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 MEASUREMENT
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES All the quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly in
terms of which law of physics are described and whose measurement is necessary, are called physical
quantities. e.g. velocity, time, mass, etc.
Fundamental and Derived Units
The unit of a defined set of physical quantities called fundamental quantities are known as fundamental units
and the units for all other physical quantities, except fundamental quantities are known as derived units

SI System: It is based on the following seven basic units and two supplementary units.
 Some Important Units

Physical Quantity Unit(S.I.) Symbol

Distance Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
Angle Radian rad
Solid Angle Steradian Sr
Force Newton N
Energy Joule J
Speed Metre/second ms-1
Angular Velocity Radian/second rad s-1
Frequency Hertz Hz
Moment of Inertia Kilogram meter square kg m2
Momentum Kilogram meter/second kg ms-1
Angular Momentum Kilogram metre square/ second kg m2s-1

Pressure Pascal Pa
Power Watt W
Surface Tension Newton per metre Nm-1
Viscosity Newton second per metre square Nsm-2

Thermal Conductivity Watt per meter per degree celcius Wm-1 oC-1

Specific Heat Joule per kilogram per kelvin Jkg-1 K-1

Electric Charge Coulomb C

Potential Volt V
Capacitance Farad F
Electric Resistance Ohm Ω
Inductance Henry H
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb
Luminous Flux Lumen lm
Illuminance Lux lx
Optical Wavelength Angstrom Å
Impulse Newton second Ns
 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
• Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called scalar quantities. e.g. mass,
speed, volume, work, time, power, energy, etc
. • Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and which obey triangle law are called
vector quantities. e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, etc.

MECHANICS: deals with the study of motion of particles, rigid and deformable bodies and general
system of particles.

Motion
A body is said to be in motion when its position changes continuously with respect to a stationary body
taken as a reference point.
 Distance and Displacement
Distance
• The distance covered by a body is the actual length of the path travelled by the body between the initial
position and final position. – It is always positive. – It is a scalar quantity which has magnitude only. Its
unit is metre.

Displacement
• The displacement of a particle is the change in position of the particle in a particular direction and is given
by a vector drawn from its initial position to its final position.
– Displacement may be positive, negative or zero. – It is a vector quantity and its unit is also metre.
– The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length travelled by an object. –
Displacement ≤ Distance

Speed: The path length or the distance covered by an object divided by the time taken by the object to
cover that distance is called the speed of that object. Its unit is m/s or km/h.

➢ Uniform Motion: An object is said to be moving with a uniform speed, if it covers equal
distances in equal intervals of time.
➢ Non-Uniform Motion: An object is said to be moving with a variable speed, if it covers
equal distances in unequal intervals of time or unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
• When the speed of an object is constantly changing, then the speed at a particular moment or instant
of time is called the instantaneous speed of that object.

➢ Velocity: The rate of change in position or displacement of a body with time is called the velocity
of that body. It is a vector quantity.
• A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity, if equal displacements of the body take place in
same direction in equal intervals of time.
• If a body moves in such a way that its speed or the direction or both changes with time, the body is
said to have variable velocity
• Velocity : The time rate of change of displacement of a body is called its velocity.
• Velocity = Displacement / Time
• Uniform Velocity: An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it undergoes equal
displacements in equal intervals of time.
• Non- Uniform Velocity: An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable velocity if it
undergoes unequal displacement in equal intervals of time.
• Average velocity = Time displacement Total time taken Acceleration • The time rate of
change of velocity of a body is called its acceleration.

➢ Acceleration = Change in velocity /Time taken

• It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 𝑚𝑠 −2
• Acceleration at an instant of time is known as instantaneous acceleration.
• When the velocity of a body increases with time, then its acceleration is positive and if
velocity decreases with time, then its acceleration is negative called deceleration or
retardation.
 ➢ An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position which respect to its surroundings with
time and said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surrounding with time.

• Rectilinear motion: moving car on horizontal road, motion under gravity etc.

• Angular motion: such as particle going on a circle, projectile motion, rotation of machine shaft etc.
• Rotational motion: such as motion of a fan.
• It an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
• It an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in nonuniform motion.

➢ If any body is falling freely under gravity, then a is replaced by g in above equations.
• If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in above equations of motion a is replaced by (–g).
• For a body with zero acceleration or constant speed, graph between velocity and time will be a line parallel
to time axis. • Velocity–Time Graph For accelerating or decelerating body the graph will be a straight line
inclined to time axis and velocity axis.
• Graph between position (distance)-time for an accelerating or decelerating body is always a parabola.

• Acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerating body is a line parallel to time axis.
• In case of uniform accelerated, the graph between position and velocity is always parabola.
• In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the graph between velocity and time is always a straight line.
• Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity and slope of velocity-time graph gives acceleration.
Projectile Motion
• When a body is thrown from horizontal making an angle (θ) except 90°, then its motion under gravity is a
curved parabolic path, called trajectory and its motion is called projectile motion
Examples: • The motion of a bullet shot from the gun • The motion of a rocket after burn-out • The motion
of a bomb dropped from a aeroplane etc.

Properties of Projectile: Motion If we drop a ball from a height and at the same time thrown
another ball in a horizontal direction, then both the balls would strike the earth simultaneously at different
places.

➢ Circular Motion
• The motion of an object along a circular path is called circular motion.
• Circular motion with a constant speed is called uniform circular motion.
• The direction of motion at any point in circular motion is given by the tangent to the circle at
that point.
• In uniform circular motion, the velocity and acceleration both changes.
 • In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed changes from point to point on the
circular track.
➢ Centripetal Acceleration
During circular motion an acceleration acts on the body towards the centre, called centripetal acceleration.
The direction of centripetal acceleration is always towards the centre of the circular path.

Introduction to Force
A force is an effort that changes the state of an object at rest or at motion. It can change an object’s
direction and velocity. Force can also change the shape of an object.

Effects of Force
Some effects of force include the following:

• Force moves stationary objects

• Force stops objects from moving
• Force changes the shape of a body
• Force changes the direction of motion

Push is defined as an action of force which causes an object to move from its place. The following are
the examples of push:

• Opening and closing of the door.

• Pushing the table.
• Pushing a car.
• Pushing of the thumb pins.
• Walking

Pull is defined as an action to make move by

either tugging or dragging. The following are
the examples of pull:

• Plucking the string of a guitar.

• Pulling ropes while playing tug of war.
• Opening the drawer.
• Pulling the window curtain.
• Opening and closing of the doors.
 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
When balanced forces are applied to an object, there will be no net effective force acting on the
object. Balanced forces do not cause a change in motion.

Unbalanced forces acting on an object change its speed and/or direction of motion. It moves in the
direction force with the highest magnitude.

Net force
When multiple forces act on a body, they can be resolved into one component known as the net force acting
on the object. The net force decides the direction of motion.
Frictional force
The force that opposes relative motion is called friction. It arises between the surfaces in contact.
Example: When we try to push a table and it does not move is because it is balanced by the frictional force.

10 examples of friction in our daily life

1- Driving of a vehicle on a surface.
2- Applying brakes to stop a moving vehicle.
3- Skating.
4- Walking on the road.
5- Writing on notebook/ blackboard.
6- Flying of aeroplanes.
7- Drilling a nail into wall.
8- Sliding on a garden slide.

Uses of Friction
1- A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element that uses balls to maintain the separation
between the bearing races. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and
to support loads (weight).
2- Friction is necessary for walking, to apply brakes in vehicles, for holding nuts and bolts in
a machinery.
3- Friction can be decreases by polishing the surfaces by using lubricants or by using ball
bearings.
4- Tyres are made of synthetic rubber because its coefficient or friction with road is larger
and therefore, large force of friction acts on it, which stops sliding at turns.
5- The tyres are threading which also increases the friction between the tyres and the road.
6-When pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on rear wheel is in forward
direction and on front wheel is in the backward directio

Loses due to Friction

- Too much Loss of Energy in machines and then ultimately the machines are damaged.
- Friction can be decreases by polishing the surfaces
 Laws of Limiting Friction
- It depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact and their state of polish.
- It acts tangential to the two surfaces in contact and in a direction opposite to the direction of
motion of the body.
- The value of limiting friction is independent of the area of the surface in contact so long as
the normal reaction remains the same.
- The limiting friction (Fs max) is directly proportional to the normal reaction R between the
two surfaces.

➢ Force
It is an external push or pull with can change or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform motion. SI
unit is newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 dyne. If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero,
then body is said to be in equilibrium.

➢ Centripetal Force
During circular motion a force always acts on the
body towards the centre of the circular path,
called centripetal force.

➢ Centrifugal Force
In circular motion we experience that a force is
acting on us in opposite to the direction of
centripetal force called centrifugal force. This is
an apparent force or imaginary force and also called a pseudo force.

➢ Applications of centripetal and centrifugal forces

• Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required centripetal force. To take a safe turn
cyclist slower down his speed and moves on a path of larger radius.
• Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal force for taking a turn.
• For taking turn on a curved road, the frictional force is acting between the tyres of the
vehicle and the road acts as centripetal force.
• If a bucket containing water is revolved fast in a vertical plane, the water may not fall even
when bucket is completely inverted because a centrifugal force equal or greater than the
weight of water pushes the water to the bottom of the bucket.
• For orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus electrostatic force of attraction is acting
between the electrons and the nucleus as centripetal force.
• Cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a vessel about the same axis. During
rotation lighter particles of cream experience a lesser force than the heavier particles of
milk.
 • For revolution of the earth around the gravitational force of attraction between the earth
the sun acts as centripetal force.

First Law of Motion

A body continues to be in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external unbalanced force. The First Law is also called the Law of Inertia.

Inertia
Basically, all objects have a tendency to resist the change in the state of motion or rest. This tendency is
called inertia. All bodies do not have the same inertia. Inertia depends on the mass of a body. Mass of an
object is the measure of its inertia.
More the mass → more inertia and vice versa.
Inertia of Rest
An object stays at rest, and it remains at rest until an external force affects it. Example: When a car
accelerates, passengers may feel as though their bodies are moving backward. In reality, inertia is making
their bodies stay in place as the car moves forward.
Inertia of Motion
An object will continue to be in motion until a force acts on it. Example: A hockey puck will continue to
slide across the ice until acted upon by an outside force.
Momentum
Impacts produced by objects depend on their mass and velocity. The momentum of an object is defined as
the product of its mass and velocity. p = mv. Vector quantity, has direction and magnitude. Some
examples of momentum include: A baseball flying through the air and a bullet fired from a gun.

Conservation of momentum
• The total momentum of an isolated system is conserved.
• Isolated system → net external force on the system is zero.
• Example: Collision of 2 balls A and B.
From Newtons 3rd law F{AB} = -F{BA}

Impulse
• A large force which acts on a body for a very
short interval of time and produces a large
change in its momentum is called an
impulsive force.
• Its unit is newton-second.
• A fielder lowers its hand when catching
a cricket ball because by lowering his hands,
he increases the time of contact for stopping the
ball and therefore fielder has to apply lesser force
to stop the ball. The ball will also exert lesser force
on the hands of the fielder and the fielder will
not get hurt.
• Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers
to increase the time of impact during jerks and
therefore, decreases the damage. The vehicles like
scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are provided with shockers
Second Law of Motion
The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the
direction of the force.
Here, a = (v – u)/t is the acceleration, which is the rate of change in velocity.
F = k ma
For 1 unit of force on 1 kg mass with the acceleration of 1m/s2, the value of k = 1.
Therefore, F = ma.
Third Law of Motion
Newton’s 3rd law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction forces are
equal, opposite and acting on different bodies.

Machine –
• Lever - It is a simple machine in which a straight or inclined rod is made to turn or rotate at a point freely
or independently. There are three points related to lever namely load, effort and fulcrum

• Load - The weight carried by the lever is called load.

• Effort - To operate lever, the force applied externally is called effort. • Fulcrum - The fixed point about
which the rod of lever moves independently is called fulcrum.

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Periodic Motion • A motion which repeats itself identically after a fixed interval of time, is called a
periodic motion. For example - Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of the earth around the sun, motion
of a simple pendulum etc
Oscillatory Motion
• A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back and forth about a fixed point is called oscillatory
motion. For example - Motion of a simple pendulum, Motion of a loaded spring etc.

• If a particle oscillates with its own natural frequency without help of any external periodic force. The
oscillation is then called damped oscillation.

• When a body oscillates with the help of an external periodic force with a frequency differentfrom natural
frequency of the body, then oscillation is called forced oscillation.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) • An oscillatory motion of constant amplitude and of

single frequency under a restoring force whose magnitude is proportional to the displacement and always
acts towards mean position, is called Simple Harmonic Motion.

Characteristics of SHM When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean position:

1. No force acts on the particle

2. Acceleration of the particle is zero.
3. Velocity is maximum.
4. Kinetic energy is maximum.
5. . Potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end,
6. then: . Acceleration of the particle is maximum.
7. . Restoring force acting on particle is maximum.
8. Velocity of particle is zero. . Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
9. Potential energy is maximum.

Matter
Matter is considered as anything which has weight and occupy space. It exist in three states: Solid, liquid
and gas.

➢ Solid: It is that, state of matter which has definite shape and definite volume. In this state
molecules are very closely packed.

➢ Liquid:
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container
but retains a nearly constant volume independent of pressure.

➢ GAS:
A gas is a substance that has no fixed size or shape. When inside a closed container, a
gas will expand to fill the container. An example of gas is the air you breathe.
 Properties of Solids
➢Elasticity: The property of a body by virtue of which it regain its original configuration after the
removal of deforming force, is called elasticity. Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly
elastic bodies.

➢Plasticity: The property of a body by virtue of which it does not regain its original configuration
after the removal of deforming force, is called plasticity.
➢ Strain: The fraction I change in configuration i.e. length, volume and shape, is called strain. Strain
has no unit.

➢ Stress: The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross section of a deformed body, is
called stress. Stress is of two types
• Normal stress
• Tangential stress
The maximum deforming force upto which a body retains its property of elasticity is called the limit
of elasticity of the material body. The minimum stress required to break a wire is called breaking
stress.
 The torque required to produce a given twist in a hollow cylinder is greater than that required to
produce the same twist in a solid cylinder. Therefore, hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft.
Springs are made of steel, not of copper as Young's modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that
of copper.

➢ Elastic Limit: It is the limit of stress and strain upto which a wire remains elastic.

➢ Plastic Behaviour: If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the strain increases much
more rapidly. If the stretching force is removed, the wire does not comes back to its natural length.

➢ Fracture Point: If the deformation is increased further the plastic behaviour, the wire
breaks at a point known as fracture point.

➢ Ductile: If large deformation takes place

between the elastic limit and the fracture
point, the material is called ductile.

➢ Brittle Materials: If the wire breaks soon

after the elastic limit is crossed, it is called
brittle
➢ Elastic Fatigue: It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour
becomes less elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming force. Due
to elastic fatigue, the bridges become less elastic after a use of long time and
therefore are declared unsafe.

➢ Malleable Materials: Malleability is the physical property of a solid to bend or be

hammered into another shape without breaking. If malleable, a material may be
flattened into a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Examples of malleable metals are
gold, silver, aluminium, copper etc.

➢ Fluid: A substance which begins to flow under an external force is called a fluid.
Liquids and gases are fluids.

➢ Fluid Density: The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its
density. (i.e. mass present in its unit volume). It is a scalar quantity having
SI unit kg/m³. The density of water is 1000 kg/m³. The density of water is
maximum at 4°C.

➢ Hydrometer - It is an instrument used to measure density or relative density of

liquid. Its working is based on law of floatation.
➢
➢ Fluid Pressure: Thrust (the normal force exerted by a liquid per unit area of the
surface in contact at rest, is called fluid pressure. Fluid pressure (p). Its unit is Nm2 or
Pascal (P(a).
➢ Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called
atmospheric pressure.
➢ Aneroid barometer: is used to measure atmospheric pressure and height of a
place. Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr and bar.
➢ Pascal's Law: The pressure exerted anywhere at a point of confined fluid is
transmitted equally and undiminished, in all directions throughout the liquid.
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press hydraulic brakes works on the basis of Pascal's law.

➢ Buoyancy: When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid, an upward force acts on it,
which is called buoyant force or upthrust and this property of fluids is called buoyancy.
 Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body.
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced by the submerged part of the
body, which is called 'centre of buoyancy'.

➢ Archimedes Principle
When a body is partially or completely immersed in a quid, it loses some of its weight. The loss in
weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body.

➢ Surface Tension
The property of a liquid by virtue of which it tries to
minimise its free surface area is called surface
tension. The minimum surface area of a given
amount of liquid is for spherical shape. Therefore, rain
drops are spherical.

➢ Factors Affecting Surface Tension

• Temperature -The surface tension of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.

• Soluble Impurities - If the impurities are less soluble in liquid, then its surface tension
decreases. If impurities are highly soluble in liquid, then its surface tension increases.
Surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical temperature.

Applications of Surface Tension

• When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl etc., are mixed in water then its surface tension decreases.
When salt is added in water, its surface tension increases.
• When oil spreads over the surface of water, its surface tension decreases.
• When kerosene oil is sprinkled on water, its surface tension decreases. As a result the larva of
mosquitoes floating on the surface of water die due to sinking.
• Warm soup is tasty because at high temperature its surface tension is low and consequently the
soup spreads on all parts of the tongue.
• Antiseptics like dettol have low surface tension and therefore it reaches in the tiny cracks of the
wound and cleans the germs and bacteria.
• The surface tension of soap solution in water is less than the surface tension of pure water.
Therefore, soap solution cleans greasy strains of clothes better than pure water.
 • Capillarity: The phenomenon of rising or
falling of liquid column in a capillary tube (glass
tube of very fine bore is called capillarity.

➢ Examples of Capillarity
• A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the pores of the blotting paper serve as capillary
tubes.
• The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary action of threads in the wick.
• The root hairs of plants draws water from the soil through capillary action.
• To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, the soil is loosened and split into pieces by
the farmers.
• If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial satellite, water rises up to other end of
tube because of its zero apparent weight, how long the tube may be.
• Action of towel in soaking up water from the body is due to capillary action of cotton in the
towel.
• Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick by capillary action.

➢ Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

The intermolecular force of attraction acting between
the molecules of same substance is called cohesive
force. e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting
between the molecules of water, mercury etc.

The intermolecular force of attraction acting between

the molecules of different substance is called
adhesive force. For eg., Intermolecular force of
attraction acting between the molecules of paper and
gum, paper and ink, etc.

➢ Viscous force: The force which opposes the relative motion between different layers of liquid
or gases is called viscous force.
 ➢ Viscosity: Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion
between its different layers. Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases both. The viscosity of a
liquid is due to cohesive force between its molecules.
➢ The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its molecules from one layer to other layer.
➢ Viscosity of gases is much less than that of liquids. There is no viscosity in solids.
➢ Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
➢ With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids decreases and that for gases increases.
➢ Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its coefficient of viscosity.
➢ Its SI unit is decapoise (kg/ms) or pascal second.

➢ Stoke's Law: The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is
directly proportional to the velocity and the radius of the sphere, and the fluid’s
viscosity.
Where r is the sphere radius, η is the fluid viscosity, and v is the sphere’s velocity.

Terminal Velocity Formula: In the case of raindrops, initially, it is due to gravity that it
accelerates. As the velocity increases, the retarding force also increases. Finally, when
viscous force and the buoyant force is equal to the force due to gravity, the net force
becomes zero, and so it does the acceleration. The raindrop then falls with a constant
velocity, known as terminal velocity.

Introduction to waves
A wave is a disturbance in a medium which moves from one point to another and carries energy without a
net movement of particles. It may take the form of elastic deformation or a variation of pressure.
E.g: Rubber cork on the water that goes up and down when a rock falls in the water creates a ripple.

Particle motion of mechanical waves

(i) Transverse Waves
Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. This type of wave is a mechanical wave.
E.g: Light and Mexican wave in a stadium.
(ii) Longitudinal waves
Particles travel parallel to the direction of wave motion, by means of successive compressions or
elongations. This is also a mechanical wave.
E.g: Sound waves in air.
 • Infrasonic waves - 0 to 20,000 Hz
• Audible waves - 20 to 20,000 Hz
• Ultrasonic waves - >20,000 Hz

Introduction to sound waves

Sound needs a medium to propagate. The
matter or material through which
sound propagates is called a medium.
When particles vibrate about their mean
positions, it pushes a region of compressed
air, creating a region of high pressure,
followed by a region of low pressure as the
particle retreats to its mean position.
The sound wave propagates by compressions
and rarefactions of particles in a medium.
Sound propagation can be visualised as the
propagation of pressure variations in the
medium.

Wavelength
The distance between two successive crests or troughs (or) successive compressions and rarefactions is
called as wavelength (λ). The SI unit of wavelength is metre (m).

Time period
Time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions to cross a fixed point is called a Time period
(T). The SI unit of time in seconds (s).

Frequency
The number of compressions or rarefactions per unit time is called frequency (𝛎).
The SI unit of frequency is Hertz. The SI unit is Hertz (s−1)

Speed (v), wavelength (λ) and frequency (𝛎) are related as v=λ𝛎

Amplitude
The amplitude of a sound wave can be defined as the loudness or the amount of maximum displacement
of vibrating particles of the medium from their mean position when the sound is produced. It is the
distance between the crest or trough and the mean position of the wave.
The unit of amplitude will be the Meter(m)

Pitch: The number of compressions or rarefactions per unit time is called pitch. It is Directly
proportional to frequency. The unit of sound pitch Hertz.

Volume
Volume or loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude. The force with which an object is made to vibrate
gives the loudness.

Higher force → higher amplitude → louder sound

The amount of sound energy flowing per unit time through a unit area is called the intensity of sound.

Note and Tone

A sound of a single frequency is called a tone. A sound produced with a mixture of several frequencies is
called a note.

Quality of sound
The richness or timber of sound is called the quality. Sound with the same pitch and loudness can be
distinguished based on the quality. Music is pleasant to the ears while noise is not. But they both can have
the same loudness and pitch.

Speed of sound
Sound travels through different media with different speeds. Speed of sound depends on the properties of the
medium: pressure, density and temperature

Speed of sound: Solids > Liquids > Gases

Speed of sound in air = 331 m/s at 00C and 344 m/s at 22∘ C
When a source emits sound with a speed greater than the speed of sound in air, it creates a sonic
boom which produces shockwaves with lots of energy. They produce a very loud noise which is enough to
shatter glass and damage buildings.

Reflection of Sound Waves

Like light, sound also follows laws of reflection, it bounces off the surface of solid and liquid.

Echo
The phenomenon where a sound produced is heard again due to reflection is called an echo.
E.g: Clapping or shouting near a tall building or a mountain.
To hear distinct echo sound, the time interval between original and reflected sound must be at least 0.1s. As
sound persists in our brain for about 0.1s. Minimum distance for obstruction or reflective surface to hear an
echo should be 17.2 m. Multiple echoes can be heard due to multiple reflections.

Sonar and Radar

SONAR – Sound Navigation And Ranging.
It is a technique that uses sound or ultrasonic waves to measure distance. The human range of hearing is
20Hz- 20kHz.

What are Ultrasonic sounds?

Ultrasonic sounds are high-frequency sound having a frequency greater than 20kHz (inaudible range).
Applications of Ultrasound
(i) Scanning images of human organs
(ii) Detecting cracks in metal blocks
(iii) Cleaning parts that are hard to reach
(iv) Navigating, communicating or detecting objects on or under the surface of the water (SONAR).
Sonar consists of a transmitter and detector mounted on a boat or ship. The transmitter sends ultrasonic
sound waves to the seabed which gets reflected back and picked up by the detector. Knowing the speed of
sound in water, distance can be measured using: 2d= v×t. This method is called echo-location or echo
ranging.
To know more about Uses of Radar,

Reverberation
Persistence of sound because of multiple reflections is called reverberation. Examples: Auditorium and a big
hall.
Excessive reverberation is undesirable and to reduce this, halls and auditoriums have sound-absorbing
materials on the walls and roofs. E.g: Fibreboard and rough plaster.

Doppler’s effect
If either the source of sound or observer is moving, then there will be a change in frequency and wavelength
for the observer. The frequency will be higher when the observer moves towards the source and it decreases
when the observer moves away from the source.
Example: If one is standing on a street corner and an ambulance approaches with its siren blaring, the sound
of the siren steadily gains in pitch as it comes closer and then, as it passes, the pitch suddenly lowers.
Doppler’s Effect The apparent change in the frequency of source due to relative motion between the source
and observer is called Doppler’s effect.
Applications of Doppler’s Effect The measurement of Doppler shift (based on Doppler’s effect) has
been used
• By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
• At airports to guide the aircraft.
• To study heart and blood flow in different parts of the body.
• By astrophysicist to measure the velocities of planets and stars.

Musical Scale
• In theory of music, a musical scale is a set of musical notes by the frequencies of which are in simple
ratios to one another. Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni is one such scale called the diatonic scale. The frequencies of
these notes are: sa (256), re (288), go (320), ma (341.3), pa (384), dha (426.7) and ni (480). The next note
denoted by sa has a frequency 512, twice that of sa. The interval sa-sa is called an octave (8).
 Wave
A wave is a disturbance which
propagates energy from one
place to the other without the
transport of matter.

Waves are broadly of two types:

1. Mechanical Wave

2. Non-mechanical wave

➢ Mechanical Wave: The waves which required material medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their
propagation are called mechanical wave or elastic wave. Mechanical waves are of two types:

1. Longitudinal wave: If the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave,
the wave is called longitudinal wave.

2. Transverse Wave: If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave, the wave is called transverse wave. Waves on strings under tension, waves on
the surface of water are examples of transverse waves.
➢ Non-mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves:
1. The waves which do not require medium for their propagation i.e. which can propagate
even through the vacuum are called non mechanical wave.
2. Light, heat are the examples of non-mechanical wave. In fact all the electromagnetic waves
are non-mechanical.
3. All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
4. The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10-14m to 104 m.
➢ Properties of electromagnetic waves
1. They are neutral uncharged.
2. They propagate as transverse wave.
3. They propagate with the velocity of light.
4. They contains energy and momentum.
5. Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.
➢ Following waves are not electromagnetic
1. Cathode rays
2. Canal rays
3. a rays
4. β rays
 5. Sound wave
6. Ultrasonic wave
➢ Some Important Electromagnetic Waves & their discoverer
1. α-Rays --- Henry Becqueral
2. X-Rays ----W. Rontgen
3. Ultra-violet rays ---- Johann Ritter
4. Visible radiation --- Newton
5. Infra-red rays ---- Hershel
6. Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves ---- Heinrich Hertz
7. Long Radio Waves ----- Marconi

Note: Electromagnetic
waves of wavelength
range 10-3m to 10-2m
are called
microwaves.

Reflection
• The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard surface, is called reflection of sound.
• The laws of reflection of light are also obeyed during reflection of sound.
• The working of megaphone, sound boards and ear trumpet is based on reflection of sound.
• The repetition of sound due to reflection of sound waves, is called an echo.
𝟏
• The persistence of hearing on human ear is 𝟏𝟎 th of a second.
• The minimum distance from a sound reflecting surface to hear an echo is nearly is nearly 17 m.
• Sound proof rooms are made of two layers of walls having vacuum between them.
• Reverberation arises due to multiple reflection of sound.
• While designing an auditorium for speech or musical concerts, one has to take proper care for the
absorption and reflection of sound.
• Time taken by reverberant sound to decrease its intensity by a factor of 10^6 is called reverberation
time.

Refraction
• When a sound wave move from one mechanical medium to another mechanical medium, it shows
deviation from the original path of the incident wave. The phenomenon is called refraction.
• It is due to difference is speed of sound in media.
 Diffraction
• When sound waves originated by a vibrating source, they spread in the medium and if the medium
is homogeneous, this leads to bending of sound waves around the edges. Which is known as
diffraction.
• The sound waves diffracted broadly and one can easily hears the voice of the another person.

Human Ear
The ear is a sensitive organ of the human body. It is mainly involved with detecting, transmitting and
transducing sound and maintaining a sense of balance is another important function of the human ear.
Human ear includes:

• The outer ear or the visible part of the ear is called the pinna.
• Pinna collects sound from the surroundings.
• Sound passes through a tube called an auditory canal.
• Eardrum (tympanic membrane) vibrates in response to incident sound waves.
• Vibrations are amplified and transmitted further by three bones hammer, anvil and stirrup in the
middle ear to the inner ear.
• In the inner ear, cochlea converts pressure signals into electrical signals.
• Electrical signals are transmitted by the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.
 Work
Work done on an object is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force acting on the body and the
displacement in the direction of the force. W = F.s. The SI unit of force is Newton.
If a force acting on a body causes no displacement, the work done is 0. For example, pushing a wall.

The force component F cos θ

gives the component of force
along the direction that the
body is displaced. Cos θ is the
angle between the force
vector and displacement
vector

Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Its unit is
the same as that of work. Energy is a scalar quantity.
SI unit of energy or work = Joule (Nm) or Kgm2s−2.

Forms of Energy
Energy has different forms: Light, heat,
chemical, electrical or mechanical.
Mechanical energy is the sum of:
(i) Kinetic energy (K.E)
(ii) Potential energy (P.E)
Kinetic Energy
Objects in motion possess energy and can do work. This energy is called Kinetic Energy.

Work-energy theorem
The work-energy theorem states that the net work done by a moving body can be calculated by finding
the change in KE.
⇒ W net = KE final − KE initial
1
⇒ W net= 2
m[v^2−u^2]

Factors affecting kinetic energy

• Mass
• Velocity
• Momentum

Potential Energy
Energy can get stored in an object when work is
done on it.
For example, stretching a rubber string. The
energy that is possessed by a body by virtue of
its configuration or change in position is known
as Potential Energy.

The potential energy of an object at a height.

When an object is raised to a certain height, work is done against gravity to change its position.
This energy is stored as Potential Energy.

⇒W = F.s

⇒F = ma
In the case of increasing the height, F = m*g
Therefore , W (P.E) = m*g*h
⇒ ΔPE = mg(h final−h initial)

Law of Conservation of Energy

Law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be
transferred from one form to another. The total energy before and after the transformation
remains constant.
Total energy = KE + PE
1
where, 2 mv2 + mgh = constant
For example: consider a ball falling freely from a height. At height h, it has only PE = mgh.
 1
By the time it is about to hit the ground, it has a velocity and therefore has KE= mv2. Therefore,
2
energy gets transferred from PE to KE, while the total energy remains the same.

Power:
The rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy is called power. It is denoted by P
SI unit is Watt (Js-1).
Average power = Total energy consumed/Total time taken

Commercial Unit of Power

The commercial unit of power is kWh i.e. energy used in 1 hour at 1000 Joules/second.
1kWh=3.6×106J

Force of Gravity
Earth attracts every body towards itself with a force known as ‘gravity’. Due to the force of gravity the ball
thrown upwards doesn’t go upwards but it falls downwards after covering some vertical distance.
Actually, every object attracts every other object towards itself with a force. This force is called the
gravitational force. Gravitational force is one among the four fundamental forces. It is always attractive in
nature.

Newton’s universal Law of Gravitation Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the
Universe exert gravitational attraction on each other. Any two particles of matter anywhere in the universe
attract each other with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Here, the constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational constant. It is termed a
“universal constant” because it is thought to be the same at all places and all times. G = 6.673 × 10^–11
Nm2/kg2.

Important Characteristics of Gravitational Force

- It is attractive in nature and acts between any two bodies in the universe irrespective of size or shape.
- It obeys inverse square i.e., this force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two
bodies.
- It is the same in every medium either air, water, space, or some other.
- It is the weakest force in nature.
- It is a long-range force.
- This force acts along the line joining the centers of bodies. Hence, it is a central force.
- It obeys Newton's third law of motion.
 Importance of the Universal Law of Gravitation
The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to be
unconnected.
• the force that binds us to the earth
• the motion of the moon around the earth
• the motion of planets around the Sun and
• the tides due to the moon and the Sun.

Relation Between Weight W and Mass M

-Mass: The quantity of matter in a body is known as the mass of the body.
-Mass is quantitative measure of inertia.
-Mass is an intrinsic property of matter and
does not change as an object is moved from
one location to another.

-Weight: It is the gravitational force that the

earth exerts on the object and can vary,
depending on how far the object is above the
earth’s surface or whether it is located near
another body such as the moon.
Inertial and Gravitational Mass
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter possessed by a body. Inertial Mass: Inertial
mass of a body is related to its inertia of linear motion, and is defined by Newton’s second
law of motion. F = ma or m= F/a The mass mi of the body in this sense is the inertial mass of
the body. Infact, inertial mass of a body is the measure of the ability of the body to oppose
the production of acceleration in its motion by an external force. Properties of inertial mass
• It is proportional to the quantity of matter contained in the body
• It is independent of size, shape and state of the body.
• It does not depend upon the temperature of the body
Acceleration due to gravity of the earth When a body is dropped from a certain height
above the ground, it begins to fall towards the earth under gravity. The acceleration
produced in the body due to gravity is called the acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted
by g.
Its value close to the Earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2.
F = GmM/r^2. Now, equating both expressions,
mg = GmM/r^2 ⇒ g = GM/r^2
Therefore, the formula of acceleration due to gravity is given by
g = GM/r^2 is the relation between acceleration due to gravity (g) and universal gravitational constant (G).

- Acceleration Due to Gravity on the Surface of Earth

Earth is assumed to be a uniform solid sphere with a mean density. We know that,

Density = mass/volume.Then, ρ = M/[4/3 πR3]⇒ M = ρ × [4/3 πR3]

We know that g = GM/R^2.
On substituting the values of M, we get, g = 4/3 [πρRG]
At any distance ‘r’ from the centre of the earth, g = 4/3 [πρRG]

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

In astronomy, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the
motion of planets around the sun.
Kepler’s first law – The law of orbits
Kepler’s second law – The law of equal areas
Kepler’s third law – The law of periods

➢ Kepler’s first law- “All the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits having the sun
at one of the foci”. The point at which the planet is close to the sun is known as perihelion (about
147 million kilometres from the sun), and the point at which the planet is farther from the sun is
known as aphelion (152 million kilometres from the sun). It is characteristic of an ellipse that the
sum of the distances of any planet from two foci is constant.

➢ Kepler's Second Law: Kepler's Second Law says says that a line running from the sun to
the planet sweeps out equal areas of the ellipse in equal times. This means that the planet speeds
up as it approaches the sun and slows down as it departs from it.
 ➢ Kepler’s law of periods,”The square
of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun in an elliptical
orbit is directly proportional to the
cube of its semi-major axis”.
T^2 ∝ a^3
➢ The shorter the orbit of the planet
around the sun, the shorter the time
taken to complete one revolution.
Using the equations of Newton’s law
of gravitation and laws of motion,
Kepler’s third law takes a more
general form.
T^2 = 4π^2 /[G(M1+ M2)] × a^3
Where M1 and M2 are the masses of
the two orbiting objects in solar
masses, T- Time to complete orbit, a-
length of semi-major axis.

Satellites: - Satellites are objects or bodies that revolve around the heavier body in
space. There are two types of satellites:
1) Natural Satellites: Satellites naturally present in space, such as comets and the Moon.
2) Artificial Satellites: Satellites made by humans for various purposes such as weather
forecasting, communication, etc.
- You can find numerous natural satellites in space, and every planet has at least one of its
natural satellites.Our earth has only one satellite, the Moon
- The Soviet Union, now Russia, launched the first artificial satellite into space on Oct 4,
1957, named Sputnik 1. The launch of Sputnik 1 triggered what was called the Space Race,
where nations around the world competed with advancements in space sciences.

- The orbital velocity for a satellite near the surface of earth is 7.92 km/sec.
Orbital velocity
The velocity with which satellites move around the
earth is known as the orbital velocity of satellites.
Orbital velocity is also known as critical velocity.
Finally, the minimum velocity is required to make
a satellite move around the earth with stability is
called Orbital Velocity.

Escape Velocity
The escape velocity of a satellite is defined as the minimum velocity required by the satellite to escape the
earth’s gravitational pull. The formula gives it:

ve= √(2GM/R)=√2gR

On comparing the escape velocity and orbital velocity, we get the relationship between them as:

ve=√2vo

➢ Characteristics of Motion of Satellites Orbital velocity (v0) : Let a satellite of

mass m revolves around the Earth in circular orbit of radius r with speed v0. The gravitational pull
between satellite and earth provides the necessary centripetal force.
➢ Value of orbital velocity does not depend on the mass of satellite but it depends on the mass and
radius of the planet around which the rotation is taking place.

➢ The orbital velocity for a satellite near the surface of earth is 7.92 km/sec.

➢ Energy of satellite : A satellite revolving around a planet has both kinetic and potential
energy.

➢ Kinetic energy : The kinetic energy of the satellite is due to motion of the satellite.
K.E = GMm/2r
 ➢ Potential energy : Potential energy of the satellite, P.E=−GMm/2r. The negative sign is
because of zero potential energy at infinity.

➢ Binding energy : The energy required to remove the satellite from its orbit to infinity is called
binding energy of the system. Binding energy of satellite, B.E = GMm/2r
➢ When the satellite is orbiting in its orbit, then no energy is required to keep it in its orbit.

➢ When the energy of the satellite is negative then it moves in either a circular or an elliptical orbit.

➢ Types of Satellites Geo-stationary Satellite: A satellite which appears to be

stationary for a person on the surface of the Earth is called geostationary satellite. It
is also known as Communication Satellite or Synchronous Satellite.

Features of Geo-stationary Satellite

• The orbit of the satellite must be circular and in the equatorial plane of the Earth.
• The angular velocity of the satellite must be in the same direction as the angular velocity of rotation of
the earth i.e., from west to east.
• The period of revolution of the satellite must be equal to the period of rotation of earth about its axis.
i.e., 24 hours = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 sec.
• Height from the surface of the earth is nearly 35600 km.
• The orbital velocity of this satellite is nearly 3.08 km/sec.
• The relative velocity of geostationary satellite with respect to earth is zero. This type of satellite is used
for communication purposes. The orbit of a geostationary satellite is called ‘Parking Orbit’.

Applications of Geo-stationary Satellite

• In weather forecasting, broadcasting and in predictions of the flood and droughts.
• In telecommunication and radio transmissions. Polar Satellite Polar Satellites go around the poles of the
earth in north-south direction and the earth rotates around its axis in east-west direction. The altitude of
polar satellite is around 500 to 800 km and its time period is around 100 minutes. free fall The motion of a
body under the influence of gravity alone is called a free fall.
When a body falls freely towards the earth, its velocity continuously increases. The acceleration developed
in its motion is called acceleration due to gravity (g). This gives the acceleration due to gravity on the
surface of the earth. g = 9.8 m/s2 Weightlessness The phenomenon of “weightlessness” occurs when there
is no force of support on your body
Types of objects
There are two types of objects as follows –
• Luminous objects
• Non Luminous objects
Luminous Objects: They are those which have their
own light. We can see them as they have their own light.
When their light reaches our eyes that is the time when
we can see them.
For example we have sun, tubelight, etc. It is not necessary
that it should possess light naturally. If any substance glows on
passing current, that also falls under the same category.

Non Luminous Objects: They are those which do not

have their own light. So, if there is no light, we can’t see
them. To see, we need a luminous object around it.
For example: furniture, walls, moon, etc.
If we talk about the tendency of light that how it gets affected
when it falls on any surface, then we conclude that when
light falls on any surface, either of these phenomena takes place:
1. Light falling on a surface: It may get absorbed. The surface that absorbs all the light falling on it
appears to be black in colour, or in other words we say that black is a good absorber and emitter of
light.
2. When light falls on the surface it may pass through it. But it is not that all light rays would pass.
Certain substances allow all rays to pass and few substances allow only certain rays to pass. Those
substances which allow all rays to pass appear to be transparent. The process of allowing rays to
pass through is called transmit process.
For example: glass is transparent as it allows
all rays to pass through it. In this figure we have
tinted a plane glass. You can easily notice that
tinted glass allows only a few rays to pass and
on the other hand, plane glass allows all rays to
pass through it.

1. Light falling on a surface may strike the surface and bounce back. This striking and bouncing back
of light rays is called reflection. For example: we all often look in the mirror at home when we dress
up. We can look at ourselves just because of the phenomenon of reflection.

In this unit we are going to consider the important phenomenon of light that is reflection.
Reflection
1. As we have discussed about reflection so now we are going to define it. “Reflection is the
bouncing back of light rays on striking the surface”. As you can see the picture given below, that
in it the ray is striking the surface and then it bounces back.

There are many surfaces that show reflection but not all surfaces show reflection. To show
reflection, there are certain characteristics that must be fulfilled as given below.

Characteristics of Best Reflector

1. It should have a shiny surface
2. It should have a polished surface
3. It should have a smooth surface
Out of all, silver metal is the best reflector as it fulfills all the above discussed features.

Terminology involved in case of reflection

Look at the figure to understand this in a better way.
1. Incident Ray: It is the ray that strikes the surface.
2. Point of Incidence: It is the point at which the incident
ray strikes the surface.
3. Reflected Ray: The ray that bounces back on striking
the surface.
4. Normal Ray: The perpendicular drawn to surface.
5. Angle of Incidence: The angle between the incident ray
and the normal ray.
6. Angle of Reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal ray.
7. Plane of Reflection: Plane where incident ray reflected ray and normal ray lies.

Laws Of Reflection: These are certain sets of laws that are obeyed by all surfaces that
show reflection.
1st law of reflection: Incident ray, reflected ray and normal ray all lie on the same
plane.
2nd law of reflection: Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
 Types Of Sources Of Light
As we know, there are different objects that emit light so, depending upon the size of object,
we have two types of sources of light:
1. Point Sources
2. Finite Sources
Point Sources: These are those sources that are
too small in size as shown in the figure.

Finite Sources: These are the sources that have

certain height as shown in figure. The given diagram
candle has certain length and is regarded as a
finite source.

Types Of Mirror
Mirrors show the phenomenon of reflection so, depending upon the type of reflecting surface
of mirrors, we have two types of mirrors, as follows:
1. Plane mirror
2. Spherical mirror

➢ Plane Mirror: Plane mirrors are those that have plane

reflecting surface as shown in the figure.

➢ Spherical Mirror: Spherical mirrors are the other types

that have a curved reflecting surface. They are generally
of two types i.e., one with a bulge and other with
a depression.

The bulged one is convex mirror and

the one with depression is concave mirror.

Types of spherical mirrors

1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror
 ➢ Concave mirror: It is that in which the reflection occurs through inner surface
of mirror.

➢ Convex mirror: It is that in which the reflection occurs through outer surface
of mirror.

Light Reflection and Refraction

Types Of Images
An image is formed when the reflected rays actually meet or appear to meet at a certain
point. Accordingly, two types of images are formed depending upon whether the reflected
rays meet or not. We have two types of images:
1. real images
2. virtual images

Real Image:
1. It is that which is formed when reflected rays actually meet at a certain point.
2. It is always inverted.
3. It can be obtained on screen.

Virtual Image:
1. It is that which is formed when reflected rays do not meet actually but appear to meet
at a certain point.
2. It is always erect.
3. It can’t be obtained on a screen.

Image formed by plane mirror when point object is

kept in front of it
In this many light rays are emitted by the candle

flame but in order to make a ray diagram, we

have to consider at least two rays. We consider

the two rays that are striking the mirror at

different angles. Let’s say, one striking at normal

to mirror and the other at a certain angle.

The normal ray retraces its path and the other

ray striking at a certain angle is reflected by the

same angle. When we produce both the reflected

rays, they appear to meet at a certain point and

there the image is formed.

Characteristics Of Image
1. Virtual
2. Erect
3. Same Size
4. Distance Of Object = Distance Of Image From Mirror
5. Laterally Inverted

Lateral Inversion
1. It is the phenomenon when LHS becomes RHS or vice-versa, when an object is exposed
to a plane mirror.
2. Spherical Mirrors: We have two types of spherical mirrors as discussed – concave and
convex.
3. Aperture: It is the part of a spherical mirror from which the reflection actually occurs.

1. Centre of curvature: It is the centre of the spherical mirror.

2. Principal Axis: The line passing straight through C.
3. Pole: It is the point where Polar axis strikes the mirror.
4. Focus: It is the point where all reflected rays meet or appear to meet.
5. Focal Length: The distance between focus and pole.
6. Relation between focal length and radius of curvature.
7. F = R/2 (focal length is always half of radius)
Rules to obtain image from concave mirror
1. 1st rule: The incident ray that comes parallel to the polar axis after reflection,
passes through the focus as shown.

2. 2nd rule: The incident ray coming from focus after reflection becomes parallel to
the polar axis.

3. 3rd rule: The incident ray coming through ‘C’ retraces its path.
 4. 4th rule: The Incident ray striking at pole by a certain angle is reflected through the
same angle.

Rules to obtain Image from Convex Mirror

1. 1st rule: The incident ray coming parallel to the polar axis diverges but appears to
pass through the focus.

2. 2nd rule: The incident ray appears to be coming from ‘C’ but rebounds back.
Nature and Position of Image Formed by Concave
Mirror
Let us draw the ray diagram for the concave mirror:
1. 1st Case: Object between P & F

2. 2nd Case : Object at F

3. 3rd case: Object between F and C

4. 4th case: Object at C

5. 5th case: Object beyond C

6. 6th case: Object at infinity

 Images formed by Convex Mirror
1. 1st Case: Object anywhere at p. axis

2. 2nd case: object at infinity

Uses of concave Mirror

• It is used in torches: It produces a powerful beam of light rays that converge at

infinity.

• It is used in making solar devices: It converges

all the rays so when solar rays converge, they

increase the temperature at that converging point.

• It is used as shaving mirror: When face is placed

between the pole and the focus, it gives virtual,

erect and magnified image.

It is used by dentist to see cavities: When the tooth is

placed within the focus it gives virtual and erect image.

Uses of Convex Mirror
• It is used as rear view mirror: It gives virtual and diminished image. It covers a wide
view and the image formed is within the focus.

Mirror Formula

Linear Magnification is defined as the height of image to the height of the object.

M=

Sign convention for concave mirror

U= negative
F= negative
V= positive (v-e)
V= negative (r-i)
M= negative (v-e)
M= negative (r-i)

Sign convention for convex mirror

U= negative

F= positive

V= positive (r-i)

V= negative (v-e)

M= positive (v-e)

M= negative (r-i)

We know the nature of light and we have also learnt about one of its applications as
reflection in part one. Now we are going to study another application of light that is
refraction. To understand it, let’s look at how light passes through air, water, glass, etc. You
will notice that whenever light moves in one medium, it follows a straight line path as shown
in figure. But when it travels from one substance to another substance, its path doesn’t
remain a straight line. It is deviated from the straight line path as shown in figure. These
substances are regarded as medium or we can say that medium refers to any substance or
material from which light can pass.

Types of medium
We have two types of mediums:
• Rarer medium
• Denser medium
➢ Rarer medium- We can define rarer medium as
the medium which has less density and speed of
light is more. Example: air is rarer than water.
➢ Denser Medium- It is that which has more density
and speed of light is lesser in it.
Example: water is denser than air.
Please note the type of medium is comparative study as one medium can be rarer in one
case and can be denser in another case. For example: water is denser than air but water is
rarer in comparison to glass. This change in the path of light while travelling from one
medium to another causes a change in the speed of light and is called refraction or we can
say that the bending of light ray when it passes from one medium to another is called
refraction.

Like in the figure above, the speed of light decreases when it passes from air to water
because water is denser than air.

Important Terms
Look at the figure carefully then you will understand the terminology involved:

Incident Ray: The ray that strikes the surface.

Point of Incidence: Point where the incident ray strikes the surface.
Refracted Ray: The ray that changes its path when it travels from one medium to
another.
Normal Ray: The perpendicular drawn to the point of incidence.
Angle of Incidence: Angle between incident ray and the normal ray.
Angle of Refraction: Angle between refracted ray and the normal ray.
Law of Refraction
These are the laws obeyed by the surface from wherever the refraction takes place :
• Incident ray, normal ray and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is always
constant for a particular pair of media. i.e.: sin i/sin r = constant (Snell’s law)

Refraction when light passes from denser to rarer

medium
When light passes from a denser to a rarer medium,

it gets deflected away from the normal and in this

case the angle of refraction is greater than the

angle of incidence.

Refraction when light passes from rarer to denser

medium
Likewise when it passes from rarer to denser, it moves towards normal and in this case the
angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence.

Refractive Index
This is another physical quantity that is related
to refraction. It is defined as the speed of light
in vacuum /speed of light in a given medium or
it is the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
to the sine of the angle of refraction is always
constant for a particular pair of media.

Note: The refractive index is denoted by ‘n’ and it has no units. Also, value of refractive
index for one medium with respect to another is the reciprocal of the value of refractive
index of the second to the first medium.
Reversibility of path of light
We have noticed that the path of light is reversible.
For example: If light enters as shown in the figure,
it undergoes refraction as shown and also, if the
light enters in the opposite manner, it will follow the
same sequence. The ray that moves out to its original
medium after passing through certain medium is
emergent ray and it can be defined as:

Emergent Ray: The ray that passes through a certain media and then returns to its
original media is known as the emergent ray.
Angle of Emergence: The angle between a normal ray and an emergent ray is known as
angle of emergence.

Lateral Displacement
An interesting phenomenon that we notice while studying reversibility of light is lateral
displacement. It can be defined as the perpendicular shift in the path of incident ray when it
travels through a certain medium and then returns to its original medium.
• A stick immersed in water appears to be bent: A stick immersed in water
reflects light rays. These rays when travelling in water, travel in a straight line path but
when they go from water to air, they deviate from their path and get deflected away
from the normal. When these refracted rays are produced, they appear to meet
at point “I” which is higher than the actual point that is ‘O’. Therefore, a stick immersed
in water appears to be bent due to refraction.

• The water level appears to be raised: When rays moves out from water to air,
they will bend away from normal and when produced, they meet at point “I” which is
above actual point ‘O’. So, apparent image is at ‘O’ and actual image is at ‘I’.
 Lens
It is a portion of a transparent optical material having one or two spherical faces. Types of
Lens are:
• Concave lens
• Convex lens

The terminology used for lenses:

Pole: The centre of the spherical refracting surface of the lens is called the pole. It is the point where the
principal axis meets the surface of the lens.

Optical Centre-The point on the principal axis at the centre of the lens is called the optical centre.

Centre of Curvature- A lens has two spherical surfaces; these two spherical surfaces form a part of a
sphere. The centre of these spheres is known as the centre of curvature.

Principal Axis-The principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the centres of curvature and the
pole.
Aperture- The area of the lens suitable for refraction is called aperture. The aperture of the lens is the
effective diameter of its light-transmitting area.

Focus-Focus is the point onto which collimated light parallel to the axis is focused.

Focal Length -The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point or focus of
the lens

Power -The power of the lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The SI unit of power is dioptre
On the other hand, a concave lens splits all refracted rays in different directions, so it is a
diverging lens.
 Rules to obtain image from convex/Concave lens

Characteristics of image formed by a convex lens:

Images formed by convex lens:
1) When object is placed at infinity, the real image is formed at the focus. The size of the
image is highly diminished and point size.

2) When object is placed beyond the centre of curvature, the real image is formed b/w
the centre of curvature and focus. The size will not be the same as object. It will be
diminished in size.

3) When object is at the centre of curvature, the real image is formed at the other centre
of curvature . The size of the image is same as compred to that of the object.
4) When object is in b/w the centre of curvature & focus, the real image is formed behind
the centre of curvature. The size of the image is larger than that of the object.

5) When object is placed at the focus, the real image is formed at infinity. The size of the
image is much larger than that of the object.

6) When object is placed b/w focus & optical centre, a virtual image is formed . The size of
the image is larger than that of the object.
Images formed by concave lens:

1) When object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of the
image is highly diminished and point size.

2) When object is placed at finite distance from the lens, a virtual image is formed b/w
the optical centre and focus. The size of the image is smaller than that of the object size.
Lens Formula: 1/v-1/u=1/f

Power of Lens
It is defined as the ability of the lens to converge

or diverge rays.

Formula: P=1/f(m)

Unit: Dioptre

For converging Lens: convex +ve dioptre

For diverging lens: concave: -ve dioptre

Sign convention for convex and concave lens

U= negative for both
V= positive for real inverted and negative for virtual erect
F = positive for convex lens and negative for concave lens
M = positive for virtual erect image and negative for real inverted image
H = positive for virtual erect image and negative for real inverted

Power of Accommodation of Eye - The ability of the lens to change its shape to focus near and
distant objects is called accommodation. A normal human eye can see objects clearly that are between 25
cm and infinity.
 Defects of Vision and Their Correction
Near-sightedness (Myopia):
- If the eyeball is too long or the lens too spherical, the image of distant objects is brought to a focus in
front of the retina and is out of focus again before the light strikes the retina.
- Nearby objects can be seen more easily.
- Eyeglasses with Concave lenses correct this problem by diverging the light rays before they enter the eye.
- Near-sightedness is called myopia

Farsightedness (Hypermetropia):
- If the eyeball is too short or the lens too flat or inflexible, the light rays entering the eye - particularly
those from nearby objects- will not be brought to a focus by the time they strike the retina.
- Eyeglasses with convex lenses can correct the problem.
- Farsightedness is called hypermetropia.

Astigmatism:
- Astigmatism is the most common refractive problem responsible for blurry vision. Most of the eyeball's
focusing power occurs along the front surface of the eye, involving the tear film and cornea (the clear
'window' long the front of the eyeball).
- The ideal cornea has a perfectly round surface. Anything other than perfectly round contributes to
abnormal corneal curvature- this is astigmatism.
- Cylindrical lens is use to correct astigmatism.

Presbyopia:
-Presbyopia is a refractive error that makes it hard for middle-aged and older adults to see things up close.
It happens because the lens (an inner part of the eye that helps the eye focus) stops focusing light correctly
on the retina (a light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye).
-Presbyopia is a normal part of aging. Everyone gets presbyopia as they get older usually after age 45.
Many people have another refractive error in addition to presbyopia.
-Bifocal or multifocal contact lenses are also an option for people with presbyopia.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM

The prism has probably split the incident white light into a band of colours. The sequence of colours
VIBGYOR. The splitting of light into its component collars is called dispersion.

Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as they pass
through a prism. The red light bends the least while the violet the most. Thus, the rays of each colour
emerge along different paths and thus become distinct. It is the band of distinct colours that we see in a
spectrum.

A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by dispersion of
sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed in a direction
opposite to that of the Sun. The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the incident
sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the
dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer's eye.
 ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dens(e)
than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly less than that of the cooler air. Since the
physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent position of the object, as
seen through the hot air, fluctuate. This wavering is thus an effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction of
light by the earth's atmosphere.

➢ Twinkling of stars: twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.

➢ Advance sunrise and delayed sunset: The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before
the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT
Scattering of light is the phenomenon by which a beam of light is redirected in many different directions
when it interacts with a particle of matter.

The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the sunset.

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that occurs when light travels from a more optically dense
medium to a less optically dense one, such as glass to air or water to air.

Examples of Total Internal Reflection -

i. Mirage--- Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air. On hot
summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels noticed that
while moving in a bus or a car during a hot summer day, a distant patch of road, especially on a
highway, appears to be wet. This is also due to mirage.

ii. Diamonds --- Their brilliance is mainly due to the total internal reflection of light inside them.

iii. Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection. Light undergoes
repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre there is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of the light signal.

Tyndall Effect
The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light as a light beam passes through a colloid. The individual
suspension particles scatter and reflect light, making the beam visible. The earth's atmosphere is a
heterogeneous mixture of minute particles like smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.

Tyndall effect is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a small hole.
Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
 Electricity
➢ Electric Charge
• It is something that a body attains when it loses or gains the electrons.
• The positive and negative labels and sign for electric charges were chosen arbitrarily by Benjamin
Franklin.
• Similar charges repel each other while opposite charges attract each other.
• Charge is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is coulomb C.
• Electricity is associated with the charge.
• The proton possesses positive charge (+e) and electron possesses an equal negative charge (-e),
where, e = ± 1.6 x 10-19C

➢ Conductors
• Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electrical charge to flow through them
and have very low electrical resistance.
• Metals like silver, iron, copper are conductors.
• Human body and Earth act like a conductor. Silver is Silver is the best conductor.
➢ Insulators
• Insulators are those substance which do not allow passage of charge through themselves. Rubber, wood,
mica, glass, ebonite are insulators

Coulomb's Law
The force of attraction or the force of repulsion acting between the two point charges is Directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the two charges and Inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

➢ Electric Field
• The region around an electric charge in which the electric effect can be experienced is called the
electric field.
 ➢ Electric Field Intensity (E)
• The electric field intensity at any point is the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at
that point. i.e. Electric field intensity.
• Electric field intensity inside a charged hollow conductor is zero.
• Electric Field Lines of Force Electric field at a place is pictorially represented by these lines. These
originater at positive charge and terminate at negative charge.

➢ Electric Potential
• Electric potential at any point of the electric field can be measured by the amount of work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
• Its unit is volt and it is a scalar quantity.
• The electric potential inside a spherical surface is same at each point and is equal to the potential
on the surface.
• Electrical potential On Earth is considered to be zero.
• Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to other point is the potential
difference between the two points.
• The work done in moving charge on equipotential surface is zero, because potential remains same
throughout the surface.

ELECTRICAL CAPACITY
• When a conductor is given a charge, its potential rises in proportion to the charge given, the
constant of proportionality is called capacitance (C) i.e. dot C = Q/V
• Its SI unit is coulomb (C)/volt (V) called Farad (F) For capacitances C{1}, C{2}, C{3} are in parallel,
equivalent capacitance is given by C= C{1} + C{2} +......+Cn
• For capacitances in series 1/C = 1/C{1} + 1/C{2} +.....+ 1 Cn

Potentiometer is used to measure the exact potential difference between two points of an electric
circuit or to measure the electromotive force (emf) of a cell.

Electric Current
It is amount of charge that flows per second through a cross-section of conductor. Current is scalar
quantity. Its unit is ampere (A).
 Ohm's Law
• It states that the physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strain etc) remaining unchanged the
current (I) flowing through a conductor is always directly proportional to the potential difference(V)
across its two ends
• V = IR where R is a constant called resistance of circuit.
• V/I = R
• SI unit is ohm (Ω)

Resistance
• The ability of material to oppose the electric current through it, is known as its electrical resistance.
• The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area (A)
• On increasing the temperature of the metal its resistance increases.
• On increasing the temperature of semi- conductor, its resistance decreases.
• On increasing the temperature of electrolytes, their resistance decreases.
• For resistances in series, R= R{1} + R{2} +......+Rn
• For resistances in parallel, 1/R = 1/R{1} + 1/R{2} +.....+ 1/Rn

Resistivity
• Specific resistance or resistivity depends only on the material of conductor and its temperature.
• Resistivity increases with temperature.
• Resistivity of a conductor change with impurity.
• Resistivity of an alloy is greater than the resistivity of its constituents.
• If a wire is stretched or doubled on itself, its resistance will change, but its specific resistance will
remain unaffected.

➢ Galvanometer
• It is a device used to detect and measure electric current in a circuit. It can measure current up
to 10-6A
• A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a very high resistance in its
series.
• Note: Shunt is a low resistor connected in parallel with a circuit or device that reduces the
amount of electric current flowing through it.
➢ Ammeter
• It is a device which is used to measure electric current in a circuit.
• It is connected in series in the circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
➢ Voltmeter
• It is a device used to measure the potential difference between two points in a circuit.
• It is connected in parallel in the circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.

Important Points
• A lightning conductor is fixed to tall building to protect them from the destructive effect of the
lightning.
• The filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten because it has a high melting point and can be
heated to a high temperature to emit light.
• An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken because there is a vacuum inside the electric bulb,
when the bulb is broken air rushes in at great speed from all sides to fill the vacuum. The rushing of
air produces a noise generally referred to as the bang.

➢ Electric Power
• It is the electric work done by the electric W instruments per unit time, i.e. P=
𝑊
𝑡

• Its unit is watt.

➢Kilowatt Hour (kWH)

• It is the unit of energy and is equal to the energy consumed in the rate of 1 kilowatt (1000 J/s) for 1
hour.
• 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 106 joule.

➢ Electric Fuse
• It is a small conducting wire of alloy of copper, tin and lead having low melting point and
high resistance.
• It is a protective device used in series to prevent the damage due to excess flow of current.
• All electric appliances like bulbs, fans etc are connected in parallel across the live wires and
the neutral wires.

➢ Electric Cell
• Electrical cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Electrical Cells are basically of two types (1) Primary cell (1) Secondary cell.
➢ Primary Cell
• In primary cell electrical energy is obtained from the irreversible chemical reaction taking place
inside the cell. After complete discharge, primary cell becomes unserviceable.
• e.g. Voltaic cell, Leclanche cell, Daniel cell, Dry cell etc.

➢ Secondary Cell
• Secondary cells can be charged again and again. Acid and alkali accumulators are the types of
secondary cells.

TRANSFORMER
• Transformer is a device which converts low voltage AC into high voltage AC and high voltage AC into
low voltage AC. It is based on electromagnetic induction.
• Microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy and works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
• DC motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Step-up transformer
converts a low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current. Step-down transfomer
converts a high voltage of low current into a low voltage of high current.
• AC Dynamo (or generator) is a device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. It
works on the principle of electro-magnetic induction.

Magnetism
MAGNETS
• The material which can attract the magnetic substances (such as cobalt, iron and nickel) is called a
magnet and the property of attracting the magnetic substance by a magnet is called magnetism.
• The magnets which do not lose their magnetism with normal treatment are called permanent
magnets.
• The materials which retain their magnetism for a long time are called hard magnetic materials.
When a magnet is freely suspended, it aligns itself in the geographical North-South direction.
• The permanent magnets are made of certain alloys of nickel, cobalt and alloys of iron with some
carbon. They are made in various shapes such as bar, rod, disc. ring etc.
• When poles of two magnets are brought close together, they exert force on each other.
• Similar poles repel each other and dissimilar poles attract each other.
• The area surrounding the magnet in which, another magnet experience a force on it is called
magnetic field. The unit of magnetic field is newton/ampere- metre or weber/ metre2 or tesla.
• Magnetic lines of force are imaginary lines in the magnetic field, which shows the direction of
magnetic field continuously.
• The magnetic lines of force outside the magnet always travel from North pole to South pole and
inside the magnet from South pole to North pole.
 Characteristics of Substance
Diamagnetic Substance Bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, gold, diamond, mercury,
etc.

Paramagnetic Substance Aluminium, platinum, manganese, sodium, oxygen etc.

Ferromagnetic Substance Iron, cobalt, nickel, ferric chloride etc.

➢ Permanent Magnet
• They are made of steel and temporary magnet or electromagnets are made of soft iron.
• The soft iron can be magnetised or demagnetised easily.

➢ Curie Temperature
• As temperature increases, the magnetic property of ferromagnetic substance decreases and above
a certain temperature the substance changes into paramagnetic substances. This temperature is
called Curie temperature.
• For soft iron, Curie temperature is 1000 K.
• Magnetic Flux :The number of magnetic lines of force crossing a surface normally øm=BA
• where, Bis magnetic field strength and A is area normal to the field lines.
• Its SI unit is weber.
• Electromagnetic Induction: The rate of change of magnetic flux through a coil is called induced
emf.
• The direction of induced emf will be such that it opposes the cause.
 Some Instruments to measure things
• Barometer: used to measure Pressure.
• Hydrometer: used to measure densities of liquid
• Lactometer: used to measure Purity of milk.
• Ammeter: used to measure Current.
• Voltmeter: used to measure Potential Difference.
• Seismometer : used to measure Earth Quake.

Scientists and their Contributions

Scientist Contribution

Neils Bohr Atomic Model

J. Chadwick Discovery of neutron

Goldstein Discovery of Proton

Thomson Discovery of electron

Helmholtz 1st law of Thermodynamics

Rutherford Discovery of Nucleus, Nuclear Reactions

Tyndall Light Scattering by solute Particles

Planck Wave nature of light

Electricity Benjamin Franklin- 1759

Centigrade scale Anders Celsius –

Watch Peter Henlein –

Radio Guglielmo Marconi -- 1895

Thermometer Gabriel Farenheit -- 1714

Electric Bulb Thomas Edison -- 1879

Telescope Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen; later

Galileo -- 1608
Air Brake Westinghouse -- 1869

Amplitude Modulation Reginald Fessiden –

Anemometer( wind speed) Leon Battista Alberti -- 1450

Barometer Evangelista Torricelli –

Cathode Ray Tube Ferdinand Braun -- 1897

Telegraph Samuel Morse -- 1830

Automobile Karl Benz -- 1885

Transformer Michael Faraday -- 1885

Electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday -- 1830

Quantum Mechanics Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual

Jordan-- 1924

Nuclear Reactor Enrico Fermi -- 1942

Airplane Wright Brothers -- 1903

Camera Nicéphore Niépce -- 1816

LED Oleg Losev, Nick Holonyak --1962

Gravity Sir Isaac Newton -- 1687

Battery Alessandro Volta -- 1799

Induction motor Nikola Tesla -- 1885

Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel -- 1858

Dynamite Alfred Nobel -- 1867

Lift Elisha Otis -- 1853

Mobile Phone Martin Cooper -- 1973

Printing Press Johannes Gutenberg -- 1440

Steam engine Thomas Newcomen -- 1698

Railway Engine George Stephenson –

Telephone Alexander Graham Bell -- 1876

Seismograph John Milne -- 1839

Electric Generator Michael Faraday -- 1831

Television John Logie Baird -- 1927

Calculator Blaise Pascal -- 1642

Refrigerator William Cullen -- 1927

Atomic bomb Robert Oppenheimer, Edward Teller et al

◼ 1945
Air conditioner Willis Carrier -- 1902

Radar Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt -- 1939

Transistor John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William

Shockley -- 1947
Galvanometer Johann Schweigger -- 1820

Laser Theodore H. Maiman -- 1969

Rocket Engine Robert Goddard –

Typewriter Christopher Latham Sholes -- 1878

Polythene Eric Fawcett -- 1933

Osmosis Jean Antoine Nollet -- 1748

Electrons JJ Thompson -- 1897

Protons Ernest Rutherford -- 1911

Inert Gases Sir William Ramsay -- 1894

Radioactivity Henri Becquerel -- 1896

Periodic Table Dmitri Mendeleev -- 1869

Oxygen Carl Wilhelm -- 1773

Hydrogen Henry Cavendish --1766

Atoms John Dalton -- 1803

Acid (LSD) Albert hofmann -- 1938

Ionic Bonds Svante August Arrhenius -- 1884

Aluminium Charles Martin Hall -- 1886

PH Meter Arnold O. Beckman -- 1934

Synthetic Rubber Fritz Hofmann --1909

Titanium William Kroll -- 1940

Radium Marie slodo --1898

Penicillin Alexander Fleming -- 1928

Taxol Monroe Wall and Mansukh Wani –

Anesthesia William Morton –

Pasteurization Louis Pasteur –

LCD George H. Heilmeier -- 1888

Aspirin Felix Hofmann -- 1899

DNA sequencer Lloyd M. Smith -- 1987

Blood Group Karl Landsteiner -- 1900

Calcium Humphrey Davy --- 1808

Cholera Vaccine Waldemar Haffkine -- 1892

Rubella Vaccine Maurice Hilleman --- 1963

Polio Vaccine Jonas Edward Stalk --

Anthrax Vaccine Louis Pasteur –

X-Ray William Rontgen -- 1895

Vitamin Casimir Funk --1912

Homeopathy and allopathy Samuel Hahnemann –

Cell Robert Hooke -- 1665