Philippine Literature

Philippine Literature during Pre-Spanish Period

Our ancient literature shows our customs and traditions in everyday life.

The Pre-Spanish Literature

Legends are forms of prose, the common theme of which is about the origin of a thing, place, location or
name.

 Alamat – Legend in Tagalog

 Legend – a pros
 Example of Legend – Alamat ng Pinya (Legend of the Pineapple)

Folk tales are made up of stories about life, adventure, love, horror and humor where one can derive
lessons about life.

 Example of Folk Tale – Si Pagong at si Matsing (The Monkey and the Turtle)

Epics are long narrative poems in which a series of heroic achievements or events, usually of a hero, are
dealt with at length.

 Example of Epic – The Prowess of Aliguyon

Riddles (Bugtong or Palaisipan) are made up of one or more measured lines with rhyme and may consist
of 4 to 12 syllables.

 Examples of Riddles – What is iron on a horse but leather on a man? Shoes.

Folk Songs are one of the oldest forms of Philippine literature that emerged in the Pre-Spanish period.
These songs mirrored the early forms of culture. Many of these have 12 syllables.

 Examples of Folk Songs – Leron Leron Sinta (Tagalog), Pamulinawen (Iloko), Dandansoy (Bisaya),
Sarong Banggi (Bicol), Atin Cu Pung Singsing (Kapampangan)

Folk Songs
Leron-Leron Sinta (Tagalog)
Pamulinawen (Iloko)
Dandansoy (Bisaya)
Sarong Banggi (Bicol)
Atin Cu Pung Singsing (Kapampangan)
Philippine Literature during the Spanish Period
Spanish Influences on Philippine Literature
1. ALIBATA – an old writing system/baybayin (17 letters, 14 consonants and 3 vowels)
2. Christian Doctrine
3. Spanish language became the literary language this time
4. European legends and traditions
5. Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog
6. Grammar books were printed in Filipino
7. Religious tone

ALIBATA

Doctrina Cristiana (The Christian Doctrine) – It was an early book of Roman Catholic Catechism,
written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia, and is believed to be one of the earliest books printed in the
Philippines.

Nuestra Del Rosario – It was printed personally by Fr. Blancas de San Jose in 1652.
Pasyon – It is a narrative poem on the life of Christ. It was chanted during the Lenten season.

Recreational Plays
1. Moro-moro
2. Corrido
3. Awit
4. Balagtasan
5. Cenaculo
6. Zarsuela
7. Panuluyan
8. Salubong
Moro-moro – was a type of drama that became extremely popular. Its subject matter was always a
conflict between the Christians and the Moros (Muslims) with Christianity triumphing at the end.

Corrido – is a long narrative in verse narrating the deeds of a legendary hero.

 Example: Ibong Adarna

Awit – A heroic chivalric narrative poem. It also dealt with the adventures of knights but in a light
romantic tone.

 Example: Florante at Laura

Balagtasan – It is a form of debate using poetic verse. This literary form is originated by Francisco Balagtas
Baltazar.

Literary Works (American Occupation)

1. Essay
2. Novel
3. Drama
4. Plays
5. Short Story
6. Poetry
Prose – under short story, fiction and non-fiction

Magindanao Pearls (Isidro L. Retizos)

When Sinag-Tala was only two-and-a half days old, her withered grandmother came. And she
placed in the child's hand a fresh lily and in the other, a small, pallid pearl.

"Sinag-Tala shall grow soft and delicate like a lily, the grandmother smiled toothlessly, "and pearls
she shall admire, pearls she shall love. Someday, when she is grown-up, she will own priceless pearls taken
from oysters living in the blue seas of faraway Magindanao."

Over two hundred silver moons had passed since then; the Talisay and Camagong trees had grown
taller and stouter. And the first part of the prophecy came true.

"Lily by the river" she was admiringly called by the village youths.

She would only smile at them and say: "But I am not beautiful." For to the village maiden, to be
beautiful one must have strings of lustrous pearls. Yes, pearls that would caress her graceful neck and
follow the tender curve of her young, shapely breast. But she did not have them. She had only the tiny,
pallid one given her by the old, prophesying grandmother.

And thus, from the time Sinag-Tala was born, the Talisay and Camagong trees had blossomed and
fructified sixteen times, and the village urchins she had played with when she was a small girl were now
grown to barangay warriors with muscles of steel and chests of iron. Ai! Ai! Sixteen flower seasons had
passed since first she came and still she had no pearls—only that little pale one.

But one morning their sawali door rustled. Then slowly it opened. The head of an aliping
namamahay—house slave—showed.

"Sinag-Tala, the basket-weaver, daughter of Pirang Kawayan, is wanted by Lakambini, daughter

of the rajah, chief of the Maynilad clan."

"Lakambini wants me?" the girl laid down her work. "She desires me—why?"

"I know not but she orders you to come soon," said the slave and withdrew.

And Sinag-Tala went, walked through grassy paths, under the shady palm trees, till she reached
the rajah's house.

"Weave, you, two beautiful baskets for me," said Lakambini with the thin arms and the flat
breasts.

The rajah's daughter toyed with her string of lustrous pearls—priceless sea gems brought by wily
Moros from their faraway land. And Sinag-Tala's eyes glowed with wonder, and her lips slightly paled with
desire. If she could only have gems like them.

"Need you those baskets soon, favored of the moon?" she asked.

"Hurry not their making," the rajah's daughter replied. "They must be strong and lovely, for they
shall be gifts to the mother of Walang Gulat, son of a chief, he who rules the Pasigan barangay."

"And who is this Walang Gulat...?"

"How foolish!" Lakambini laughed as her color deepened. "You delight me with your innocence.
Go you now, inquisitive one!"

So Sinag-Tala left. She went to the riverside to gather bamban reeds and young bamboo joints to
be used in the basket weaving. And all the while she thought of the pearls adorning Lakambini's dark neck
and flat, unappealing breasts. If she could only wear them. Ah, how much better still if she owned them!

She parted the bushes which brushed at her face and scratched her soft cheeks. The bambans
grew in a marshy site, she would lose her balance if she leaned any farther over the water for them.

"Girl with the slender body," a voice sounded near, "wish you a fall into that stream?"

She turned. Ah! Magiting, the fisher of the deep, a warrior from the Pasigan clan. He paddled
nearer in his small boat.

"Weaver Pasigan braves rave so much about, you want those bambans?"

"I need them," said Sinag-Tala, blushing prettily.

The banca drifted nearer the long reeds. A bolo splashed many times in the water, bamban shoots
were held out to her. She flashed a smile at him gratefully.

"Lilies you should gather, nilad flowers to adorn your hair."

 She liked Magiting's word of admiration.

She gathered the bamban reeds and tied them with wild creepers.

"Must you be going?" said the young man who had moored his boat and stood beside her. "Those
reeds are heavy, let me carry them for you."

"You say you have seen them...together?" Lakambini, owner of the pearls was pale.

"I see them...always," the female house slave said to her mistress. "Every afternoon when the
shadows of the palm trees are longer."

"What have they been saying to each other? What did you hear?"

"They speak not much," the slave tattled. "They look only at one another. And Walang Gulat
frequently holds Sinag-Tala and..."

"No, no! Don't go on!" Lakambini clutched at her pearls convulsively. "I don't want to hear about
it anymore!" But then she screeched at the cowering bundle of humanity!

"Alipin—slave! Did I not tell you to get nearer, to hear what they were saying?"

"I did. I hid myself in the bushes," came the frightened reply. "And I heard him say that two Pasigan
nobles would thrust his spear at the stairs of Pirang Kawayan's hut."

Walang Gulat wanted to marry Sinag-Tala, that common basketweaver! Why, it could not be!

"Go," she ordered her slave. "Call Sinag-Tala. Tell her to come with the baskets I told her to
weave."

Awih! Yes, when Sinag-Tala came, she, Lakambini, would tell her that her baskets were no longer
wanted. Flirting along the riverside? How brazen of that girl! Should she...? Cheh! No, ten times no!

And Lakambini took off her pearls—they felt oppressive, those round pellets from the blue waters
of Magindanao. They felt cold against her heaving, tumultuous breast. Carelessly, she flung the glittering
string into a bronze casket that stood on a table of Camagong.

There was a presentiment of evil in the morning air. The sky was overcast; and more stubborn
clouds were beginning to gather. The village of Maynilad was not happy that day. For the drums were
beating weirdly, announcing that an ordeal would soon take place.

Five old heads of the village, the wise hukom—judges—sat in a semicircle before the village
populace. The oldest rose and raised his tattooed arm. There was silence around; nothing could be heard
except the faint barking of dogs in the distance and the rustle of the wind through coconut tops.

"People of this barangay," the old man's voice echoed across the river, “Lakambini's pearls, the
priceless heirloom handed down from mother to daughter for generations, have been stolen. Many days
of search have passed; but they have not been found. And Lakambini therefore charges Sinag-Tala,
daughter of Pirang Kawayan, with the theft of the jewels."

"The lost Magindanao pearls were left in a bronze casket," explained the Judge. "And the box was
on the Camagong table in Lakambini's room the day Sinag-Tala came to deliver the baskets."
 Men shifted their weights uneasily.

"Sinag-Tala, do you swear you that you did not steal the Jewels?"

Again the deadly silence punctuated by the crack ling of burning branches and the greedy
simmering of the water in the huge cauldron.

Then came the trembling hesitant voice of Sinag-Tala: "If I did take the pearls of Lakambini, then
may the hungry crocodiles swallow me and the flames scorch me!"

Two slaves, also accused, likewise swore by the memories of their dead forefathers, by the
gigantic aswangs that roost on balete tops, and by the terrible beings that prowl about on dark, stormy
nights.

"Alipin," the chief Judge asked one, "dare you say before all these people that you did not see,
you did not take the priceless heirloom?"

Terror was written across the slave's wrinkled face—but guilt was not in her eyes. "No pearls did
I take, no sacred heirloom did I hide," she said and looked accusingly at Sinag-Tala. "But I saw the basket
weaver and she was standing by the Camagong table, staring covetously at the string of Magindanao
pearls."

The judges brought their heads together. They nodded slowly, wisely.

"Was the rajah's daughter in the room when the basket-weaver came?"

"No, she was not," the slave said, gathering courage. "And I left the room to look for Lakambini.
But I could not find her. And when I came back, the basket-weaver was already leaving, and she said that
Lakambini did not want her anymore."

"Noticed you anything in Sinag-Tala's look?"

"Awih! Yes, the girl was pale in the lips and wild in the eyes," the slave added. "And the baskets
shook in her trembling hands."

The village people were silent. Pirang Kawayan, father of the accused girl, shut his eyes and
muttered under his breath. In the distance a ripe coconut fell with an echoing thud.

"Wish you to make a reply to what you have heard, Sinag-Tala?"

A helpless, imploring look appeared in the girl's eyes as she sought for pitying faces around her.
She only saw the grim, unwinking stare of her father, the maker of sawali walls. She cringed under his
fierce, blazing gaze.

"No...no! I didn't...!" her ashen lips quivered.

"If the pearls can still be found," said the spokesman, "nothing more will be said. But if they are
not..."

There was a great shout. A boatload of people from up the river was swiftly nearing the shore,
and the young man who stood at the prow was gesticulating wildly.
 "The son of the chief of Pasigan," cried the Maynilad braves.

Hope surged in Sinag-Tala's breast: "Magiting!"

The young warrior leaped from the boat; others followed him.

"Men with the wisdom of the aged," he began after saluting the judges, "I come with the plea that
Sinag-Tala be not tried. Too I have with me the indemnity for the lost pearls, other costly gems sent by
my father, the Pasigan chief, that Sinag-Tala may be spared the shame of the ordeal."

There was a glad rumbling among the village people.

But the white-haired judges shook their heads slowly, wisely.

"We thank the rajah of Pasigan and his son," they said. "But by the laws and customs of ancient
Maynilad, a theft done to the family of the rajah is irreparable. The trial must therefore go on."

Walang Gulat rushed to the side of Sinag-Tala. But the law forbade that they should talk to each
other. They only stared and stared at one another. So Magiting was Walang Gulat whom. Lakambini
wanted to wed, Sinag-Tala told herself.

"The jewels are not yet found," the judge was again heard. "And all the accused have sworn they
are innocent. Therefore, must we proceed to the ordeal by fire."

Lakambini choked back a cry. She alternately crimsoned and paled. She wanted to run away, to
hide; but she could not move. She stood as if petrified by horror.

Pirang Kawayan's lips trembled as he strode away. He stood apart from the crowd, alone, in a
place where he could see everything. The old man's eyes were moist with despair, yet his head was held
high and his massive shoulders did not stoop. For Pirang Kawayan knew that the blood of his ancestors—
nobles themselves—coursed in his veins, the blood of famous men who valued their lives less than their
unsullied honor. But Sinag-Tala, his wretched offspring, accused of the theft of the pearls!

And his massive arms uncoiled themselves from their folded position. Deliberately, his right hand
fumbled at his waist. But then both his hands balled themselves into mighty, knotting fists of iron.

Sinag-Tala would be the first to pass the ordeal, so it was ordained. Swiftly, she was blindfolded.
The smoke encircled her uncertainly, while the fire under the cauldron crackled.

"Therefore must the accused Sinag-Tala—as the others who will follow..." the voice was but a
drowning sound, "dip her hands into the boiling pot and take out the white stone that rests in its bottom.
And if her hands remain unblistered, unburnt, then it is a sign that our gods find her guiltless and we
pronounce her innocent. But if they be burnt...!"

But Lakambini, the rajah's daughter, torn by conflicting emotions among which was remorse for
what she had brought about, could no longer hold herself. Also she had seen Pirang Kawayan and realized
what the old man was about to do.

"Don't! Don't!" she screamed hysterically as she ran toward the doomed Sinag-Tala.
 But Lakambini, owner of the stolen Magindanao pearls, was late, too late...! For Sinag-Tala's father
had suddenly whipped himself up. With the speed of lightning, his hand had traveled to his waist and out
came a glittering, thin-bladed, sharp-pointed dagger.

There was only an instant pause after Lakambini's shriek. Then, something flashed and scintillated
as it swiftly whizzed through the air and struck Sinag-Tala in the breast. Old Pirang's hand was firm and
his aim had been fatefully true!

"Bathala! God, she's innocent! I have the pearls!" Lakambini babbled foolishly, incoherently. She
madly kissed the comely, paling face and pressed the dying girl close to her. "Sinag-Tala, forgive me! I
hid—the pearls—I hid them! Sinag-Tala...!"

Types of Journalistic Writing

Lessons Objectives:
Here’s what you’ll know about Journalistic Writing

a. Identify the various types of journalistic writing;

b. Give the meaning of a feature, sports, and editorial writing, and;
c. Apply the principles and techniques in feature writing

What is Journalistic Writing?

Journalistic Writing – is a style used for news reporting such as radio, newspaper, and television.

Feature Writing
Features contain the elements of news, but its main purpose is to focus on an event or an individual to
give the readers opportunity to understand the subject.

Kinds of Features
1. Human-interest
2. Latest Trends
3. Backgrounder
4. Analysis of Current issues
5. In-depth stories
6. Travelogue
7. Inspirational Feature – usually about a story of an individual
8. Historical feature
9. How-to or practical Guidance
10. Personality Feature
11. Informative feature
Tips on Writing a Feature Article
 Write about an issue demanding attention.
 Decide on the type of feature you want to write.
 Tailor fit your article to your type of audience and the publication you are writing for.
 Research on the necessary information or schedule an interview with a subject.
 Outline your content and develop your article from an outline.
 Do not include your opinion in the article.

Editorial Article
Editorial is an article of opinion rather than facts. It expresses opinion on a current issue or news item in
the news section.

Characteristics of Editorial Article

1. It stirs the conscience of the readers to action.
2. It influences and molds the public opinion.
3. It has no byline.
4. It has no lead.

Types of Editorials
1. Editorial of Information – It seeks to give information on facts unknown to the reader.
2. Editorial of Interpretation – It explains the significance or meaning of a news, event, current idea,
condition, or situation, theory or hypothesis.
3. Editorial of Criticism – It points out the good or the bad features of a problem or situation
mentioned in the news.
4. Editorial of Commendation, appreciation, or tribute – It praises, commends, or pays tribute to a
person or organization.
5. Editorial of Argumentation – It is called editorial of persuasion.

Tips on Writing an Editorial

 Select one specific idea to develop.
 Organize your editorial in three parts: (intro, body, ending)
 The body may be 2-3 short paragraphs that support or justify the reaction. The ending may
sometimes called the clincher, summarizes the editorial’s stand.

Indian Literature
Periods of Literature
Vedic (1500 B.C. – 500 B.C.)
  Primarily religious and lyric work

Sanskrit (300 B.C.)

 Many types of literature achieved distinction.

Religious Work
Vedas – a set of hymns that formed the cornerstone of Aryan culture. The oldest sacred literature is found
in the four Vedas.

The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the earliest known migrants into India.

Four Vedas
RIG VEDA (Anthology)

 The oldest of the Vedas, “hymns of supreme sacred

knowledge”, 1028 hymns to various gods.

SAMA VEDA (Book of Chants)

 They are liturgies and mostly repetitions of hymns in

the Rig Veda.

ATHARVA VEDA (Book of Spells)

 Veda of Magical formulas.

SAMA VEDA (Book of Chants)

 They are liturgies and mostly repetitions of hymns in the Rig Veda.

Epic
Mahabharata

 the longest poem in the world

 written by Vyasa

Ramayana (Sanskrit)

 is about the reincarnation of the creator god, Vishnu

Prose
Brahamas – commentaries on the Vedic hymns
Upanishads – collection of 108 discourses on the Brahman religion
Sutras – often unintelligible treatises concerning rituals

Drama
Shakuntala (Fatal Ring) – a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the love between Shakuntala and King
Dushyanta.

Fable
Panchatantra – is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit.

Poet
Kalidasa – a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian
writer of all time. He is called the brightest of the “nine gems of genius”.

Rabindranath Tagore – Indian poet and

dramatist.

Exploring Indian Culture

The Indian Literature
As early as 300 BC, India had already produced a considerable body of literature written in several
Indian tongues derived from common ancestral language—Sanskrit.

The earliest known literature of India is a collection of traditions handed down by word of mouth.
These traditions are known as the Vedas. These contain hymns addressed to the Indian gods, who are
very numerous. They also contain stories about these gods.

The literature of India is often called Sanskrit literature. The word Sanskrit means cultivated or
perfected. Hindu literature reveals the inner and outer life of a remarkable people; it extends from a
remote past to the present. India was the center of an ancient civilization, which spread east and south.
This civilization affected the language and culture of many countries in both Europe and Asia. India also
founded colonies in ancient Persia, Greece, and Rome as well as in Spain, England, and France. These
countries belong to the Indo European race. They once had their homes in Central Asia and spoke the
same language as the natives. Even now, the various languages spoken in these Indo-European countries
are only different forms of the original language. This is especially true of words referring to family like
father, mother, daughter, duhitr, and sister. The word daughter comes from the Sanskrit word duhitr
signifying "to draw milk". It preserves the memory of the time when the daughter was the little milkmaid
in the primitive Indo-European household.

The Indians have a civilization older than that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. While savages
roamed the dense forest of England, France, Italy, and Germany, the Indians already had a highly
developed civilization and were producing masterpieces in the arts.
 Indian philosophy and religion greatly influenced both the East and West. Long before Christ lived,
the Indians were already teaching the brotherhood of all peoples and the fatherhood of God. Indian
culture has interesting and distinctive qualities. Indian literature, fully developed over 3,000 years ago, is
rich in spiritual and imaginative values. Indian culture also had a scientific bent. India gave the world
trigonometry, the first grammar books, the first study of phonetics (the study of speech sounds), and the
game of chess.

Characteristics of Indian Literature

The first characteristic of Indian literature is that it is based on piety, a deeply religious spirit. The
Indians believed that a knowledge of God and a strong belief in Hinduism is necessary to save humankind.
Their earliest poems, the Vedas, serve as the Bible of the Indians.

The second characteristic we notice about Indian literature is that the Indian literary
masterpieces, written in the form of epics, correspond to great epochs in the history of India. The
Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the most important epics of India; the latter is the longest found in
world literature. The Indians believe in reincarnation, meaning that the soul of a person after death
returns to the earth in the body of another person, an animal, or even a plant. Consequently, they believe
in kindness to other people and to animals. They also abstain from destroying plants because in a plant
might be a reincarnated dead relative.

Their gods are believed to be reincarnated into human beings or even animals. Thus, the
Ramayana is about the reincarnation of the creator god, Vishnu, in the person of Rama, who is the hero
of the epic. The Mahabharata deals with another reincarnation of Vishnu in the person of Krishna. These
reincarnations of Vishnu are called avatars or descending from the god. Vishnu is supposed to have ten
avatars. Nine avatars have already taken place, and the tenth is yet to come. When this last avatar takes
place, Vishnu will descend from heaven to destroy the present world and restore peace and purity.

The Mahabharata is considered the greatest epic of India. It tells the story of a civil war that might
have taken place in the early years of the Aryan occupation of India. Obviously the product of many
countries and many hands, it is a long poem, almost as long as the combined epics of all Europe.

The Mahabharata tells of two rival bands of brothers, descendants of a common grandfather,
King Pandu. When he died, he left his five sons in the care of his brother who was to be regent while his
sons were still minors. The regent himself had many sons, and they coveted the kingdom for themselves.
The result was a period of intrigues and battles that resulted in the exile of the five brothers.

The Ramayana recounts the adventures of Rama and his wife Sita. Legend has it that Sita was born
of a furrow, the child of Mother Earth. Sita is regarded by the women of India as the perfect symbol of
wifely devotion and self-sacrifice for the beloved.

Indian Drama
The origin of the theater in India is lost in antiquity. In the second century B.C. Indian drama
reached a high stage of development. The two great Indian dramatists are Bhasa and Kalidasa, who is
called the Indian Shakespeare. Indian drama is characterized by poetry and idyllic beauty. It concentrates
on love as the background of the story; it always has a happy ending; and there are no violent emotions.
The characters are good men and women, and if any wrong is committed, it is because of the tricks of
magicians and evil spirits.

The striking thing about Indian drama is that it is multilingual. The gods, kings, and nobles speak
in Sanskrit (the ancient language of India), whereas women, thieves, and police officers speak appropriate
dialects. The text is a mixture of prose and poetry.

The first great name in Indian drama is Bhasa. Thirteen plays are attributed to him. The greatest
writer of plays, however, is Kalidasa, the author of Shakuntala. Kalidasa is called the brightest of the "nine
gems of genius". His play Shakuntala is written in long passages of beautiful prose and poetry. It is the
story of a king who goes hunting in the woods and meets a beautiful maiden named Shakuntala with
whom he falls in love. He marries her but has to leave her soon because of pressing official business.
However, he leaves a ring with her as a sign of their marriage.

Shakuntala has a son; she and her son go to the king's court. The king, however, has lost his
memory because of the work of an evil magician. He repudiates his wife and his son because she cannot
produce the ring, having lost it in the forest. The gods, taking pity on mother and son, take them to heaven.

In the meantime, a fisher has found the ring, which he then takes to the king. The king recovers
his memory and repents for what he has done. The gods sympathize with him because of his sufferings
and take him to the heavenly regions. The last act shows the king united with his forgiving wife and son,
now a manly, little boy. Then it is revealed that the king's loss of memory happened because of a curse
laid on him by an evil spirit.

The Panchatantra (Five headings) is a rich collection of brief stories of ancient times. This book is
said to contain the first fables ever written. Fables are stories of animals who behave like human beings.
The purpose of fables is to drive home a truth or a lesson. The Panchatantra also contains some of the
most important collections of short stories in the world, and these have reached us in translation from
language to language down the centuries. The stories from the Panchatantra are arranged in a "frame" as
in the Arabian nights. One story leads to another like the links in a chain.

Rabindranath Tagore was a great Indian poet and dramatist. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for
literature in 1913 and was knighted by the British government in 1915. Born of an Indian noble family, he
received his education under private tutors and then went to England to study law. He was a widely
traveled man. He visited Europe and Japan and went to the United States, giving lectures and readings of
the poems, which he first wrote in English and then translated into his native Bengali.

The Ramayana
The Ramayana relates the story of two powerful races, the Kosalas and the Videhas. Dasa-ratha,
the king of the Kosalas, had four sons, the oldest of whom, Rama, is the hero of the epic. The other sons
were Bharat, Lakshman, and Satrughna. Janak, the king of the Videhas, had a daughter named Sita, who
was miraculously born of the earth and who is the heroine of the epic.

Janak orders a severe test, an archery contest, for the hand of his daughter, Suitors from far and
near demonstrate their skill in archery but leave dis appointed. Rama succeeds and wins the peerless Sita
for his wife. The two brothers of Rama marry a sister and a cousin of Sita. The three brothers return to
Kosalas and are received joyfully by the people. Preparations are made for the consecration of Rama as
future king of the Kosalas.

In the meantime, an intrigue developed in the place of King Dasa-ratha. Kaikeyi, the mother of
Bharat, became jealous of the honor conferred on Kausalya, the mother of Rama, and plotted against
Rama. She went to the old king, Dasa-ratha, and reminded him of a certain promise he had made her
when he was ill—that he would give her any boon she wanted. She requested that Rama be exiled for
fourteen years in the forest of Dandak and that her son Bharat be made regent king.

Dasa-ratha was shocked and saddened over her request, but he had no recourse except to grant
her wish. The next morning, Dasa-ratha proclaimed the banishment of Rama and the elevation of Bharat
as king regent.

The faithful wife Sita and the loving brother Lakshman accompanied Rama in his exile, while the
loyal people of the city of Ayodia followed their exiled prince as far as the banks of the Tamasa river,
where they halted on the first night.

Rama and his wife and Lakshman stole away at night to escape the citizens who wanted to follow
them. Their wanderings during the following days, going deeper and deeper into the forest, are described
beautifully in the poem. Three thousand years have passed, but every step of this supposed journey is
annually reenacted by thousands of devoted pilgrims in India. Rama and Sita still live in the hearts of
millions of faithful men and women in this vast country.

Rama and his wife and his brother crossed the Ganges River, penetrating deeper into the
wilderness of the forest until they came to the hermitage of Valmiki, the reputed author of the epic. The
whole neighborhood of this hermitage is called Rama's country. Every headland has some legend; every
cave is connected with Rama's name; some of the wild fruits are even called Sita-phal because these fruits
were the reputed food of the exiles. Thousands upon thousands of Indians visit this spot as a holy
pilgrimage. Round the hill is a footpath upon which the people walk with naked feet and with pious
devotion.

In Ayodia, Dasa-ratha grieved so much over banished Rama that he soon died. The story now
moved to Bharat who refused the throne reserved for him. He joined Rama in the forest and implored
him to return, stating that with his father's death, surely Rama had been released from the sentence of
exile. This is one of the most impressive parts of the epic. Rama told his brother that death did not release
a son's promise to his father.

"But I may not," answered Rama, "seek Ayodia's ancient throne,

For righteous father's mandate dutious son may not disown;

And I may not, gentle brother, break the word of promise given

To a king and to a father who is now a saint in heaven!"

Bharat made a passionate plea for Rama to return and rule Kosalas but all in vain. Bharat then
took Rama's sandals to place them on the throne as testimony to the people that he was ruling in Rama's
name. Rama then penetrated deeper into the Dandak forest so that his friends and relatives would not
seek him in exile.

Rama wandered from Northern India and reached Southern India. He built his forest hermitage in
the wilderness that is now within a hundred miles of modern Bombay. There he lived with Sita and
Lakshman in peace and serenity for a few years.

This ideal existence was interrupted when Raksha, a princess, fell in love with Rama. He rejected
her in scorn. He offered Lakshman to the passion-blinded Princess Raksha.

Rama heard her wicked purpose and a scornful smile repressed.

To the foul and forward female thus these mocking words were addressed:

List, O passion-smitten maiden, Sita is my honored wife.

With a rival loved and cherished, cruel were thy wedded life!

But no consort follows Laskhman, peerless is his comely face,

And he leads no wife or consort to his darksome woodland grove,

With no rival to thy passion, seek his ample-hearted love.

The wicked princess offered her love to Lakshman who mocked her and told her to go back to
Rama. Indignant and revengeful, the princess went to her brother, Ravan, the monster king who ruled
over monsters of various forms. These were the dwellers of Ceylon. Ravan sent a beautiful deer to tempt
Rama and Lakshman away from the hermitage, and in their absence he stole Sita.

The second part of the poem deals with Rama's search for Sita and the long war with Ravan that
ended in the recovery of Sita. The epic ends with the trial by fire to which Sita submitted to prove her
stainless virtue during her captivity by Ravan. She returned with her lord and with Lakshman in an aerial
car that Rama had won from the gods. As Rama traveled from Southern India to Northern India, the poem
gives a bird's eye view of the whole continent of India in beautiful nature descriptions that make this part
almost a travelogue.

Jewish Literature
Israel: Jewish Literature
The greatest literature the Israelites produced is embodied in the Bible.

Bible – is a compilation of many literary forms culled over many centuries but unified in truth of their
divine inspiration.
Classification of Bible According To Literature
 History
 Prophetic Books
 Lyric Poetry
 Drama
 Wisdom Literature
 Tales

The Jews and Israelites

 The Jews only accept the Old Testament as their Bible.
 The Jews believed in a God whom man could never learn to know, who remained forever a
mystery.
 The Jews never tried to draw a picture or erect a statue of this God.
 The love of God is an outstanding quality of the Israelites.
 The Israelites believe in one God.

Psalm – is the most moving and most sublime collection of religious poems the world has ever seen.

Greatest Writers of Jewish Literature

 King David
 Moses

Best Literary Work from the Bible

 The Story of Ruth
 The Prodigal Son
Arabian Literature
Poetry
 Arabian poetry is emotional and extremely sweet.
 The subject matters for Arabian poetry are love, morals, and religion.
 Arabian poetry is rich in figures of speech, exaggerated statements, and passionate emotion.

Tales
The Arabian Nights is a collection of tales from the Islamic Golden Age.

 Ali Baba
 Aladdin
 Singbad the Sailor

Folktale
 The Wonder Tree

Literary Piece
 The Arabian Nights or The Thousand And One Nights
 The Lady and Her Five Suitors

The Koran or Quran

 Sacred scripture
 114 suras or chapters
 6,236 ayat or verses

Mohammed
 their prophet
 He is known as the “Holy Prophet” to Muslims.
 The Mohammedan Paradise

Exploring Jewish Literature

Israel—Jewish Republic in Asia
The greatest literature the Israelites produced is embodied in the Bible, which is composed of two
books—the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Jews, however, only accept the Old Testament
as their Bible. The whole Bible is a compilation of many literary forms culled over many centuries but
unified in truth of their divine inspiration.

Love of God is an outstanding quality of the literature of Israel. It differs from the literature of
other ancient nations in that it believes in one God. Other ancient races believed in many gods who had
qualities similar to man; they made images of their gods that they worshipped. The Jews, however,
believed in a God whom man could never learn to know, who remained forever a mystery. They never
tried to draw a picture or erect a statue of this God. They only knew that they believed in him; they loved
him with all their heart and soul. What he looked like; they never tried to learn. In their earliest poetry,
they poured out their adoration in hymns of praise and thanksgiving for his paternal love and his wisdom.
They sang that his seat is in the heavens; the earth is his footstool; the angels are his servants; the sea is
his slave; his hands made the dry land.

Their literature is generally emotional, often passionate. It describes the character of the people,
their daily lives, the beautiful scenery of their land. Yet what they say of themselves is true of all people—
their anxieties, their hopes, their joys, as well as their sorrows. They painted with truth and love the
condition of the human race.

Their literature also shows great love of country. Of their two great writers, one was their greatest
ruler, King David, and the other was their greatest legislator, Moses.

The Israelites developed all literary types: the lyric, the narrative, and the drama. Their Psalms,
even after three thousand years, are the most moving and most sublime collection of religious poems the
world has ever seen. They remain unequaled in their powerful imagery, their lofty ideas, their majesty,
and their sweetness.

The Psalms form the greatest and most popular collection of religious poetry that the world has
ever seen. There is a poem for every mood. See the following examples:

Praise
 Serve the Lord with gladness; come before His presence with singing.

Know ye that the Lord he is God; It is he that hath made us, and not we ourselves; we are his
people, and the sheep of his pasture.

Psalm 100: 2-3

Trust

The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer; my God, my strength, in whom I will trust;
my buckler, and the horn of my salvation, and my high tower.

Psalm 18: 2

Contrition

Search me, O God, and know my heart; try me and know my thoughts: And see if there be any
wicked way in me, and lead me in the way everlasting.

Psalm 139: 23-24

The poetry of the Israelites differs in form from the poetry of other races. The poetry of most
nations has rhyme and rhythm; the ancient poetry of Israel has no rhyme and no regularity of rhythm. Its
beauty lies in the balanced symmetry of clauses to which the term parallelism has been applied. Examples
of these forms are:

For as the heaven is high above the earth, so great is his mercy toward them that fear him.

As far as the east is from the west, so far that he removed our transgressions from us.

Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear Him.

For he knoweth our frame; he remembereth that we are dust.

Psalm 103: 11-14

Exploring Arabian Literature

Arabia—Cradle of Islam
Arabian literature is the link that connects ancient literature to modern literature. Ancient
literature is the product of ancient civilizations. It flourished and then it decayed just as all things in this
world grow and then die. When ancient civilizations came to an end, the Western world was plunged into
darkness, wars, bloodshed, and lawlessness. Because of the anarchy or absence of order, the historians
call it the Dark Ages or the Middle Ages, which extend from about A.D. 476 to 1,000.

The rise of the Arabian Empire and the rapid development of its literature were the great events
that characterize the Middle Ages. The Arabs revived and continued the literature, arts, and sciences of
the ancient world and gave them to Europe. The Arabs became the teachers of Europe. One by one, the
different universities of Europe were established and this revival of the thirst for knowledge brought about
the beginning of the Renaissance, or the rebirth of the art, literature, and sciences of the ancient Greeks
and Romans.

In the seventh and eighth centuries, the power of Arabia extended rapidly over Asia until about a
third of Asia spoke Arabian, adopted Mohammedonism, and cultivated Arabian culture. Arabia soon
extended her power over one-half of Africa and a part of Spain. From the ninth century, Arabian literature
was supreme over the East and the West.

Arabian literature, in general, is rich and of varied types. The Arabians early on, devoted
themselves to the cultivation of the arts and sciences. The caliphs, as the rulers were called, were patrons
of literature. The most celebrated was Haroun al Raschid (768-809) But the true patron of the arts was his
son, Al Mamoun. This monarch made Baghdad a true center for learning and art. He invited to his court
all the learned men he heard of, and he kept them with him by giving them rewards and honors. He
ordered books of all kinds to be brought to his capital. Hundreds of camels entered Baghdad loaded with
manuscripts of all descriptions. In his court, he kept a great number of translators and commentators.

Arabian poetry is emotional and extremely sweet. The favorite subject matters are love, morals,
and religion. It is rich in figures of speech, exaggerated statements, and passionate emotion.

Arabian literature is rich in mythology. The genii beings are both spiritual and earthly, some are
good, others bad; they can make themselves invisible at will. The peris are fairies, beautiful female spirits
who seek to do good upon the earth. The ghouls feed on human flesh and when they cannot satisfy
themselves upon the living, they enter graveyards and feed upon the dead.

The most famous Arabian stories are in the collection found under the title Arabian Nights. This
book has been translated into many languages. It has long been a favorite book, especially among the
young. From the collection of stories we get this picture of a typical Arab. "The boy is respectful to his
parents, a loyal friend, a good student, and a gentleman in his manners. The man is courageous, faithful
to his sultan, and strong in his faith, hospitable to strangers, and self-reliant. He may be depended upon
as a friend, as a father, and as a husband; he is the soul of honor and of chivalry. He is respectful,
instinctively kind to the poor and sick". The Thousand and One Nights, or Arabian Nights, has given the
world immortal characters like Ali Baba, Aladdin, and Sinbad the Sailor.

The structure of the Arabian Nights has been copied by many Western writers. The tales are
loosely strung together by a thread that has become familiar to all readers. The prologue tells that a
certain king of India was determined to destroy all the women of his kingdom because of the faithlessness
of his wife. His plan was to marry a woman and to kill her on the morning after the wedding. One of the
king's official had a beautiful and talented daughter, named Scheherazade, who insisted on being the
ruler's bride. She asked her sister to come to the bedchamber on the wedding night to request permission
for Scheherazade to tell one last story. The king agreed, and she told a tale so entertaining that he allowed
her to live another day to finish it. One story led to another and Scheherazade told tales for a thousand
and one nights. By then, the king had fallen in love with her.

The stories of the Arabian Nights are folktales from Arabia, Egypt, India, Persia and other
countries. The clever framework of the collection allows the reader to get a composite and kaleidoscopic
picture of life in those countries. The work in its present form was written in Arabic during the early 1500s.

The Koran
 The greatest book of the Arabs is the Koran, also spelled Qur'an or Quran. It is their sacred book,
their version of the Christian Bible. It contains the revelations of their God, Allah, to Mohammed. It not
only contains their religious beliefs but also explains their civil, military, and political systems. This book is
held in the highest reverence by Mohammedans. Before they open the Koran, they kiss it and touch it to
their foreheads in token of deep reverence. It is memorized by the faithful believers and it is believed that
if a person could copy the whole book by hand he/she would be blessed.

The Mohammedan Paradise

The Koran has for its subject matter death, resurrection, judgment, paradise, and hell. The joys of
paradise are designed to satisfy fundamental desires in man. All who die for the cause of their religion go
to paradise. This Mohammedan paradise is made delightful by beautiful black-eyed maidens (houris) not
made of common clay. They are free from all blemishes; they are full of eternal virtue and beauty. They
await the souls of believers in rosy bowers set in the hollow of giant pearls. The soil of paradise is
perfumed and sprinkled with gold and silver and flowers. The fruits of the trees are of a taste unknown to
mortals. Numerous rivers flow through paradise; some are of wine; others are of milk and honey. The
riverbeds and riverbanks are full of emeralds, diamonds, and rubies. The meanest of believers will have
80,000 servants and seventy-two wives. At whatever age a Mohammedan dies, at his resurrection in
paradise, he will be restored to manly vigor and eternal health. It would take a journey of a thousand
years for a true believer to travel through paradise and see all the wives, servants, gardens, jewelry, robes,
houses, camels, and other things that are exclusively his.

The Mohammedan Hell

Just as the heaven of the Mohammedan is full of delight, his hell is full of terror. The wicked suffer
alternately from extreme cold to extreme heat. When they feel thirsty, they are given boiling water, which
they must drink. The dark mansions of hell descend, one below each other, in a dismal downward line.