTI: scheduling. By having teachers work
collaboratively in creating schedules conducive to providing

interventions, schools are better able to offer interventions on a

consistent basis. Mrs. Middlestock, an elementary special education
teacher, works with teachers at each grade level before the beginning of
the school year to help teachers identify a common time across grade
levels when students can be pulled out for interventions. By working

collaboratively with her colleagues to identify intervention times, Mrs.

Middlestock feels that she achieves greater teacher buy-in in terms of
support for RTI and that teachers are more likely not to forget to send
their students to her for Tier 2 interventions.

In some schools, particularly at the middle school level, Tier 2

interventions are used to preteach or reteach concepts from the general
education curriculum. Therefore, it is crucial that classroom teachers and

intervention teachers collaborate on pacing and content so that students

are pretaught vocabulary and concepts and/or given additional practice
on concepts or skills in a timely and appropriate manner. In addition,

collaboration can be used to ensure that intervention teachers are

delivering interventions with fidelity. In schools using RTI to identify
students with learning disabilities, it is necessary to ensure that the
interventions the students receive are delivered as they were designed to
be taught. Mrs. Middlestock collaborates frequently with the other

intervention providers and when possible observes them to make certain

that all of the interventions are being delivered with fidelity.

Many explanations can be offered for lack of family involvement in

educational planning. One is that school personnel do not have adequate

time to meet with families and fully explain the child’s program or do not
know how to take advantage of family members’ knowledge and
preferences (Harry, 2008). In a review of research on parent involvement
for students with disabilities from different cultural groups, Harry (2008)

concludes that several barriers preclude widespread use of ideal practices,

including a deficit view of families, cross-cultural misunderstandings
related to the meanings of disability, and culturally different views of the
roles of parents and caregivers.

Often families can attend meetings only early in the morning before
going to work or in the evening on their way home. These times usually
conflict with the schedules of school personnel and require them to meet

with families outside their required work time. Because of their

dedication and interest in children, professionals are often willing to meet
at these times, but they are not motivated to meet for extended periods.

Families may perceive the professionals as responsible for appropriate

decisions in their child’s best interest and do not want to be

coparticipants in the educational program. Rather than a lack of interest
in the child’s program, this may actually indicate less confidence in their
own ability to participate effectively.

It could be that families would like to be more involved but feel

intimidated by the number of professionals and the uncommon

terminology. Many parents are not comfortable in a setting in which
numerous professionals, such as teachers, the principal, psychologist,
counselor, or speech and language therapist, are providing views on the
parent’s child. These parents may feel these professionals have

information to offer, but worry that it isn’t the right information for the
decision making that is happening. Parents may be unfamiliar with new
terminology and may not be comfortable asking questions.

During conferences, special education teachers need to be sensitive to

family members’ feelings and needs. They can serve as advocates for the
parents, asking questions of the classroom teacher or other professionals
they feel the family member may have wanted to ask but did not.

The Spotlight on Diversity feature provides considerations for working

with families from culturally and linguistically diverse groups. Apply the
Concept 5.11 addresses involvement of all families in the special
education process.
5.11 Apply the Concept
Family Involvement in the Special Education Process

Response to Intervention: Ten Questions Parents Should Ask

As states and school districts work to implement an RTI

process that provides early help to struggling students,

families need to understand the components essential to the
appropriate implementation of RTI. Here are 10 questions to

ask about RTI to help guide you through the process:

1. Is the school district currently using an RTI process to

provide additional support to struggling students? If not, do

they plan to?

2. What screening procedures are used to identify students in

need of intervention?

3. What interventions and instructional programs are being

used? What research supports their effectiveness?

4. What process is used to determine the intervention that will

be provided?

5. What length of time is allowed for an intervention before

determining if the student is making adequate progress?

6. What strategy is being used to monitor student progress?

What are the types of data that will be collected, and how

will student progress be conveyed to parents?

7. Is a written intervention plan provided to parents as part of

the RTI process?

8. Is the teacher or other person responsible for providing the

interventions trained in using them?

9. When and how will information about a student’s

performance and progress be provided?
10. At what point in the RTI process are students who are

suspected of having a learning disability referred for formal

evaluation?
Spotlight on Diversity
Considerations for Families Who Are Culturally and

Linguistically Diverse

1. Assume that families want to help their children.

2. Consider your language when talking with parents, and be

thoughtful about not using language that suggests a deficit

model of considering the child.

3. Provide materials in a range of formats, including orally, in

writing (family’s language), through video, and through

formal and informal presentations.

4. For parents who are interested, provide opportunities for

families to learn the skills and activities the students are

learning so they can reinforce them in the home.

5. Provide opportunities for families to influence their child’s

educational program.

6. Provide workshops that include role-playing and rehearsing

situations between families and school personnel to

increase families’ confidence in working with school

personnel.
7. Involve families from the community who are familiar with

the culture and speak the home language of the children’s

families in work at the school.

8. Provide an informal meeting with families so they can

exchange experiences and learn tips from each other.

9. Invite families to school, and ask them to share their

backgrounds or activities with other students and families.

10. Provide ongoing professional development for teachers and

other educators so that they are familiar with linguistic and
 cultural practices and respond sensitively with this
knowledge to parents and other family members.

The law provides for early intervention services that meet

the developmental needs of children from birth to the age of

3 and their families, including physical development,

cognition, language, social, and self-help skills. Parents and

families play an important role, and an individualized

program plan must be designed to meet their needs. This

program plan, called the individualized family service plan

(IFSP), should provide a coordinated array of services,

including the following:

Screening and assessment

Psychological assessment and intervention

Occupational and physical therapy

Speech, language, and audiology

Family involvement, training, and home visits

Specialized instruction for parents and the target student

Case management

Health services that may be needed to allow the student to

benefit from the intervention service

See Apply the Concept 5.11 for an overview of family

involvement in special education.

Criteria for Establishing an IFSP

The IFSP is a family-oriented approach to designing an

effective management plan for infants and toddlers with

disabilities (birth to age 3). The IFSP must be developed by a

multidisciplinary team and should include the following

elements:
 A description of the child’s level of functioning across the

developmental areas: physical, cognitive, communication,

social or emotional, and adaptive

An assessment of the family, including a description of the

family’s strengths and needs as they relate to enhancing the

development of the child with disabilities

A description of the major goals or outcomes expected for

the child with disabilities and the family (as they relate to

providing opportunities for the student)

Procedures for measuring progress, including a timeline,

objectives, and evaluation procedures

A description of natural environments in which the early

intervention services will be provided

A description of the early intervention services needed to

provide appropriate help for the child and family

Specifically when the specialized intervention will begin and

how long it will last

A designated case manager

A specific transition plan from the birth-to-3 program into

the preschool program

Response to Intervention and Family Involvement

Families have an important role to play when schools

implement response to intervention (RTI). This model

provides new challenges and opportunities for engaging and

communicating with families about their children’s

progress. Technically, most of what occurs within an RTI

model occurs within general education, so questions can

arise about when and how to communicate effectively with

families.
First, many families may neither know what RTI is nor

understand why their child is being screened for learning

difficulties. Second, families value knowing if their child is

receiving secondary or tertiary interventions and having

access to the findings from progress monitoring. Third,

teachers can assist families by providing them with a list of

sample questions they might want to ask about RTI. An

excellent source of information about RTI for parents is the

National Center for Learning Disabilities.
Conferences with Family Members: Planned
and Unplanned
Planned conferences with family members occur frequently and include

multidisciplinary team meetings, annual parent–student meetings, or

regularly scheduled meetings to report on academic and behavioral

progress. Conferences provide teachers with the opportunity to do the

following:

Review the student’s materials, grades, and work progress.

Meet with other professionals to provide an overall review and report

on student progress.

Review the student’s portfolio, assessment information, and progress

reports.

Provide samples of the student’s most recent work.

Establish and review goals and criteria for academic and behavioral
work.

Sometimes conferences with families are unplanned. Family members

may phone, stop by the school, or schedule a conference with little

notice. When this occurs, remember these procedures: Listen carefully

until the family members have expressed the purpose of their visit,
paraphrase what you understand to be their question or issues, and
respond to the question and issue as completely as possible. Often family

members stop by with a simple question or concern that is a disguise for

a larger issue; that is why it is important to listen carefully and wait until
family members are finished speaking.
Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act and Family Involvement
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was passed in

1990 and amended in 2004. This law ensures that all students with
disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education, which

emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their

unique needs. All students between the ages of 3 and 21 are eligible for a

program of special education and related services under Part B of the

IDEA; children with disabilities from birth to age 3 are eligible for special

education and related services under Part C. Part C, which is a subchapter

of the IDEA, concerns infants and toddlers with disabilities.
MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.1

MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.2

MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.3

MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.4

MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.5

MyLab Education: Self-Check 5.6

MyLab Education: Application Exercise 5.1: Coteaching

MyLab Education: Application Exercise 5.2: Differentiating

Instruction

MyLab Education: Application Exercise 5.3: Conferences with

Family Members
Summary
Successful inclusion requires cooperation among professionals,

particularly the general and special education teachers. Inclusion also

requires willingness to adapt and accommodate instruction and

materials to meet the learning and behavior needs of students.

General education teachers have different levels of experience in

working with other teachers and students with learning and

behavioral problems. Furthermore, many students are not prepared

for general education classrooms. Potential problems can be avoided

if special education teachers work cooperatively with general

education teachers to exchange knowledge and instructional practices

representing their particular expertise. This effort takes time and

planning, and it can result in less content coverage within a given

time frame. Special education teachers can facilitate inclusion by

working closely with general education teachers; observing general

education classrooms; simulating the academic and social demands of

general education classrooms in the special education classroom; and

assisting classroom teachers in adapting materials, instruction, and

the instructional environment.

Special education teachers work with other professionals to develop

systems that meet the needs of students with learning and behavioral

problems within an individual school setting. Coteaching occurs

when special education and classroom teachers provide instruction

together in the general education classroom. Consultant teaching

occurs when the special educator works with the classroom teacher to

solve problems for students with disabilities in the general education

classroom. Special education teachers also coordinate

paraprofessionals who assist students with disabilities in the general

education classroom.
Teachers are effective when they take the time to build mutual trust,

to accept others’ points of view, to really listen to what families and

other professionals say, to provide encouragement to family members

and personnel who work with students with special needs, and to use

straightforward language to explain information. In addition, teachers

can learn more from personal communication by asking open-ended

questions that solicit thorough responses. Balancing listening and

responding to family members provides teachers with a mechanism

of ensuring they are meeting parents’ goals while also communicating

relevant school-related information. In this way, teachers develop a

working alliance in which all members of the group have a common

goal of developing an appropriate program for the student.

Consultants who provide special education services must work with

the general education teachers. Communication and collaboration are

key to successful inclusion, and finding time to work with the general

education teacher is a challenge and a necessity. It is also important

that the special education teacher work within the RTI framework.

Families have different issues and concerns, so the first step is to

listen carefully to parents to ensure that you know their questions,

challenges, and goals for their child. Identifying and addressing the

needs of the entire family are essential to assisting a student.

Teachers can also assist families by addressing their issues, providing

appropriate and accurate information about their child’s performance,

and providing resources such as information about summer activities,

guidelines for assisting students with homework or academic skills,

and accessing support systems with other parents or organizations.

By valuing the parents’ role in their child’s education and by using the
parents’ knowledge about their child, teachers and families can work
together to develop an appropriate educational program. RTI

practices provide a unique opportunity for schools and families to

communicate and collaborate before referral, during screening and
assessment, when secondary interventions are provided, and through
examining the collected data.