MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity

Atoms and Nuclei

26
Notes

NUCLEI AND RADIOACTIVITY

So far you have learnt that atom is the smallest entity that acts as the building
block of all matter. It consists of an extremely small central core, called the
nucleus, around which electrons revolve in certain specified orbits. Though nucleus
is very tiny, it is amazingly complex and you may like to know more about it. The
march towards our understanding the physics of nuclei began towards the end of
nineteenth century with the chance discovery of the natural phenomenon of
radioactivity; disintegration of atomic nuclei to attain stability. This discovery
provided us tools to probe the structure of nucleus : What is its size and mass?
What does it contain? What forces make its costituent particles cling together
and why?
In fact, the α-particles used by Geiger and Marsden to ‘see’ what was inside an
atom were obtained from naturally occuring radioactive element 214Bi. These
inverstigations opened up very fertile and new avenues of research. A lot of good
new physics of the atom began to emerge out and changed the course of
developments in a short span of time. You will learn about these now.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z determine the number of neutrons and protons in nuclei of different atoms;
z calculate the sizes of atomic nuclei;
z explain the nature of forces between nucleons;
z explain the terms ‘mass defect’ and ‘binding energy’;
z draw binding energy per nucleon curve and discuss the stability of atomic
nuclei;
z discuss the phenomenon of radioactivity, and identify the three types of
radioactive radiations;

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z explain the growth and decay of radioactivity in a sample;
z calculate the half-life, and decay constant of a radioactive substance; and
z explain the uses of radioactivity in various fields.

26.1 THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

Soon after the discovery of nucleus in an atom by Rutherford in 1911, physicists Notes
tried to study as to what resides inside the nucleus. The discovery of neutron by
James Chadwick in 1932 gave an impetus to these searches as it clearly suggested
to the scientific world that the building blocks of the nucleus are the protons and
the neutrons.

26.1.1 Charge and Mass

The atomic nucleus contains two types of particles, protons and neutrons. While
protons are positively charged, neutrons are neutral. The electrons, which revolve
in certain specified orbits around the nucleus, are negatively charged particles.
The magnitude of charge on a proton in a nucleus is exactly equal to the magnitude
of charge on an electron. Further, the number of protons in a nucleus is also equal
to the number of electrons so that the atom is as a whole is electrically neutral.
Neutrons and protons are collectively referred to as nucleons. Their combined
number in a nucleus, that is the number of nucleons, is called the mass number. It
is denoted by A. The number of protons in a nucleus (or the number of electrons
in an atom) is called the atomic number. It is denoted by Z. The number of neutrons
in a nucleus is usually denoted by N = A – Z. Usually N > Z. The difference (N–Z)
increases as A increases. Note that for a lithium nucleus containing 3 protons and
4 neutrons, the atomic number Z is 3, and the mass number A is 7.
Protons are slightly lighter than neutrons and almost the entire mass of an atom is
concentrated in its nucleus. The mass of a nucleus is nearly equal to the product
of A and the mass of a proton (or that of a neutron). Since mass of a proton is
1.67 × 10–27 kg, and A lies between 1 and 240 for most nuclei, the masses of
nuclei vary roughly between 1.67 × 10–27kg and 4.0 × 10–25kg.
The charge of a nucleus is equal to Ze, where e is the fundamental unit of charge
(that is the magnitude of charge on an electron). You may recall that it is equal to
1.6 × 10–19C. For naturally occurring nuclei, Z varies from 1 to 92, while for
transuranic elements (i.e. the artificially produced elements), Z varies from 93 to
105.

26.1.2 Size
The sizes of atomic nuclei are usually quoted in terms of their radii. Many nuclei
are nearly spherical in shape and the radius R is given approximately by the formula
R = r0 A1/3
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Here r0 is the unit nuclear radius and its numerical value is taken as 1.2 fermi, a
unit of length in honour of famous physicist Enrico Fermi. It is equal to 10–15m.
The radius of the lightest nucleus (hydrogen) is thus about 1.2 f, as A for hydrogen
is one. The radius of the heaviest naturally occuring nucleus (uranium) is
approximately 7.5f, as A = 238. You may note here that since the volume of any
spherical object of radius r is equal to (4/3) πR3, the volume of a nucleus is
proportional to A, the mass number.
Notes
Can you now guess the volume of a nucleus relative to that of an atom? Knowing
that the sizes of the nucleus and of the atom are approximately 10–15 m and 10–
10
m, respectively, the volume of an atom is roughly 10+5 times the volume of a
nucleus. To enable you to visualise these dimensions, the volume of a nucleus
relative to atom is something like the volume of a bucket of water relative to the
volume of water in Bhakra Dam.
You may now also like to know the order of magnitude of the density of nuclear
matter. If we consider the lightest nucleus, hydrogen, whose mass is 1.673 × 10–
27
kg and the radius is 1.2 × 10 –15 m, and take it to be spherical, the density can be
calculated using the relation

MH 1.673 × 10 –27 kg
dH = = 4π = 2.3 × 1017 kg m –3 .
4π 3
( )
3
RH × 1.2 × 10 –15 m
3 3

For oxygen, R0 = 3 × 10–15 m and M0 = 2.7 × 1026 kg, so that

d0 = 2.39 × 1017 kg m–3
That is, the densities of hydrogen and oxygen are of the same order. You may
recall that the density of water is 103 and density of mercury is 13.6 × 103 kgm–
3
. It means that nuclear matter is extremely densely packed. To give you an idea
of these magnitudes, if our earth were such a densely packed mass (= 6 × 1024
kg), it would be a sphere of radius 184m only. Similarly, the radius of nuclear
sphere, whose mass will be equal to the mass of our sun will be 10 km!

26.1.3 Notation
The nucleus of an atom is represented by the chemical symbol of the element,
with the A value as its superscript and Z value as its subscript; both on the left
hand side of the chemical symbol. Thus if the chemical symbol of an element is,
say, X, its nucleus is represented by AZ X. For example, for the nucleus of chlorine,
which has 17 protons and 18 neutrons, we write 35
17 Cl . Note that 35 here is mass
number.

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The atoms of different elements can have the same mass number, though they
may have different number of protons. Atoms having the same A value but different
Z values are called Isobars. Thus argon with A = 40 and Z = 18 is an isobar of
calcium which has A = 40 and Z = 20. Note that isobars have different chemical
properties since these are determined by Z. Atoms of the same element having
the same Z value but different A values are called isotopes. Thus, chlorine with
Z =17 and A = 35, and chlorine with Z = 17 and A = 37, are isotopes of some
Notes
element, chlorine. Since isotopes have same Z value, they show identical chemical
properties. Note that isotopes differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei.
Atoms having the same number of neutrons in their nuclei are called the isotones.
Thus, sodium with A = 23 and Z = 11 is an isotone of magnesium with A = 24 and
Z =12.
Example 26.1 : Calculate the number of electrons, protons, neutrons and nucleons
in an atom of 238
92 U.

Solution : 92
238
U symbolises uranium, which has 92 protons and 238 nucleus. Hence
Atomic number Z = 92 = number of protons
Mass number A = 238 = number of (protons + neutrons) = Number of
nucleons
Number of neutrons = A – Z
= 238 – 92
= 146.
Example 26.2 : Select the pairs of Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones in the following
list.
12 27 39 22 76 40 76
6 C, 13 Al, 19 K, 14 Si, 32 Ge, 20 Ca, 34 Se, 14
6 C

12
Solution : Isotopes – (Same Z - value) : 6 C and 14
6 C

Isotones – [Same A – Z values] : ⎡⎣ 13 Al and 14 Si ⎤⎦ , ⎡⎣ 19 K and 20 Ca ⎤⎦

27 28 39 40

76 76
Isobars – (Same A values) : 32 Ge and 39 Se

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.1

1. Make groups of Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones from the following collection
of different atoms:

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16 207
8 O, 82 Pb, 12 40 3 7 76 76 3 40 7 2
6 C, 18 A, 1 H, 3 Li, 32 Ge, 34Se, 2 He, 20 Ca, 4 Be, 1 H
,

14 235 206
6 C, 92 U, 82 Pb, 18 239 1 23 27 27 28 37 35
8 O, 92 U, 1H, 11 Na, 13 Al, 12 Mg, 14 Si, 17 Cl, 17 Cl

2. Fill in the blanks :

(i) Neutron is .................... than proton.
Notes (ii) The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the
.................... number of that atom.
(iii) The protons and neutrons together are called ....................
27
(iv) The number of neutrons in 13 Al = ....................

(v) The number of protons in 28

14 Si = ....................
(vi) Two atoms are said to belong to different elements if their ....................
numbers are different.
3. Which number cannot be different in two atoms of the same element – mass
number, atomic number, neutron number?

26.1.4 Unified Atomic Mass

It has been experimentally determined that mass of proton (mp) is 1836 times the
mass of electron (me), and the mass of neutron (mn) is 1840 me. Since the mass of
an electron is negligibly small compared to the mass of a nucleon, the mass of an
atom is effectively due to the mass of its nucleons. However, the neutron is slightly
heavier than the proton. It is, therefore, desirable to choose a standard to express
the masses of all the atoms (and also that of protons and neutrons). Now a days,
atomic masses are expressed in terms of the actual mass of 126 C isotope of carbon.
The unit of atomic mass, abbreviated as u, is defined as (1/12)th of the actual mass
of 126 C . We know that the value of the mass of a carbon atom is 1.99267 × 10–
26
kg. Hence
1u = (1/12) × mass of one carbon atom with A =12

= (1/12) × (1.99267 × 10–26kg)

= 1.660565 × 10–27kg

= 1.66 × 10–27 kg

Since mass of a proton (mp) is 1.6723 × 10–27kg, and mass of a neutron (mn) is
1.6747 × 10–27kg, we can express these in terms of u :

1.6723 × 10 –27
mp = u = 1.00727 u
1.6606 × 10 –27

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1.6747 × 10 –27
and mn = u = 1.00865 u
1.6606 × 10 –27

Can you now express the mass of an electron (me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg) in terms of u?
Since we will use nuclear masses in u, it is quite useful to know its energy –
equivalent. To do so, we use Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, viz
Notes
Energy = mass × c2
where c is velocity of light in vacuum. Thus
1u = (1.66 × 10–27kg) (2.9979×108ms–1)2
= 14.92×10–11J

14.92 × 10 –11
= MeV
1.60 × 10 –13

= 931.3MeV
Note that joule (J) is too big a unit for use in nuclear physics. That is why we have
expressed u in MeV (million electron volts). 1MeV is the energy gained by an
electron when accelerated through a potential difference of one million volts. It is
equal to 1.6 × 10–13J.

26.1.5 Mass Defect and Binding Energy

The mass of the nucleus of an atom of any element is always found to be less than
the sum of the masses of its constitutent nucleons. This difference in mass is
called mass-defect. For example, the nucleus of deuterium isotope of hydrogen
has one proton and one neutron. The measured masses of these particles are
1.6723×10–27kg and 1.6747×10–27 kg, respectively. It means that total mass of a
proton and a neutron is 3.34709×10–27 kg. But the mass of deuterium nucleus is
3.34313×10–27kg. It means that the measured mass of deuterium nucleus is
3.96242×10–30kg less than the measured masses of a proton plus a neutron. So
we say that mass defect in the case of deuterium is 3.96242×10–30 kg. Let us
denote it by Δm. Mathematically, for an atom denoted by A
Z X , we can write

Sum of the masses of the nucleons = Zmp + (A–Z)mn

∴ Δm = [Z.mp + (A–Z)mn] – M (26.1)

where M is actual mass of nucleius.

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Energy equivalent of mass defect is obtained by using mass-energy equivalence
relation:
BE = Δm c2 joules (26.2)
For Deuterium
BE = (3.96242×10–30kg) × (2.998 × 108ms–1)2
Notes
= 35.164 ×10–14kg m2 s–2
= 3.5164 ×10–13J
= 2.223 × 106eV
since 1eV = 1.602×10–19J.
This means that we have to supply atleast 2.223MeV energy to free the constituent
nucleons – proton and neutron – of deuterium nucleus. You can generalise this
result to say that mass defect appears as energy which binds the nucleons together.
This is essentially used up in doing work against the forces which make the nucleons
to cling.
Binding Energy per nucleon, B= Δm c2/A

[ Zmp + ( A – Z )mn – M ] c 2
or B = (26.3)
A

For 126 C , Z = 6 and A = 12. Therefore (A–Z) = 12 – 6 = 6. Also M = 12 u; (1u =

931.3MeV)
Therefore,
[6mp + 6mn – 12] × 931.3
B = MeV
12
= 7.41MeV
where we have used mp = 1.00727 u and mn = 1.00865 u.
It suggests that on breaking the nucleus of carbon atom, nearly 90MeV energy
will be released, which can be used for various purposes. This is obtained in
238
nuclear fission of a heavy atom like 92 U . You will learn about it in the next lesson.
This is also the source of energy in an atom bomb.
The value of B is found to increase to about 8.8 MeV as we move from helium
(A = 4) to iron (A = 56); thereafter it decreases gradually and drops to about 7.6
MeV for uranium (A = 238). Fig.26.2 shows the variation of binding energy per
nucleons with mass number.

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9 238
92 U
8 82 kr
118pd
Binding energy per nucleon, B

4 He 36 196
7 Pt
2 78
6
5
Notes
4

1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
Mass Number ®

Fig. 26.2 : The variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number

Note that binding energy curve shows sharp peaks for 42 He, 126 C, 16 20
8 O and 9 Ne
.
Moreover, B is small indicating that light nuclei with A < 20 are less stable. For
example, the value of B for heavy hydrogen ( 12 He ) is only 1.1 MeV per nucleon.
The subsidiary peaks occurring at 12 He, 126 C, 168 O (even-even nuclei i.e. nuclei having
even number of protons and even number of neutrons) indicate that these nuclei
are more stable than their immediate neighbours.
The binding energy per nucleon curve is very useful in explaining the phenomena
of nuclear fission and nucleon fusion.

Example 26.3 : Mass of a Boron ( 105 B ) atom is 10.811 u. Calculate its mass in
kg.
Solution : Since u = 1.660565 × 10–27kg,
10.811u = 10.811 × 1.660565 × 10–27kg
= 17.952368 × 10–27kg

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.2

1. The mass of the nucleus of 37 Li atom is 6.01513 u. Calculate mass defect and
binding energy per nucleon. Take, mp = 1.00727 u.; mn = 1.00865 u and 1 u
= 931 MeV.

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2. Calculate the radius of the nucleus of 84 Be atom.
[Use R = r0 A1/3; r0 = 1.2 × 10–15m]

26.2 HOW DO NUCLEONS CLING TOGETHER :

NUCLEAR FORCE
Notes Once physicists accepted the neutron-proton hypothesis of nucleus, an important
question arose : How do nucleons cling together? In other words : What is the
nature of force that binds nucleons? Since gravitation and electromagnetic
interactions explain most of the observed facts, you may be tempted to identify
one of these forces as the likely force. However, the extremely small size of the
nucleus, where protons and neutrons are closely packed, suggests that forces
should be strong, short range and attractive. These attractive forces can not have
electrostatic origin because electrostatic forces between protons are repulsive.
And if only these were operative, the nucleons would fly away, which is contrary
to experience. Moreover, the forces between nucleons are responsible for the
large binding energy per nucleon (nearly 8 MeV). Let us consider the gravitational
force. No doubt, it is a force of attraction between every pair of nucleons. However,
it is far too weak to account for the powerful attractive forces between nucleons.
If the magnitude of nucleon-nucleon force is taken to be unity, the gravitational
force would be of the order of 10–39. We may, therefore, conclude that the purely
attractive forces between nucleons are of a new type with no analogy whatsever
with the forces known in the realm of classical physics. This new attractive force
is called nuclear force.

26.2.1 Characteristic Properties

You may recall that the gravitational as well as electrostatic forces obey inverse
square law. However, the nucleons are very densely packed and the nuclear force
that holds the nucleons together in a nucleus must exist between the neighbouring
nucleons. Therefore, nuclear force should be a short range force operating over
very short distances (~10–15m).
These nuclear forces must account for the attractive force between :
– a proton and a neutron;
– two protons; and
– two neutrons.
Since binding energy per nucleon, B is the same, irrespective of the mix of neutrons
and protons in the nucleus, we are quite justified in considering the force between
them as equivalent. That is, nuclear force is charge independent.

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The nuclear force shows the property of saturation, which means that nucleons
show only limited attraction. That is, each nucleon in a nucleus interacts with
only neighbouring nucleons instead of all nucleons from one end of the nucleus
to the other.
If nuclear forces had only attractive character, nucleons should have coalesced
under their influence. But we all know that the average separation between
nucleons is constant, resulting in a nuclear volume proportional to the total number Notes
of nucleons. The possible explanation is that nuclear forces exhibit attractive
character only so long as nucleons are separated through a certain critical distance.
For distances less than this critical value, the character of nuclear forces changes
abruptly; attraction should change to repulsion. (You should not confuse this
repulsion with electrostatic repulsion.) These qualitative aspects of nuclear forces
are shown in Fig. 26.3
Strength of the nuclear force

(no force)
Attraction

r
>4.2f

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(attraction)
Distance between two nucleons
Repulsion

1f

(repulsion)

<0.4f

(a) (b)
Fig. 26.3 : a) Typical variation of nuclear forces with distance, and b) effect of inter-nuclear
distance on the force between nucleons.

26.3 RADIOACTIVITY
What is the age of our earth? How do geologists estimate the age of rocks and
fossils found during excavations? What is radio-therapy which is used to treat
malignant cells? The answers to all these interesting and useful questions are
inherent in the study of radioactivity; a natural phenomenon in which atoms emit
radiations to attain stability. Though it was discovered by chance, it opened flood
gates for new physics. It finds wide use in industry, agriculture and medical care.
Let us learn about it now.

26.3.1 Discovery
The story of discovery of radioactivity is very interesting. In 1896, French physicist
A.H. Becquerel was working on the phenomenon of fluorescence (in which some
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substances emit visible light when they are exposed to ultra-violet radiations). In
one of the drawers of his desk, he had kept a collection of various minerals,
besides several unopened boxes of photographic plates. Somehow, the collection
of minerals remained untouched for a considerable period of time. One day
Becquerel used one of the boxes of photographic plates to photograph something.
When he developed the plates, he was disappointed to find that they were badly
fogged as if previously exposed to light. He tried the other boxes of photographic
Notes
plates and found them also in the same poor condition. He could not understand
as to why plates were fogged because all the boxes were sealed and the plates
inside were wrapped with thick black paper.
Becquerel was puzzled and investigated the situation further. He found that
uranium placed in his drawer had done the damage and concluded that there must
be some new type of penetrating radiation originating from the uranium salt. This
radiation was named Becquerel rays and the phenomenon of emission of this
radiation was named radioactivity. The elements exhibiting this phenomenon were
called radioactive elements.
Soon after this discovery, and based on an exhaustive study, Madame Marie Curie
alongwith her husband Pierre Curie, isolated an element from uranium ore by a
painstaking method known as chemical fractionating. This new element, which
was a million times richer in the mysterious rays than uranium, was given the
name radium. Another radioactive element discovered by Madam Curie was named
polonium in honour of her native country-Poland.

26.3.2 Nature of Radiations

In 1899, Lord Rutherford, a British physicist, analysed the Becquerel rays emitted
by radioactive elements. He established the existence of two distinct components :
α-particles and β-rays. The existence of third radiation – gamma rays – was
established by P. Villard.
We know that nuclei of all atoms contain g
a b
positively charged protons, which repel each
other strongly due to electrostatic repulsion.
To overcome this repulsion, neutrons in the
nuclei act as glue. But in case of heavier nuclei, – +
this electrostatic repulsion is so strong that
even the addition of neutrons is not able to
keep the nuclei stable. To achieve stability, such radioactive
substance
nuclei disintegrate spontaneously by emitting
α and β particles along with γ-rays as shown
in Fig 26.4. So, we can say that in natural
Fig. 26.4 : Emission of α, β and γ
radioactivity, α, β and γ-rays are emitted. radiations

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The emitted radiation is called the radioactive radiation and the process of
disintegration (break-up) of atomic nuclei (by emitting α, β and γ-rays) is called
radioactive decay. Sometimes, the break-up can be induced by bombarding stable
nuclei with other light particles (like neutron and protons). It is then called artificial
radio-activity.
The characteristic features of this phenomenon are that it is spontaneous and in
the case of α or β emission, a new nucleus belonging to a new element is formed. Notes
That is, one element gets converted into another element. This is thus a nuclear
disintegration phenomenon and suggests the posibility of mutation of new nuclei.
Let us first study the characteristic properties of α, β, and γ radiations.
(i) α-particles
Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42 He ) and consist of two protons and two
neutrons. Detailed studies of these particles revealed the following properties :
z Being charged particles, they get deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
z They produce fluorescence in substances like zinc sulphide and barium platino
cyanide, affect a photographic plate, can induce radioactivity in certain
elements and produce nuclear reactions.
z They have great ionizing power. A single particle in its journey through a gas
can ionize thousands of gas atoms before being absorbed.
z They have little penetration power through solid substances, and get scattered
by thin foils of metals. They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick aluminum
sheet.
z The energies of α particles emitted from a radioactive substance is a
characteristic of the emitting nucleus. This corresponds to a variation in their
velocity from 1.4 × 107m s–1 to 2.05 × 107m s–1.
(ii) β-particles
β-Particles can be both positively and negatively charged. They originate in the
nucleus in the process of conversion of a neutron into a proton, and vice versa.
Further studies of β-particles have revealed the following properties.
z Being charged particles, they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
z They produce fluorescence in materials like zinc-sulphide and barium
plationcynide; and affect photographic plates.
z They can ionize gas atoms but to a much smaller extent than the α-particles.
z Negatively charged β-particles can pass through a few mm of aluminium
sheets. They are about 100 times more penetrating than α-particles.

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z Average energies of negative β-particles vary between 2 MeV and 3MeV.
Due to their small mass, their velocities vary in range from 0.33c to 0.988c,
where c is velocity of light.
(iii) γ-rays
γ-rays are electromagnetic waves of high frequency, and as such highly energetic.
They are characterized with the following properties :
Notes
z They do not get deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They travel with
velocity of light in free space.
z Their penetration power is more than that of α and β-particles; γ-rays can
penetrate through several centimeters of iron and lead sheets.
z They have ionizing power that is smaller compared to that of α and β-particles.
z They can produce fluorescence in materials and affect a photographic plate.
z They knock out electrons from the metal surfaces on which they fall and heat
up the surface. Hard γ-rays (i.e. high energy γ-rays) are used in radio therapy
of malignant cells.

Marie Curie
(1867–1934)
Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel prize in physics with
A. Henri Becquerel and her husband Pierre Curie for her
studies in the field of radioactivity. She was the first person
in the world to receive two Nobel prizes; the other Nobel
prize she received was in chemistry in 1911. Later her
daughter Joliot also won the Nobel prize in chemistry for
her discovery of artificial radioactivity.

26.3.3 Radioactive Decay

In any radioactive decay, spontaneous emission consists of either a single α-
particle or a β-particle. The emission of an α-particle from a radioactive nucleus
(called parent nucleus) changes it into a new nucleus (new element is called
daughter nucleus) with its atomic number decreased by two and its mass number
decreased by four. Similarly, emission of a β particle changes the parent nucleus
into a daughter nucleus with its atomic number increased by unity (if it is β–
emission) but its mass number remains unchanged. The emission of γ-rays does
not change the atomic number or the mass number of the parent nucleus and
hence no new nucleus is formed.
Note that in any nuclear disintegration, the charge number (Z) and the mass number
(A) are always conserved. Thus for any radioactive nucleus, denoted by X, the
nuclear transformations may be written as :

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A
X α−decay 4
He + A –4
Y
Z 2 Z–2

(α-particle)
A
X β−decay 0
Z
–1 e + AZ–1 Y
(β-particle)
( AZ X )* γ−decay A
X +γ
Z Notes
The asterisk over the symbol of element implies that it is in an excited state.

26.3.4 Law of Radioactive Decay

We now know that if we have a given amount of radioisotope, it will gradually
decrease with time due to disintegrations. The law describing radioactive decay
is very simple. The rate of radioactive disintegration is independent of external
factors such temperature, pressure etc. and depends only on the law of chance. It
states that the number of radioactive atoms disintegrating per second is
proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant of
time. This is called law of radioactive decay.
Let N0 be the number of radioactive atoms, at t = 0, and N (t) be the number of We rewrite Eqn.
radioactive atoms at time t. If dN denotes the number of atoms that decay in time (26.4) as
dt, then (N – dN) signifies the number of radioactive atoms at time (t + dt). dN (t )
Hence, rate of decay = − λ dt
N (t )
dN (t )
α N, On integration, we get
dt ln N(t) = –λt +k.
dN (t ) At t = 0, N(t) = N0
or = – λN(t) (26.4)
dt ∴ k = ln N0
where λ denotes decay constant, which is characteristic of the radioactive Hence
substance undergoing decay. The negative sign signifies that the number of nuclei ln N(t) – ln N0 = –λt
decreases with time. This relation can be rearranged as ⎛ N (t ) ⎞
or ln ⎜ N ⎟ = − λt
1 dN (t ) ⎝ 0 ⎠
λ = – N (t ) dt (26.5) On taking antilog, we
obtain the required
Thus, decay constant (λλ) may be defined as the ratio of the instantaneous rate result:
of disintegration to the number of radioactive atoms present at that instant. N(t) = N0 exp (– λt)
The law of decay is sometimes also expressed in exponential form and is also
called the law of exponential decay. To obtain the exponential form, we integrate
Eq. (26.4) with respect to time :
N(t) = N0exp(–λt) (26.6)
The most important conclusion from this law is that N will become zero only
when t = ∞.

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Thus, no radioactive element will disappear completely even after a very long
time.
The radioactive decay law clearly shows that even if the number of atoms N0 for
different radioactive elements is same initially, at a later time they will have different
values of N(t) due to different values of their decay constants (λ). They will thus
show different rates of disintegration. This is determined by their half-life (T1/2)
Notes and average lives (Ta).

Units of Disintegration
The decay constant is measured in units of per second. The activity of a
radioactive substance at any instant of time is measured by its rate of
disintegration. Its SI unit has been named becquerel :
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second.
Another unit of the decay constant is curie.
1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
which is the rate of disintegration of radium (Ra) measured per second per
gram.
Yet another unit is ‘rutherford’ (rd) :
1 rd = 106 disintegrations per second.

26.3.5 Half Life (T1/2)

The half life (T1/2) of any radioactive element is defined as the time in which
the number of parent radioactive atoms decreases to half of the initial number.
By definition, at t = T1/2, N = N0/2. Therefore, using Eqn. (26.6), we can write
N0/2 = N0 exp (–λ T1/2)
or λT1/2 = loge2 No

log e 2
or T1/2 =
λ 1
2 No
2.303 × log10 2 1
=
λ 4 No
1
8 No
2.303 × 0.3010
=
λ O T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2
0.693 Fig. 26.5 : Radioactive decay
=
λ curve

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Thus, half-life of any radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay
constant and is a characteristic property of the radioactive nucleus. The half-life
of 146 C (radioactive carbon) is 5730 years. This means that one gram of 146 C will
0.5
be reduced to 0.5 g in 5730 years. This number will be further reduced to = 0.25
2
g in another 5730 years. i.e. in a total period of 11460 years. Refer to Fig. 26.5 to Notes
see how a radioactive sample decays with time.

Example 26.4 : An animal fossil obtained in the Mohanjodaro – excavation shows

an activity of 9 decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the age of the
Indus Vally Civilisation. Given the activity of 14C in a living specimen of similar
animal is 15 decays per minute per gram, and half life of 14C is 5730 years.
Solution : 14C is radioactive isotope of carbon. It remains in fixed percentage in
the living species. However, on death, the percentage of 14C starts decreasing due
to radioactive decay. Using radioactive decay law, we can write
N(t) = N0 exp (–λt)
so that N/N0 = exp (–λt)
or 9/15 = exp (–λt)
or loge (9/15) = –λt

⎛ 15 ⎞
or loge ⎜ ⎟ = λt
⎝9⎠

which gives t = 1/λ [loge (15/9)]

Here T1/2 = 0.693/λ = 5730 years. Therefore,
t = 2.303 × (5730/0.693) [log1015 – log109]
Hence t = 4224.47 years.
Thus, the specimen containing carbon –14 existed 4224.47 years ago. Hence the
estimated age of Indus valley civilsation is 4225 years.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 26.3

1. How can you say that radioactivity is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon?
2. Compare the ionizing and penetration powers of α, β and γ - radiations.

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3. Apply the law of conservation of charge and mass numbers to determine the
values of a and b in the following decay - equations :

(i) AZ X = 42 He + ab Y + γ

(ii) 4Z X = 0
−1 e + ab Y + γ
Notes 4. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5 years. In how much time, 10g of
this substance will reduce to 2.5g?

Applications of Radioactivity
Radioactivity finds many applications in our every day life. Some of these
are given below.
(i) In medicine : In the treatment of cancer (radiotherapy), a radio-active
cobalt source which emits x-rays is used to destroy cancerous cells.
The decay of a single radioactive atom can be registered by an instrument
placed at a remote location outside a container wall. This high sensitivity
is utilized in tracer technique as an important tool in medical diagnostics,
like the detection of ulcer in any part of the body. A few radioactive
atoms of some harmless element ( 24
11 Na ) are injected into the body of a
patient. Their movement can then be recorded. The affected part absorbs
the radioactive atoms whose flow is, therefore, stopped and the diseased
part of the body is easily located.
(ii) In agriculture : By exposing the seeds to controlled γ radiation, we are
able to improve the quality and yield of crops, fruits and vegetables.
Radiating these before their storage helps in saving from decay.
(iii) In geology : In estimating the age of old fossils. The normal activity of
living carbon containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per minute
for every gram of carbon. This activity arises from the small proportion
of radioactive carbon –14 present in the atmosphere with the ordinary
carbon –12. This isotope (14C) is taken by plants from the atmosphere
and is present in animals that eat plants. Thus, about one part in 108
radioactive carbon is present in all living beings (all animals and plants).
When the organism is dead, its interaction with the atmosphere (i.e.
absorption, which maintains the above equilibrium) ceases and its activity
begins to fall. From this, the age of the specimen can be approximately
estimated. This is called carbon-dating and is the principle of determining
the age of old fossils by archeologists.

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The same technique has been used in estimating the age of earth from
the measurements of relative amounts of 238U and 206Pb in geological
specimens containing uranium ore. Assume that the specimen of ore
contained only uranium and no lead at the time of birth of the earth.
With the passage of time, uranium decayed into lead. The amount of
lead present in any specimen will therefore indicate its age. The present
age of the earth, using this method, has been estimated to be about 4 Notes
billion years.
(iv) In industry : γ-radiations are used to find the flaws (or imperfections)
in the inner structure of heavy machinery. For example, if there is an air
bubble inside, the penetration of γ-rays will be more at that point.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

z The nucleus in an atom contains positively charged protons and uncharged
neutrons.

z The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom of any element gives the
atomic number of the element.

z The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is
called its mass number.

z The atoms having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called
isotopes.

z The atoms with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars.

z The atoms with same number of neutrons are called isotones.

z The nucleons inside the nucleus of every atom are bound together by strong
attractive nuclear forces which are short-range and charge-independent.

z The mass of a nucleus is found to be less than the sum of the masses of its
nucleons. This difference in mass is called mass-defect. It is a measure of the
binding energy.

z The size (volume) of the nucleus depends on its mass number.

z The spontaneous emission of α-particle or β-particle followed by γ-emission

from any nucleus is called radioactivity.

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z The α-particles have been identified as helium nuclei, while β-particles have
been identified as fast moving electrons. The γ-rays are electromagnetic waves
of extremely short wavelength.
z According to the law of radioactive decay, the number of radioactive atoms
disintegrating per second is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present at that instant.
Notes
z The half life of a radioactive substance is the time during which the number of
radioactive atoms reduce to half of its original number.
z The law of exponential decay is N(t) = N0 exp (–λt).

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. When does a radioactive sample disintegrate?
2. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.
3. Explain the characteristics of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number
curve.
4. What is the nature of nuclear force? Give its characteristics.
5. Explain how decay constant is related to half-life of a radioactive substance.
6. Define the following terms:

(i) Atomic number; (ii) Mass number; (iii) Mass defect;

(iv) Binding energy of nucleons; (v) Half-life; (vi) Average life;

(vii) Decay constant.

7. State the law of radioactive decay.

8. What is carbon dating? What is its importance?

9. Calculate the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the following

atoms.

238
(i) 1123 Na ; (ii) 12 H ; (iii) 92 U; (iv) 1735 Cl ;

10. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of nucleons for the following
nuclei.

(i) 42 He ; (ii) 37 Li ; (iii) 147 N ;

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Given, 1 u = 1.660566 × 10–27kg = 931 MeV, Mass of a proton = 1.007276 u.
Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 u, Mass of 2He4 atom = 4.00260 u, Mass of
14
7
3 Li atom = 7.01601 u, Mass of 7 N atom = 14.00307 u.

11. Using the present day abundance of the two main uranium isotopes and
assuming that the abundance ratio could never have been greater than unity,
estimate the maximum possible age of the earth’s crust. Given that the present
Notes
day ratio of 238U and 235U is 137.8 : 1; Half life of 238U is = 4.5 × 109 year; and
that of 235U is 7.13 × 108 years.

1
12. If the activity of a redioactive sample drops to th of its initial value in 1
16
hour and 20 minutes, Calculate the half-life.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

26.1
1.
Isotopes Isobars Isotones

76
12
6 C and 14
6 C 32
76
Ge & 34 Se
2
1 H & 32 He
40
1
1 H and 12 H & 13 H 18 A & 40
20 Ca 14
6
18
C & 8O
76 76 24
16
8 O & 18
8 O 32 Ge & 34 Se 23
11 Na & 12 Mg

35 3 27 28
17 Cl & 37
17 Cl 1 H & 32 He 13 Al & 14 Si

206 207 7 7 27 28
82 Pb & 82 Pb 3 Li & 4 Be 13 Al & 14 Si
238 239
92 U& 92 U
2. (i) heavier; (ii) mass; (iii) nucleons; (iv) 14; (v) 14 (vi) atomic.
3. Atomic number.

26.2
1. Δm = 1.041358 u; 969.5 MeV. 2. 2.4 × 10–15m.

26.3
1. Nuclear disintegration usually involves α or β emission which results in change
of atomic and mass numbers of the parent element. With the emission of α

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and β particles, the heavier nuclei shed some of their mass resulting in
comparatively lighter nuclei. Hence, it is a nuclear disintegration phenomenon.
2. Ionizing power of
α>β>γ
Penetration power of
Notes α<β<γ
3. i) a = Z –2 and b = A – 4
ii) a = Z + 1 and b = A.
4. Two half life times are required – one for reduction from 10 to 5 grams and
the other from 5 to 2.5 grams, i.e.. 10 years.

Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercise

9. (i) 12, 11, 11 (ii) 1, 1, 1 (iii) 146, 92, 921 (iv) 18, 17, 17
10. (i) 0.034, 28MeV (ii) 0.044, 37.86 MeV (iii) 0.10854,
101MeV
11. 6 × 109 years
12. 20 min

342 PHYSICS