Lito STUDY FLOWERS’ ADAPTATIONS POLLINATED BY WIND : inated, These include whens, pi. Many of the world’s most important crop plants are sO whee inde a Hee, Cony and oats. Many economically important trees are also wind po! Pines, Sprig, i’ ™ nduction hardwood trees, including several spices cultivated for nut product 0 Aim =9 Fyeva futidomt heer ‘ "To study flowers adaptation for pollination by wind. Materials Required © Maize flowers © Hand Jens © Forceps 7 © Slides Theory/Principle Anemophilous or wind pollinated flowers are inconspicuous and not showy, They are also devoig of ete, On the other hand, they produce a very large quantity of dusty pollens so that in great forests, charged with these Another adaptation of anemophilous flowers isthe branched bush as Is seen in cereals. The anthers are walled. iy stigma capable of catching pollens f often versatile, swinging freely in air and the pollens are dry, fig Anemophily is found in most cereals and palms and in a number of Archichlamydeous (Poplar, willow), Fagaceae (oak, beech), ete, Procedure © Take a flower of maize, . families: Observe and study the adaptation of various parts of it for pollination, Dissect it out to see its male and female reproductive Parts. * Dust the pollens on a drop of water on slide, Now, observe the slides of pollen grains and other Parts with the help of a hand Jens to study its structure. ~Observations | woes * Male and female flowers are separately present on maize plant, monoecious. © Male flowers are terminal whereas, female flowers are axillary in position. © Flowers are small, inconspicuous, colourless, odourless and nectarless. * The anthers are versatile so as to oscillate in all _ directions at the tip of filament. © The stigma is hairy, branched, large and feathery 10 catch the pollen grains, Pollens grains are small, dry, dusty, smooth and light. ses iV Pollen grains of ‘When mild airs blown pollens are swayed off frely a in air. Some of the pollens fall on the protruding te plant stigmas for pollination to occur.2.1 TO STUDY THE POLLEN GRAIN GERMINATION "PERMANENT SLIDE OR SCANNING ELECTRON The pollen grains or microspores are haploids and represent first cell of the male gametopinyte. They shy, in shape, size and sculpting These features are helpful in the study of pollen grains and is called as p (A) Aimos Fees To study the pollen grain germination on stigma through a permanent slide. Theory/Principle Afier pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma. The intine of pollen grain grows out thr pore of exine in form of tube like outgrowth called pollen tube. The vegetative cell controls the gro while the generative cell divides to produce two male gametes mitotically. Pollen tube enters the ovule through the degenerating synergid of the ege apparatus and releases both th afier reaching the micropylar end of the embryo sac. One male gamete fuses with egg cell to foe which later developes into the next generation sporophyte while the second male gamete fuses with to form primary endosperm nucleus which developes into endosperm and provide nutrition for gro Materials Required © An opened mature flower of portulaca Glass slide Needles Coverslip Safranin stain Dissecting microscope Compound microscope Glycerine Procedure © Take out a pistil ee er © Stain the isolated stigma with safranin stain. ‘© Mount the stained stigma in glycerine and place a coverslip over it. © Observe the slide under a dissecting microscope. © With the help of a needle, take out germinating pollen and mount it in © Place the slide under a microscope. Observations Many pollen grains are present over the stigma. Pollen grains absorb water and other substances such as sugars and Observe ee . ws a ee h oft passes the style enters the ovary The pollen tube acts as a sperm carrier as well Pollen tube carries with rere_Palien grain _-Exine Pollen grain ae Pollen tube Growing pollen tube Antipodals Polar nuclei Egg cell Embryo sac _, Male gametes Synergid a 4 Pollen tube entering through Micropyle _— Tube nucleus Vegetative cell (b) Pollen grain {(c) Pollen grain with a pollen tube, wept male gametes and tube qucieus a showing stigma, style and ovary Pollen grain germination fhe pollen tube passes through the style, it reaches t0 the ovule and carries the (Wo male gametes.‘\ 3.110 STUDY AND IDENTIY THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF SPERMATOGENEg T'S. OF MAMMALIAN TESTIS THROUGH PERMANENT SLIDE Reproduction is the process by which offypring are produced, Mammals reproduce sexually, Gametoy a Specialized sex ongans, In males, the testis (plural, testes) produce sperm cells, which are the male amet ed as producing the male hormone testosterone “= Aim rim) To study and identify the different stages of spermatogenesis from T.S, of mammalian testis through hide. Materials Required Compound microscope Permanent slide of T.S, of mammalian testis Notebook © Pencil © Eraser Lens cleaning fluid and cleaning paper Theory/Principle In all male organisms, gamete formation takes place in their gonads, i.e., testis, The process of gamete fon called gametogenesis involves meiotic cell division, The gametogenic development in testis is called spermato, Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Procedure * Clean the side and microscope’s eye and objective lenses with the help of lens cleaning fluid and ¢ paper. ® Place the slide on the stage of the microscope. © Observe the slide of T.S. mammalian testis first under lower magnification and then in higher © Observe the various stages of gamete development. © Draw and label various stages of gamete development. Observation © Each testis is oval in shape and covered by three layers: Outer tunica vaginalis Three layers of testis Middle tunica albuginea Inner tunica vasculosa * Each testis contains large number of highly coiled seminiferous tubules which appear * Each seminiferous tubule is lined by cubical cells (germinal epithelium) and some mod cells called sertoli cells/nurse cells which provide nourishment to the developing sper # The region outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial space contain a group synthesise and secrete male androgen, eg. testosterone,—— Sertoli cel! Spermatozoa Spermatids Secondary spermatocyte Sertoli cell Primary spermatocyte Spermatogonium Germinal epithelial cells ees view of a seminiferous tubule (enlarged) "ers section of testis of mammal clearly shows the developmental stages of spet enesis,FER oe ‘Ans. Epididymis. IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF OOGENESIs FROM T ND 3 eau ERMANENT SLIDE rm" MAMMALIAN OVARY THROUGH P s-the ovaries in the female-produce gametes, /.€., ovum by the process calleg % Ren The primary sex orga Aim LM To study and identify the different stages of oogenesis from T-S. of mammalian ovary through permanen PaMent slide Materials Required Compound microscope Permanent slide of T.S. mammalian ovary © Notebook Pencil e@ Eraser © Lens cleaning fluid and cleaning paper Theory /Principlejeroscope’s eye and objective lenses w wae ana 0 © lenses with the help Of lens-eleaning uid and leaning yn the stage of the Microscope lide OF 2 = oi glide of TS. mammalian ovary first under lower magnification and then in higher magnification yr’ «cous Stages of gamete development a varie . vee xis stages of gamete formation a yabel Vario’ ot an lined by germinal epithelium which is surrounded by visceral peritoneum. Beneath the germinal Mot 8M onnective tissue is present called Tunica albuginea ees is stroma layer in which ovarian cycles are present in different stages +e ial follicle. It consists of primary oocyte surrounded by single layer of granulosa cells. Growing follicles Germinal epithelium Primary follicle Graffian follicle Follicular ceils Secondary follicle Released oocyte Ruptured follicle Corpus albicans Developing corpus luteum Section of mammalian ovary 2 Pre-antral follicle. A non-cellular material, zona pellucida, is formed between primary oocyte and granulosa fell. A theea layer begins to form tunica albuginea and starts making the boundary of granulosa cells. 3. Early antral follicle. A fluid-filled space called antrum is formed between the granulosa cells and the antral 's secreted by granulosa cells themselves. ey § Graafian follicle/Mature follicle. Ovulation occurs in this stage. Antrum is expanded and some granulos “cumulate to lift the ovum by forming a cellular mount called cumulus oophorous. ~ i ture ae °Vulation, the follicular cells which are present in empty follicle form a glandular ene = led corpus tuteum which secretes progesterone. albicans is formed by on of corpus luteum. Pe among.@ Two suc asmata and crossing OV ‘e Formation of chia n of homologous chromosomes. sister chromatids. ation of rms some Important Terms c ome in a diploid cell has one chromosome derived from, o 3 Homologous chromosome the female parent. They are morphologically and genetically similar and are cyl oi male parent an 1 other homologous chromosomes cening over (Genetic recombination): Reshuffling of the genes on chromosome that occurs during meiosis ag, e ° muilt of breakage and reunion of segments of homologous chromosomes. Synapsis: The process by which homologous chromosomes become joined to ‘Symaptonemal complex (SC): A ladder-like structure composed of three parallel bars with many cross fibers. The ge holds each pair of homologous chromosomes in the proper position to allow the continuation of genetic recombinag, ‘same Prophase It is a long process during which h : : LLLEEE SS Latte which homotogous chromosomes pair closely and interchange hereditary material. Wt is Leptotene (leptos = slender; tene = band or thread) * Each chromosome is attached at both © Each chromosome one another during meiosis. 1 ends to the nuclear envelope. replicates into two sister chromatids. 120 ttLate Prophase | Mataphese | ‘Anaphase | Telophase | LEE (Gi »(>cac\, ( @ BS Pi we ag Vf Jr fibers Nuclear envelope (dipicid) sie Meio: 2 ean ron between the two members of each homologous chromosome pair is initiated by synapsis. as pairing, chromosome comprises one chromosome. derived from each parent. : spe xofsynapsis each gene is brought into close contact wih ts allele located on homologous chromosome ee homologous chromosomes are brought together on the synaptonemal complex. pec > produced is called bivalent. contains four chromatids and is also called tetrad. ee completion of synapsis, large recombination nodules appear at intervals on the synaptonemal complex. pe as chromatids twist around and exchange segments with each other. o Te moss = double) and the chromosomes condense, thicken and become attached to nuclear envelope. Each is is attached to nuclear envelope. chromatids is attached at their centromeres. tids of homologous chromosomes are in contact with each other at or near their telomeres. become arranged in the plane of the equator forming equatorial plate. of each chromosome is directed towards the opposite poles and the arms of chromosomes face of each bivalent repel each other and move towards the opposite poles. © Teceives half the number of chromosomes. 5 and movement of chromosomes is brought by the spindle fibres.y Telophase ! es are formed during this stage by endoplasmic reticulum aroung The muclear membranes are P. Oy chromosome clu! One mucteotus appears it in each nucleus daughter cells with haploid number 0" : on interp! is is the stage between the @- Intrameic meiotic division Meiosis-It fe Tris essentially simmt fe nis described in four stages: chromosomes are formed. telophase of first meiotic division S1ON and hase: Th "ha Jar to mitosis. It divides each haploid meiotic cell into two daughter cell Is A -6- 6 e)- i yl © A OO Se Prophase Il Metaphase II Anaphase I! e Telophase I! ce 4 haploid cells Prophase-Il Nuclear membrane disappears and spindle formation takes place. Metaphase-I! Chromosomes become oriented on the equatorial plate. «They have similar arrangements with spindle fibres as in mitosis. Anaphase-Il The centromere divides an‘ © After separation each chromatid become a chromosome. Telophase-Il ¢ The four groups of chromosomes become organised into four haploid nuclei. ‘© Chromosomes retum to the interphase condition. ¢ The endoplasmic reticulum forms the nuclear envelope arot ot Each Fach nucleus at this stage contains the haploid number of chromosomes and form four cells. x ? Significance ce of Meiosis : iy pie ih definite and constant number of chromosomes by producing haploid gametes. ie to crossing over in meiosis, organisms may exchan; i 30 a we genes and cause genetic variati Biber serves the raw material of evolutionary process. i i : . ‘ mosomal and genomic mutations caused by non disjunction etc. are also the sources of usefil i i a Pracmicat Skis _ .d two chromatids of each chromosome separate and move towards the poles. und the chromosomes and nucleolus reappess on in ee vyaiatioos5.1 TO STUDY T.S. OF BLASTULA THROUGH PERMANENT SLIDES few cycles of mitotic divi ea cavity is formed wi id ball of cells called moruta, Tp, called blastula, '© Cell Ci i bo) ons to form as hin it, This stage is The zygote undergoes -,t0 divide and at a later Oy Alin pS To study TS. of blastula through permanent slides. Materials Required © Permanent slide of Blastula © Compound microscope © Lens cleaning fluid and paper Theory/Principle -alled zygote. From a zygote we eventually became a Right after fertilization, we existed as a single cell ¢ makes a copy of its DNA and then pinches in half “as 0 through the process of cleavage, where a cell divides, cells. form tg _ oo ‘Those two cells repeat this process to make four cells. Four cells become eight, eight become sixteen, ang ite andl so ox. Each time a cell divides, the size of the new cells continually decreases, As a result, the overall sine est 20 of ty 1, Tost developing embryo stays the same. ‘After about seven cell divisions, the embryo has become a blastula consisting of at least 128 cells. If we were to oo. tmide the Blastala, we would ove thst most of it is empty space. This empty speee ebarscterizes the blastulyaady called the blastoceel. During the blastula stage of development, two different types of cells are present. “~ The trophoblast is the outer layer of cells, which will eventually become the placenta. The outer cells within the blastala are called the inner cell mass. The inner cell mass contains embryonic stem ely sich orl ultiraately give rist to every single cell of our body, These stem cells are very important for the develagay because they have the potential to convert themselves into any type of the cells. Scientists and researchers are studying these embryonic stem cells in order to develop cell therapies and grow tissues and even organs. However, their useis controversial because we can only study these cells by harvesting them from the blastula, which destroys the embry, Procedure Fix the slide of T.S. of blastula under the compound microscope. © First, observe the slide under lower magnification of the microscope. © Then, observe the slide under the high power of the microscope. Observations 6, Wha In transverse section, it appears as a spherical mass of about 64 cells, Ans. Mor lled the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and (6) innet Q. At y Ans. Blas @ It is composed of two parts: (a) an outer envelope of cells ca cell mass or embryoblast. There is a fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel. ‘© The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo. © The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass the opposite side is called the abembryonic or vegetative pole. is Sancti called the embryais or animal POGInner cell mass a mammal na Blastula stage of it teristic features of blastula stage of a mammal. averse secti on of blastula clearly shows all the charac’ the compound microscope high power of f the microscope- the high power ©OF SEGREGATION A Secures APRTONLS UH BORE sty The law of segregation ix based on one of the benchmark seieintille & WO, the Plant experiment. For the Mendel experiment he chose pea plants, because they Kal KONE WHeAayahy, hs Cong. S Wells being easy to breed ann with atelaively shout brveding peel aalowing: a quigk *XDeri MeN A io ny Alene uns To study Mendelian inheritance (law of segregation) using seeds of efferent COHOUESI2eN OF any plgyy Materials Required © Pea seed sample © Petri dishes © Tissue paper ® Notebook © Pencilipen © Try Theory/Principle During reproduction, the inherited factors (now called alleles) that determine traits are separated into Topo cells by a process called meiosis and randomly reunite during fertilisation, Net Mendel proposed that, during reproduction, the inherited factors must separate into reproductive cells, He had ot that allowing hybrid pea plants to selfpollnate resulted in progeny that Looked different fom ther pares, Say occurs during meiosis when the alleles of each gene segregate into individual reproductive cells (ougs and Sm i animals, or pollen and ova in plants). Procedure ri © Collect 128 pea seeds of different shapes and sizes and those varied in colour in a tray, * Put 64 round seeds in one petridish and 64 wrinkled seeds in the other to represent male and fomale py respectively. Let the round seed be indicated by ‘R’ and wrinkled seed by ‘r’, ‘Take a seed from each container and place them together (it represents fert Just like the previous step, continue to pick seeds and arrange them in pair, Thus, 64 pai representing the 64 heterozygous F, progeny. Note that all the F, individuals are represented by one ro one wrinkled seed. © Put 32 F, progeny in one petridish and the remaining 32 in another petridish (representing the F, males females). Stir the seeds of each petridish with a pencil/pen for about 10 times taking care that no seed fills off, To obtain the F,, generation, one student would withdraw one seed from one petridish the other petridish labelled female keeping his/her eyes closed (to ensure randomné the stretched palm of the partner, who will put them together on the tissue ( the seeds are paired. Thus, 64 offsprings of F, are obtained. { Note the genotype (RR or Rr or rr) of each pair, and their possible Repeat the experiment six times (steps | to 8) with partners changing repeats together. Calculate the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of polled data, tion) on the tissue paper,Phenotypic Ratio: in F, ; in F, Genotypic Ratio: in F, in F, Result\/ © Round seed is dominant over wrinkled seed, * When wrinkled recessive not lost. A Precautions © Collect large sample of seeds character is not expressed, it is hidden in presence of dominant round character and to minimise the error, ° Count the seeds carefully, ¢ missed, repeated or confused. © Care should be taken while obseryi Suggested Experiment Ans, Four chromosome; Q2. Who Proposed the term Gene? Ans. WL Johanson, Q3. Which Mend 8. lel’s | Ans, Law Of segrepatio, aw of inheritance is Universally acceptaby nN,is 1 . a females showing the trait, fifty percent of her daughters and all of her sons are likely to be affecteg, S __s the males are most affected in the population, WwW ” * Examples are red-green colour blindness and hemophilia. Pedigree analysis of colour blindness: ap ES Os Zag xy xy XY xy xx xx xY xy xx xeY Inheritance pattern of X-linked recessive traits. Y-chromosome Linked Traits @ These ave the traits Ghee seen ae8.1 TO PERFORM EMASCULATION, BAGGING AND TAGGING FoR POLLINATION Controlled pollination is a technique used in plant improvement to produce progeny that receives genes two known parent plants. Controlled pollination consists of transferring pollen from one plant to the recene reproductive organs of another plant while excluding all other pollen. cemntan tapes eee a in, Se Aim fio ernst 200s OES an engi) which forms part of the Ei ce ayatem but only one = the curyive only £0"Procedure * Observe the permanent slide of Entamoeba under compound microscope acteristics of the organism in the practical record book * Note down the * Draw labelled diagram of the Entamoeba histolytica observed. Observations Classification Phylum Protozoa Class Rhizopoda or Sarcodina Onder Lobosa Genus Entamoeba Species histolvtica Comments © It is a monogenetic endoparasite of man found in the upper part of large intestine (colon). * It occurs in two distinct forms: + Trophozoite form/Magna form * Precystic form/Minuta form. Food vacuoles Plasmalemma Ectoplasm \ Endoplasm . wo Nucleus Pseudopodium Ingested red blood celis Trophozoite form Polymorphic Forms of Entamoeba histolytica Minuta form ‘Trophozoite form * It is active and feeding stage which is pathogenic in nature. * Contractile vacuole is absent. E * Monopodial condition is present and pseudopodia is lobopodia type. Precystie form * Itis spherical and inactive stage. * It encysts only in the lumen of intestine and not in tissues. * It causes amoebiasis (amoebic dysentry).— infection : os a contaminated with cysts of Entamoel ter and wat Y ba. Tetranucleate cyst is the infective stage jon inal pain and cramps ; s mucous and blood clots. Siools with exces jdentification characteristics of Entamoeba histolytica has been studied. '« Permanent slide should be thoroughly observed under microscope. ‘» Permanent slide should be observed first under low power followed b y higher magnification. Diagram of organism should be well labelled.Theory/Principle Plasmodium is a genus of protozoa. Itis also a human pathogen: Y Of fou, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale an The main disease of concern with plasmodium is malaria, The protozoan Is spread to humans by the ite enters the bloodstream and Anopheline mosquito, A form of the parasite known as the sporozo! liver. After multiplying in liver cell, the protozoan can penetrate red blood cells, which is a hallmar malaria. Multiplication occurs in a red blood cell, which ultimately bursts, releasing new forms of the can infect neighbouring red blood cells, Such cycles lead to massive destruction of red blood cells, Procedure ® Observe the permanent slide of Plasmodium under compound microscope. ‘* Note down the features of organism in the practical record book, * Draw well labelled diagram of the Plasmodium observed. ‘The genus consists predominant) id Plasmodium malariae, “4 ote Proton Observations Classification Phylum =: Protozoa Class : Sporozoa Order: Haemosporidia ( Genus: Plasmodium Comments , © It isa digenic endoparasite of man. * It completes its life cycle in two different hosts: + Man — Primary host + Female Anopheles ~ Secondary host. © Its asexual cycle is completed in man while its sexual cycle is completed in female Anopheles mosquito, © It causes malaria. i Spindle-shaped sporozoites of Plasmodium Mode of Infection oa Bite of female Anopheles. Sporozoite is the infective stage of Plasmodium for humans while gametocytes infective stage for female Anopheles mosquito, 2 ‘Symptoms, © Chill ond high fever recurring after every 3 to 4/days, ‘© Pain in bones and joints. ‘© HeadacheObservations Classification Kingdom : Fungi Class : Deuteromycetes Genus; _Trichophyten Species "8 rubrum Comments e Ringworm is the most common infectious disease in man. It is caused by fungi belonging to genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton. e It causes skin infection. 172 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN