SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY CLASS: SS 2

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPICS

1. Revision of last term’s work

2. Hydrogen: Configuration, possible oxidation, Isotopes of hydrogen and unique

Position of hydrogen in the periodic table, Laboratory and Industrial preparation of
hydrogen, Physical and Chemical Properties, compounds of hydrogen, Uses and
Test of Hydrogen.

3. Oxygen: Laboratory and industrial preparation of oxygen, general properties of

oxygen- Physical and chemical properties of oxygen, Oxides of oxygen, Uses and

Test of oxygen

4. Halogens: 1. Electronic Configuration of Halogens, Physical Properties of Halogens

and Gradation down the Group, Chemical properties of halogens and Gradation

down the group, Uses of halogens and their compounds.

5. Halogens: Preparation of chlorine (Laboratory and Industrial), Properties of chlorine

(Physical and chemical), Hydrogen chloride gas: Laboratory preparation, Properties

and uses, Test for HCl gas and Fountain experiment.

6. Nitrogen: General properties of Nitrogen–group VA elements, Laboratory and

Industrial preparation of Nitrogen, Properties and Uses of Nitrogen, Compound of

nitrogen – Ammonia- Laboratory and Industrial Preparation, Properties and Uses, Test for
Ammonia, Fountain experiment

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7. Mid-Term Break and Holiday ASSIGNMENT

8. Nitrogen: Compounds of Nitrogen: Trioxonitrate(V) acid – Laboratory Preparation,

Properties and Uses, Trioxonitrate(V) salts- Action of heat, Test for trioxonitrate(V)

ions.

9. Sulphur: General Properties of Group VIA Element, Allotropes and uses of sulphur,
Compounds of sulphur- Trioxosulphate(IV) acids and its salts, Tetraoxosulphate(VI)
acid: Industrial preparation, Reactions and uses.

10. Revision.
11 Examination.

WEEK 1: Revision of last term’s work.

WEEK 2

TOPIC: HYDROGEN

CONTENT:

1. Configuration, possible oxidation, Isotopes of hydrogen and unique Position of

hydrogen of hydrogen in periodic table,

2. Laboratory and Industrial preparation of hydrogen

3. Physical and chemical properties,

4. Compounds of hydrogen, Uses and test of hydrogen.

PERIOD 1: CONFIGURATION, POSSIBLE OXIDATION AND ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN AND

UNIQUE POSITION OF HYDROGEN OF HYDROGEN IN PERIODIC TABLE.

Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table with nucleus and electron. It is a gas;
diatomic molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen are covalently bonded. The atomic

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number of hydrogen is one. The electronic configuration of hydrogen is 1s 1. It has oxidation
number of +1 and -1

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen exhibits Isotope with Hydrogen or protium [ 11H], Deuterium or heavy hydrogen
[21H or D] and tritium [31H or T] as the Isotopes. These Isotopes have relative atomic masses
of 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

HYDROGEN ISOTOPES

The Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties although
tritium is radioactive.

UNIQUE POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

It can lose this single electron to form positive ions[H +] just like the elements in groups [Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr] and based on the argument it can be considered to be placed in group
1 along with group 1 elements. However, the H + ion is not stable like ions formed by group 1
elements. Most of the properties of H+ are not similar to the properties of group I elements.

Hydrogen can also gain one electron to form hydride ion (H -) similar to halogens (group 7
elements) forming halides ion. Thus hydrogen is unique and anomalous in being similar to

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two different groups of elements. With electro positive alkali and alkali-earth metals,
hydrogen forms compounds like LiH, NaH, and CaH 2 etc. Similar to halogens form LiCl, Na,
CaCl2 etc. On being electrolysed these hydrides yield hydrogen or halogen at the anode
showing the similarities between the two. The ionisation energy of hydrogen and halogen
are comparable. While those of alkali- metal are very low. It is similar to halogen in been a
non-metal, a bad conductor of heat and electricity and diatomic. Hydrogen form covalent
compound like those of halogens.

EVALUATION

1. To which group does hydrogen belong?

2. What is the position of hydrogen in the periodic table?
3. Mention the existing Isotopes of hydrogen
4. Discuss the uniqueness of hydrogen

PERIOD 2: LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN.

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen:

Hydrogen is liberated when active metals react with dilute mineral acid, water or steam.e.g
action of zinc on H2SO4

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
ZnSO4 (aq) +H2 (g)

The hydrogen gas is dried by passing it through Calcium chloride. The apparatus is set up as
shown below.

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Dilute hydrochloric acid can also be used in place of H 2SO4. Magnesium and iron can be used
in the place of zinc.

Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) →

ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) →

MgSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

Dilute trioxonitrates (v) acid is never used in the preparation of hydrogen because of its
strong oxidizing property and it produces water instead of hydrogen on reaction with
metals. However, very dilute trioxonitates (v) acid give out hydrogen on reaction with
Magnesium.

Hydrogen can also be prepared in the laboratory in the following ways,

1. By the action of Sodium hydroxide on zinc metal or aluminium.

Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) →
Na2ZnO2(s) + H2(g)

2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) →

2NaAlO2(s) + 3H2 (g)

2. Action of steam on heated metals e.g. Iron, Magnesium.

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 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

PREPARATION OF DRY HYDROGEN

The hydrogen gas produced in the first method of flask containing concentrated
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid or anhydrous calcium (ii) chloride as d drying agents.

SUB TOPIC 2: INDUSRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen can be prepared industrially by different methods. These methods are as follows;

From water gas; in this case, water gas and excess stream are passed over a catalyst such as
Iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 at a temperature of 723k. The products are hydrogen and carbon (iv)
oxide as shown in the equation below.

CO(g) + H2 (g) + H2O ⇌ CO2 (g) +2H2 (g)

It is a reversible reaction. CO 2 is dissolved in water under pressure of 30atm or absorbed by

caustic soda, leaving hydrogen in good yield. This is Bosch process.

H2O(l) + CO2( g) →
H2CO3(aq)

METHOD 2

From natural gas. E.g methane – when natural gas is heated to a temperature of 1000 ℃
[thermal cracking] hydrogen is produced as shown in the equation below

o
CH4(g) 1000
→
C 2H2(g) + C(s)

Methane [CH4] is one of the main constituents of natural gas.

METHOS 3 – FROM HYDROCARBONS

When hydrocarbon e.g methane or propane mixed with steam it is heated to a temperature
of 800℃ in the presence of nickel catalysts, CO(g) and H2(g) are produced.

¿ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
CH4(g) + H2O(g) →

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The mixture of carbon (ii) oxide and hydrogen gas is called synthestic gas. The mixture of
[CO(g) + H2(g) is reacted with more steam

CO(g) + H2(g) + H2O(g) ⇋ CO2(g) + 2H2(g)

The CO2(g) is removed by absorption in water or any alkali such as Sodium hydroxide [NaOH]
solution.

METHOD 4 – FROM COAL

Here, steam is passed over red-hot coal to obtain water gas[CO + H2]:

C(s) + H2O(g) →
CO(g) + H2(g)

The water gas [CO + H2] is reacted with more steam in the presence of nickel or platinum
catalyst to produce CO(g) + H2(g) + H2O(g) ⇋ CO2(g) + 2H2(g)

METHOD 5- FROM ELECTROLYSIS OF BRINE

Hydrogen is obtained as a by- production in the electrolysis of brine for the large scale
production of Sodium hydroxide and Chlorine H2 can also be produced by electrolysis of
acidified water

EVALUATION

1. What do you observe when a piece of sodium is placed on the surface of water?
2. With equations only, describe at least two more methods of laboratory preparation of
hydrogen.
3. What the precaution that one must take while preparing Hydrogen.
4. With equations only describe the preparation of hydrogen from hydrocarbons.

PERIOD 3; PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas which burns in air with a high pitch sound.

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 2. It is combustible and when it burns in the absence of gas, it burns quietly with pale blue
flame.
3. It is the highest known gas.
4. It is 14.4 times less than air.
5. It exists ad diatomic molecule [H2 ]
6. At high pressure, hydrogen can be liquefy at a critical temperature of -235℃
7. It is neutral to litmus and is insoluble in water
8. It does not support combustion.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The chemical reactions of hydrogen arise from the fact that it can donate its single electron
to form a positive ion [H+]; it can accept electron [to give a dublet structure] to form a
negative hydride ion [H-] and it can share electron with another atom to form a covalent
molecule.

1. Hydrides of hydrogen: An important reaction of hydrogen is the formation of hydride

with metals and non-metals.
(i) Metallic hydrides: Hydrogen is slightly electro negative and forms ionic hydrides e.g.
NaH (Na+ + H-) with alkali metals which are strongly electro positive. These hydrides
contain the hydride ion H-
2Li + H2 → 2LiH (Lithium hydride)

Ca + H2 →
CaH2[ Calcium hydride]

The hydrides react with water with the liberation of hydrogen.

CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l) →
Ca[OH]2(aq) + 2H2(g)

(ii) Non-metallic hydrides: Hydrogen forms mainly covalent compounds with less
electropositive metals [e.g. aluminium] and with non-metals. These are covalent hydrides.
The reaction is spontaneous as shown in the reaction with fluorine and chlorine.

F2(g) + H2(g) →
2HF -------------------(1)

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 Cl2(g) + H2(g) →
2HCl (g) -----------------(2)

The reaction with chlorine is explosive in the presence of sunlight. Reactions with oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen require the use of catalyst.

Hydrogen reacts with molten sulphur to form hydrogen sulphide which smells like a rotten
egg and it also reacts with nitrogen to form ammonia.

H2(g) + S(s) →
H2S(g) ------------(3)

3H2(g) + N2(g) →
2NH3(g)---------(4)

1. Hydrogen is strong reducing agent when it is passed over the heated oxides as shown
below.

PbO(s) + H2(g) →
Pb(s) + H2O(g)

FeO4(s) + 4H2(g) ⇌ 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)

The reaction of tri-iron tetraoxide and hydrogen is a reversible reaction, other reduction
reaction are

i. CuO(s) + H2(g) →
Cu(s) + H2O(g)

ii. ZnO(s) + H2(g) →

Zn(s) + H2O(g)

iii. Fe2O3 + 3H2(g) →

2Fe(s) + 3H2O(g)

2. Hydrogen burns in air with pop sound and with formation of water [steam] as shown in
the equation below.

2H2(g) + O2(g) →
2H2O(g)

The reaction is explosive and gives out a large amount heat.

EVALUATION:

1. List three physical properties of hydrogen with equations where necessary.

2. With equations only represent the reaction of hydrogen with (i) non-metals (ii) metals.

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PERIOD 4 : USES OF HYDROGEN AND COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN

1. It is used in the synthesis of ammonia as shown in the equation below

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

The ammonia formed is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, drugs, plastics, wares, dyes
among others.

2. It is used in the hardening of vegetable and animal oils for the manufacture of
Margarine, candles, soap among others. The hydrogenation reaction occurs at high
pressure and in presence of catalyst.
3. It is used to inflate airships and balloons, but hydrogen is very flammable. The use of
hydrogen in balloons, but hydrogen in very flammable. The use of hydrogen in balloons
is due to its low density.
4. In oxy-hydrogen flames, small quantities of hydrogen are required to produce high
temperature that can melt metals.
5. It is used in the synthesis of methanol and HCl(aq)
6. Hydrogen + powder coal + oil at high pressure and temperature when a mixture of
hydrocarbon is called synthetic petroleum from petrol (gasoline) and lubricants are
obtained.
7. Gaseous hydrogen is a constituent of coal gas and water gas, and liquid hydrogen is
used as rocket fuel.
COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN
When hydrogen combines with other elements it forms hydrides
1. The hydrides of alkali and alkaline earth metals are crystalline solids with high
melting points that conduct electricity when molten. They react with water to liberate
hydrogen gas.

CaH2 + 2H2O →
Ca(OH)2 + 2H2

2. Boron and aluminium form complex covalent hydrides which are important reducing
agents especially in organic chemistry. Some of them are lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (iii)
and sodium tetrahydridoborate (iii)

TEST FOR HYDROGEN

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If a lighted splint is plunged into a gas jar of hydrogen, it gives a pop sound.

EVALUATION

3. Enumerate five uses of hydrogen.

4. How can you test the presence of hydrogen in the laboratory?

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. If the valency of hydrogen is one and that of oxygen is two the formula is ___________.
(a) HO2 (b) H2O (c) 2OH (d) H2O3
2. One of the Isotopes of hydrogen is _____________. (a) Ozone (b) Deuterium (c)
diamond (d) graphite
3. Hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute H 2SO4 on the following
metals except (a) Zn (b) Na (c)Al (d)Fe
4. The gas given out when sodium reacts with water is ........... (a) oxygen (b) hydrogen (c)
nitrogen (d) Chlorine
5. On a large scale hydrogen is produced from ___________ (a) producer gas (b) water gas
(c) coke (d) coal tar

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Describe how you can prepare a sample of hydrogen in the laboratory

2. Discuss the reducing properties of this gas
3. How do you test for hydrogen in the lab?
4. Enumerate five uses of hydrogen
5. Describe commercial preparation of hydrogen.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read revised 2nd Edition Comprehensive Certificate Chemistry by G.N.C Ohia, et al pages
245-253

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

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Read about oxygen and its properties.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Explain how oxygen can be prepare in the laboratory and in the industry

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Revised 2nd edition comprehensive certificate chemistry G.N.C Ohia, et al

2. New school chemistry for senior secondary by Osei Yaw Ababio.

WEEK 3

TOPIC: OXYGEN

CONTENTS:

1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN, ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND BONDING

CAPACITY OF OXYGEN

2. LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF OXYGEN

3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN.

4. COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN AND USES OF OXYGEN

PERIOD 1: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN

Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth. It is prepared in the laboratory by catalytic
decomposition of Potassium trioxochlorate(V) or hydrogen peroxide. Industrially, it is
prepared by the liquefaction of air followed by fractional distillation of liquefied air.

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Oxygen, being strongly electronegative, is chemically very reactive. It reacts with most
metals to form basic oxides which are ionic, they also reacts with most non- metals to form
acidic oxides which are covalent molecules and they reacts with hydrocarbons, fuels[to
form CO2 and H2O. It rekindles a glowing splint to indicate its presence in any place.

The oxides of oxygen can be classified into basic, acidic, amphoteric and neutral oxides.
Peroxide is prepared by the action of a dilute acid on the peroxides of certain metals. It is a
strong oxidizing agent. However, in the presence of more powerful oxidizing agents, ozone,
O3, is an unstable allotrope of oxygen. The ozone layer in the atmosphere acts as a
protective shield by preventing too much ultra-violet radiation from falling on earth and
harming living organism.

Electronic Structure and Bonding Capacity Of Oxygen

Oxygen is an element in group (VIA) of the periodic table. Its atomic number is 8, and has an
electronic configuration of 1S2 2S2 2P4 -------------Electronic structure

Thus, oxygen forms a complete octet by either accepting two electrons from a donor to
form O2-in an ionic substance, or by sharing two electrons with other atoms to form a
covalent substance. At room temperature and pressure, oxygen exists as a discrete gaseous
diatomic molecule, O2 the two toms are joined together by double covalent bond, O=O.

EVALUTION

1. What is the name of the most abundant element on earth?

2. Enumerate the main classes of oxides of oxygen
3. Oxygen belongs to which group in periodic table.
4. What is the atomic number of oxygen?
5. Write electronic structure of oxygen.

PERIOD 2: LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF OXYGEN

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LABORATORY PREPARATION

There are two general and common methods for the laboratory preparation of oxygen

1. Thermal decomposition of salts containing anions rich in oxygen, e.g. Potassium

trioxochlorate(v) KClO3(s).

The equation for the reaction is given as shown below.

2KClO3(s) MnO2 (s) KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

→

2. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: In this case, no heat is applied to the decomposing

substance, H2O2, but immediately, the MnO2 touches H2O2, effervescence occurs releasing the
gas oxygen as seen in the equation below.

2H2O(l) MnO
→
2 (s) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

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Dry oxygen gas is obtained by passing it through a woulf [wash] bottle containing conc.
H2SO4; the gas is then collected by downward delivery (or upward displacement of air),
since pure oxygen is slightly denser than air.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Oxygen is produced, in large quantity from the following sources.

1. From liquefied air: Oxygen is obtained industrially from atmospheric air by liquefaction,
followed by fractional distillation of the liquefied air.

 Atmospheric air is purified by the removal of Carbon(IV) oxide, water vapour and
dust.
 The purified air is compressed at a pressure of about 200 atmospheres, heated and
then cooled. It is then allowed to expand suddenly, for further cooling.
 By successive heating and cooling, the pure air becomes liquefied at about -200 ℃
[73k]. This process is called LIQUEFACTION.
 The liquefied air is then fractionated by boiling. Nitrogen, being more volatile, boils
first at - 196℃ [77k], leaving oxygen, which is about 99.5% pure. This separation
technique is called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.

Liquefied oxygen is usually stored in cylinders for medical and industrial use.

2. By electrolysis: Oxygen, like hydrogen is obtained during the electrolysis of dilute H 2SO4.

EVALUATION

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1. State two main processes involved in the manufacture of oxygen from air.
2. Outline industrial production of oxygen from air.

PERIOD 3: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Pure oxygen is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

2. It is slightly denser than air.
3. It is slightly soluble in water.
4. It is a diatomic (O2) gas that is neutral to litmus paper.
5. It boils (turn to gas) at -1830C and solidifies at -2250C

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

(a) Reaction with metals: Metals such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn burn brightly in oxygen.
Metals such as silver, Gold and platinum do not react with oxygen. Oxides of metals are
generally basic. e.g.

4Na(s)+ O2(g) →
2Na2O(g)

(b) Reaction with non-metals: Some burning non-metals when lowered into a jar of oxygen,
burn to form acidic oxides or acid anhydrides which when dissolved in water form acidic
solutions. E.g.
C(s) + O2(g) →
CO2(g)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) →
H2CO3(aq)

(c) Test for oxygen: Oxygen is identified by its ability to rekindle a glowing splint. Nitrogen
(I) oxide does this as well but is distinguished from oxygen by its pleasant sickly smell
while oxygen is odourless. Oxygen also reacts with nitrogen(II)0xide to give brown fumes
of nitrogen(IV)oxide which nitrogen(I)oxide does not do.

NO (g) + O2(g) →
NO2(g)

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Reaction of oxygen:

Oxidation and combustion:

Many compounds are oxidized when heated in oxygen (combustion). E.g. all hydrocarbons
burn in oxygen to form carbon (iv) oxide and water, sulphides burn in oxygen to give sulphur
(iv) oxides.

1. With carbon

C(s) + O2(g) →
CO2(g)

2. With sulphur

S(s) + O2(g) →
SO2(g)

3. With phosphorus

4P(s) + 5O2(g) →
P4O10(s)

4. Formation of water: Hydrogen burns violently in oxygen with a pale –blue flame, to
produce water.

2H2(g) + O2(g) →
2H2O(l)

5. Formation of Ozone: When a silent electric discharge is passed through oxygen, gaseous
ozone, O3, (trioxygen) is formed. The reaction is reversible:
3O2(g) ⇌ 2O3(g)

Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. Allotropes are two or more different forms of the same
element, in the same physical state. The phenomenon is called allotropy. Other elements
that exhibits allotropy are sulphur, carbon and phosphorous.

EVALUATION

1. Write two equations for each, showing reaction of oxygen with metal and with non-
metal.

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2. Enumerate three physical properties of oxygen
3. List five chemical properties of oxygen.
4. Mention the allotropes of oxygen.

PERIOD 4: COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN

Binary Compounds of Oxygen- Classification of Oxides

Based on their acid –base properties, there are four classes of oxides of elements in Periods
2 and 3: acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.

Acid oxides: These are of non-metals which dissolve in water to form acidic solution. And
react with base to form salt and water. Examples of acid oxides are P 5O10, NO2, SO2, SiO2 etc.
They are called acid anhydride. E.g.

CO2 +NaOH →
Na2CO3 + H2O

SO3 + 2KOH →
K2SO4 + H2O

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NOTE: SiO2 is insoluble in water

Basic oxides: They are metallic oxides that are basic in nature because they react with acids
to form salt and water only. Examples are K 2O, MgO, CaO, Li2O etc. Soluble basic oxides are
called alkali. E.g.

Na2O(g) + H2O(l) →
2NaOH(aq)

Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Amphoteric oxides: These are oxides that behave both like acidic and basic oxides. They
react with both acid and base E.g. ZnO, Al2O3, PbO etc

ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
ZnSO4 + H2O(l)

ZnO + 2NaOH + H2O→ Na2Zn(OH)4

Neutral oxides: They are neither acidic nor basic in character. E.g. water, CO, N 2O

Peroxide oxides: These are higher oxides where O-O bond is present. They give hydrogen
peroxide when reacted with a dilute acid. E.g. Barium peroxide BaO2, Calcium peroxide
CaO2, Sodium peroxide Na2O2, Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (most common).

USES OF OXYGEN

1. It is used in oxy-hydrogen for welding and cutting of metals. A mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen can burn to produce a temperature of 2,500℃

2. In oxy- ethyne [oxy-acetylene] flame for welding and cutting of steel. The reaction is
highly exothermic.

3. In respiration by plants and animals.

4. As breathing aids in hospitals, high altitude flying and sea- dividing.

5. In steel production by Linz- Donawitz [L-D] process.

6. Liquefied oxygen is used in explosives, and as a rocket fuel

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The Ozone Layer and Green House Effect

The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of
the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O3) in relation
to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the
stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the
average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per
million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from
approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies
seasonally and geographically. It has been ascertained through observation from satellites,
that the ozone layer has been depleted more over the Antartic and there is now the
creation of ‘ozone hole’. This depletion or reduction in the levels of ozone in the ozone layer
has caused worldwide changes in climate and sea levels caused by an increases warming of
the atmosphere due to release of gases, principally, carbon(IV) oxide, CO 2, in what is termed
‘Green house effect’. Green house gases e.g. CO 2, water vapour, chlorofluorocarbons are
transaparent to short wave radiation, but absorb radiation at certain long wavelengths.
Thus, the gases form a blanket, trapping out-going heat, much as the glass or plastic does in
a green house, thereby leading to rising sea levels and general atmospheric warming, as well
as melting of ice and changes in vegetation. This has led to the problems of desertification
and flooding.

EVALUATION

1. State three uses of oxygen.

2. Define four types of oxide with one example each.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. In which group is oxygen in the periodic table? (a) IV (b) VI (c) VII (d) IV

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2. Which of the following is an allotrope form of oxygen? (a) oxide (b) Ozone (c) diamond
(d) graphite
3. Oxygen is prepared by heating. (a) Na2CO3 (b) KClO3(c) K2SO4 (d) H2S
4. The existence of two or more forms of the same element in the same physical state is
known as. (a) Isotopic (b) allotropy (c) oxides (d) homologous.
5. Amphoteric oxides are oxides which (a) react with neither acids nor alkalis (b) react with
both acids and alkalis (c) react with acid only (d) react base only.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What is allotropy? Name an allotrope of oxygen.

2. Name the four classes of oxygen and give example of each class.
3. Describe the commercial preparation of oxygen.
4. Describe simple test to distinguish between oxygen and nitrogen(I)oxide
5. Name the product formed when the following are burnt in oxygen:
(i) Carbon (ii) sulphur (iii) phosphorous (iv) magnesium.

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about halogens.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY:

Describe the manufacturing of chlorine by the electrolysis of brine. State clearly the
products liberated at the various electrodes and why these products were preferred.

WEEK 4

TOPIC: HALOGENS

CONTENT:

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 1. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF HALOGENS, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS AND
GRADATION DOWN THE GROUP.

2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS AND GRADATION DOWN THE GROUP

3. USES OF HALOGENS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS.

PERIOD 1 AND 2: ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF HALOGENS

Halogens are found in group (viii) of the periodic table and consist of fluorine (F), Chlorine
(Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine (At),.

The name halogen is of Greek origin meaning salt formers because they readily form salts
from metals. Halogens are very reactive non- metals with remarkable similarities in
properties. This is because each halogen atom has seven only one electron to attain the
octet. They are strong oxidizing agents with varying oxidation Numbers. The halogens are
highly electro negative elements. The halogens share electrons to form covalent compounds
or accept electrons to form ionic compounds. It is the electronic configuration of halogens
that accounts for their electronegative nature, oxidising ability and the fact that they form
mainly single covalent bonds.

ELECTRO CONFIGURATION AND SOME PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS AND GRADATION

OF THE PROPERTIES

Element Atomic Electronic Atomic Ionic Electro- Electro- Atomic

configuration radius radius negativity affinity
Number Mass

Fluorine 9 [2,7] IS22S22P5 0.072 0.136 4.0 -3.35 19.0

[F]

Chlorine 17 [2,8,7] IS22S2 -0.099 0.181 3.0 -3.61 35.5

[Cl] 2p63S23P5

22
Bromine 35 (2,8,18,7) -0.114 0.195 2.8 -3.36 80.0
[Br]
..3S23P63d104S2

Iodine 53 (2,8,18,18,7) 0.133 0.216 2.5 -3.06 126.9

[I] ....4S24P64d10

Astatine 85 (2,8,18,32,18,7) ---- ---- 2.2 ---- 210

..5S25P65d106S26P5
[At]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE HALOGENS

Element Fluorine[F] Chlorine[Cl] Bromine [Br] Iodine[I]

Atomic number 9 17 35 53

Relative Atomic 19 25.5 79.9 126.9

Mass

Physical state at Gas Gas Liquid Solid

20℃

Colour Pale yellow Greenish Dark-red Black

yellow

Density(g/cm3) ------ 1.9 3.2 4.9

Melting point (℃ -220 -101 -7 113

). Boiling point (
℃¿

Solubility in Reacts 0.59 3.6 0.018

23
water(g per 100g readily with
of water) water

EVALUATION

1. What is the atomic number of chlorine?

2. With the knowledge of atomic number, draw the electronic configuration of chlorine.
3. What is the colour of chlorine gas?

PERIOD 3: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND GRADATION DOWN THE GROUP

The chemical reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group from fluorine to iodine.
The halogens are good oxidising agents and their oxidising power decreases from fluorine to
iodine. The halogens try to attain the stable noble gas configuration either by sharing
electrons or by accepting electrons. The following reactions illustrate the reactivity trend
among the halogens.

1. Halogens can react with metals as shown in the equations below

2Na(s) + F2(g) →
2NaF(s)

2. Halogens react with non-metals as shown below

C(s) + 2F2(g) →
CF4(s)

Xe+ 2F 400.8
→
atm XeF4(s)

P4(s) + 6I2(s) →
4PI3(s)

P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) →
4PCl2(s)

P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) →
4PCl5(s)

H2(g) + F2(g) →
2HF(g)

24
H2(g) + Cl2(g) →
2HCl(g)

Br2(g) + H2(g) →
2HBr(g)

I2(g) + H2(g) →
2HI(g)

The order of reacting is F 2> Cl2>Br2>I2. The acid strength of the hydrogen halides follow the
order:

HI>HBr>HCl>HF

The stability of Hydrogen halides decreases from chlorine to iodine: HCl>HBr>HI.

Chlorine is now an electron acceptor and so are other halogens and in so doing acts as
oxidising agents.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) →
2Na+Cl-(s)

The order of decreasing power as oxidising agents is F2> Cl2>Br2>I2.

2. More reactive halogen displaces the less reactive from aqueous solution

Cl2 + 2Br- →
2Cl- + Br2

Cl2 + 2I- →
2Cl- + I2

Br2 + 2I- →
2Br- + I2

Iodine is a weak oxidizing agent.

4. Reaction with water.

2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) →
4HF(g) + O2

3F2(g) + 3H2O →
6HF(g) + O3(g)

25
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) →
HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

5. Reaction with Alkalis

Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) →
NaOCl(aq) + NaCl + H2O

3Cl2(aq) + 6NaOH(aq) →
NaClO3(aq) + 5NaCl + 3H2O(l)

Bromine and iodine react in a similar manner to form the oxobromate(v) and iodated(v)
ions.

3Br2(aq) + 6KOH(aq) →
KBrO3(aq)

3I2(aq) + 6KOH(aq) →
KIO3(aq) +5KI(aq) + 3H2O(l)

EVALUATION

1. Give one for each equation of reaction to demonstrate the reaction of Cl 2, Br2, I2 and F2
respectively.

PERIOD 4: USES OF HALOGENS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

1. Fluorine is used in rocket propulsion and in making Uranium(iv) fluoride. It is also used
in making fluorocarbon compounds which are used as refrigerant, aerosol propellant,
anaesthetics and fire extinguisher and fluids. The flouoro- carbons contain only carbon
and fluorine and are extremely inert and also are used as polytetrafluoroethene[PTFE]
with the trade name Teflon in making valves, seals, gaskets, electrical insulators among
others.
2. CHLORINE: is used as oxidant in the manufacture of bromine and as bleach and
germicide in treatment of water. Chlorine is used in production of HCl (hydrogen
chloride) in commercial quantity, in the production of fabrics and papers and also
insecticides. (e.g DDT)(3) Iodine dissolved in alcohol or potassium iodide [KI] is used as
antiseptic for cuts and scratches.
3. HYDROCHLORIC ACID which is one of the most laboratory acid, is used to remove rust
from steel sheet before galvanizing.

26
4. SODIUM OXOCHLORATE (I) [NaCLO] is used as disinfectant and for bleaching in
laundries.
5. SODIUM OXOCHLORATE (1) decomposes on warming to sodium oxochlorate(v),
NaCLO3 which is used as weed killer.
6. Tetrachloromethan and trichloroethene are degreasing solvents.
7. Polychloroethene is used in making plastics
8. Dettol is used as disinfectant and antiseptics.
9. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and benezehexachloride are used as pesticides
10. Bromine finds application in the manufacture of dyestuffs and in making silver bromide
used in photographic materials.

EVALUATION

Enumerate five uses of halogens you know

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. What is the atomic number of chlorine? A. 35 B. 53 C. 82 D. 17

2. 2, 8,18,7 is the electronic configuration of A. F B. Cl C. Br D. I
3. Why is the preparation of halogens carried out in a fume cupboard? A. they are
odourless B. they are poisonous C. They are colourless D. They are harmless.
4. In halogens the order of decreasing power as oxidising agents is
A. F2>Cl2>Br2>I2 B .Cl2>F2>Br2>I2 C. Br2>F2>I2>Cl2 D. Br2>Cl2>F2>I2
5. In halogens, melting points and boiling points increase with an increase in A. Molecular
mass B. Valence C. oxidation number D. Atomic number
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Name two natural compounds of halogens.
2. State the similarities in chemical properties of halogens giving balanced reactions.
3. Write on the following giving balanced reaction examples. Halogen reaction with
(i) water (ii) iron (iii) alkali
4. (a) What is the atomic number of chlorine? (b) Why is the preparation of halogens
carried out in a fumed cupboard?

27
 5. What are the chemical properties of halogens?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Read 2nd edition comprehensive certificate chemistry by by G.N.C Ohia, et al, pages
272-284

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about the uses of halogens and laboratory and chemical preparation of chlorine

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

1. Write the formulae of the following.

(i) Chloroform (ii) iodoform (iii) Carbon tetrachloride (iv) fluorine molecule

2. What are the uses of Carbon tetrachloride?

REFERENCES

1. 2nd Edition Comprehensive Certificate Chemistry By By G.N.C Ohia, et al.

2. New school chemistry for senior secondary schools by Osai Yaw Ababio reversed by
L.E.S Akpanisi Herbert Igwe.

WEEK 5

TOPIC: HALOGENS

CONTENT:

1. PREPARATION OF CHLORINE (LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL)

2. PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL)

3. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS: LABORATORY PREPARATION PROPERTIES AND USES,

4. TEST FOR HCL GAS AND FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT.

PERIOD1: PREPARATION OF CHLORINE (LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL)

28
In the laboratory chlorine is prepared by the oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid
with manganese (IV) oxide. The mixture is heated to obtain a greenish- yellow gas (chlorine).

MnO2(s) + 4HCl (aq) → MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O + Cl2

Chlorine is prepared industrial by the electrolysis of brine and molten metallic chlorides

EVALUATION

Describe the laboratory preparation of chlorine

PERIOD 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE

1. It is a greenish-yellow gas with an unpleasant choking smell.

2. It is denser than air.

3. It is slightly soluble in water.

4. It is poisonous.

The chemical properties od chlorine have been discussed under the general properties of
halogens. Let’s discuss the oxidizing properties of chlorine.

1. Chlorine oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to yellow sulphur.

Cl2 + H2S →
2HCl + S

2. Bleaching property of chlorine

Chlorine bleaches by oxidation. When chlorine dissolves in water, it forms hydrochloric acid
and oxochlorate (i) acid (chlorine water).

Cl2 + H2O →
HCl + HOCl

In bleaching oxochlorate (i) acid gives out oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then bleach the
material by oxidation. This bleaching action is permanent because the material cannot be
re-oxidize by atmospheric oxygen.

29
EVALUATION:

1. State four physical properties of chlorine.

2. Describe the bleaching action of chlorine.

PERIOD 3: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS-PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES.

Hydrogen chloride is prepared in the laboratory by the action of concentrated

tetraoxosuphate (vi) acid on sodium chloride. The gas is dried by passing it through
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and collected by downward displacement of air.

NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
Na2SO4(aq) + HCl(g).

Dissolution of hydrogen chloride in water gives hydrochloric acid.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

1. It is a colourless gas with sharp irritating smell.

2. It is denser than air.

3. It is very soluble in water.

4. It turns moist blue litmus paper red.

30
5. It is soluble in non-polar solvent like methylbenzene. It solution in methylbenzene cannot
conduct electricity because it does not undergo ionization when dissolved in
methylbenzene. But when dissolved in water, it undergoes ionization and so conduct
electricity becase of the presence of free mobile ions.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

1. It reacts with active metals to liberate hydrogen gas e.g

Zn(s) + 2HCl(g) →
ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)

2. It reacts with ammonia to form a dense white fume of ammonium chloride.

HCl(g) + NH3(g) →
NH4Cl(s)

3. Hydrochloric acid (obtained when hydrogen chloride dissolved in water) reacts with
metallic trioxocarbonate (iv) or metallic hydrogentrioxocarbonate (iv) to liberate carbon (iv)
oxide.

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) →
2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

4. Hydrochloric acid (obtained when hydrogen chloride dissolved in water) precipitates

silver chloride from solution.

AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) →
AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

USES OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID

1. It is used for the synthesis of vinyl chloride which is used for the manufacture of plastics.

2. Hydrochloric acid is used for pickling of metals prior electroplating.

3. Hydrochloric acid is for the synthesis and analysis of many compounds.

EVALUATION:

1. State three physical properties of hydrogen chloride.

31
2. Mention three chemical properties of hydrochloric acid.

3. State four uses of hydrogen chloride.

PERIOD 4: TEST FOR HCL GAS AND FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT.

WEEK 6

TOPIC: NITROGEN

CONTENTS:

32
1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN–GROUP VA ELEMENTS, LABORATORY AND
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF NITROGEN,

2. PROPERTIES AND USES OF NITROGEN

3. COMPOUND OF NITROGEN – AMMONIA- LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

4. PROPERTIES AND USES, TEST FOR AMMONIA, FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT

PERIOD 1: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN – GROUP V ELEMENTS

Nitrogen and other group VA elements are non-metals and show two common valences of 3
and 5. They are electron acceptors and both form several acidic oxides. They also form
similar hydrides and chloride e.g. Nitrogen and phosphorus form N 2O3 and P4O6, N2O5 and
P4O10, NH3, PH3, NCl3 and PCl3

Properties of VA elements

Property Nitrogen Phosphorous Arsenic Antimony Bismuth

N P As Sb Bi

Atomic number 7 15 33 51 83

Outer electron 2s22p6 3s23p3 3d104s2 4d104s25p3 4f15d106s26p3

configuration 4p3

Atomic mass 14.0067 30.9738 74.9216 121.75 208.980

Boiling point -196 280w 610sr 1380 1560

Melting point -210 44w 817pgr 630gr 271

2.34r 5.73gr 6.7gr 9.8

Density(gcm-3) 0.81 1.82w

33
W = white, gr = grey, p = 28 atmospheres, r = red, s = sublimes

LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF NITROGEN

(a) Laboratory preparation of nitrogen from air

Atmospheric air is passed through aqueous NaOH, in order to absorb carbon (iv) oxide.

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) →
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O

It is then passed over red-hot copper metal in a combustion tube in order to remove
oxygen.

Cu(s) + O2(g) →
2CuO(s)

The residual gas collected over water is Nitrogen contaminated with small quantity of noble
gases. Other methods of preparing nitrogen in the laboratory include:

Preparation from Ammonia gas.

CuO(s) + NH3(g) →
3Cu(s) + H2O(g) + N2(g)

From ammoniumdioxonitrate (iii)

34
NaNO2(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) →
NH4NO2(aq) + NaCl(aq)

(b) Industrial preparation of nitrogen

Nitrogen is produced commercially from fractional distillation of liquefied air.

PROCEDURE: Carbon (iv) oxide is removed from air. This air is liquefied by subjecting it to
succession compression and cooling processes.

Nitrogen is collected first after distillation before oxygen because it has a lower boiling point
than oxygen.

Nitrogen is stored in steel in steel cylinders and sold as liquid nitrogen or as the compressed
gas.

EVALUATION

1. Describe how nitrogen can be obtained from ammonia.

2. Name the reagents necessary for the laboratory preparation of nitrogen from air.
3. How is nitrogen obtained commercially?

PERIOD 2 : PROPERTIES AND USES OF NITROGEN

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

(1) Pure nitrogen is colourless, odourless and tasteless

(2) It is insoluble in water
(3) It is lighter than air.
(4) It has no effect on litmus paper

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Combustion: Nitrogen gas is generally unreactive at ordinary temperatures and

pressures. It does not burn and does not support burning. It extinguishes a lighted splint.

35
2. Reaction with metals. Magnesium ribbon burns in air to produce a mixture of
magnesium oxide and magnesium nitricide, a white solid.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) →
MgO(s)

3Mg(s) + N2(g) →
Mg3N2(s)

Magnesium nitride decomposes on addition of water to liberate ammonia gas

Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) →
3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)

3. (a) Reaction with non-metals: (a) under conditions of high temperatures and pressures,
and in the presence of finely divided iron as catalyst, nitrogen combines with hydrogen,
to produce ammonia. The reaction in reversible.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇋ 2NH3(g)

(b) Nitrogen combines with oxygen at high temperature and pressure to produce Nitrogen
(ii) oxide, an unstable colourless and odourless gas. The reaction is reversible.

N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g)

USES OF NITROGEN

1. In the Haber process in production of ammonia.

2. Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant.
3. Due to its inertness and because it does not support combustion it is used for the
following purposes:
(a) For prevention of fire
(b) As a diluents: to reduce combustion (nitrogen is responsible for the low heating
value of producer gas, and the low combustion rate of atmospheric oxygen.
(c) Nitrogen provides inert atmosphere for food processing and packaging, and
during some chemical reactions.

36
NITROGEN CYCLE

The continuous circulation of nitrogen between the free gaseous nitrogen in the
atmosphere and the combined nitrogen in the proteins of the living tissues is known as the
Nitrogen circle.

Nitrogen is an essential element in the formation of proteins in plants and animals.

Unfortunately, it cannot be used directly in its free gaseous state, except in the form of
trioxonitrate (v) salts (Nitrate). There are various processes through which atmospheric
nitrogen is converted into trioxonitrate (v) salts in the soil, the process are called FIXATION
OF FIXING OF NITROGEN.

1. When there is a thunder storm or lightning electric discharges are produced, during
which atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen combine to form unstable and colourless
nitrogen (ii) oxide

N2(g) + O2(g) →
2NO(g)

The nitrogen (II) oxide readily combines with more oxygen, to form brown fumes of
nitrogen (iv) oxide.

2NO(g) + O2(g) →
2NO(g)

The nitrogen (iv) oxide dissolves in rain water in the presence of oxygen, to produce
a very dilute solution of trioxonitrate (v) acid, HNO3, which falls as acid rain.

4NO2(g) + 02(g) →
2NO2(g)

2. Plants absorb trioxnitrate (v) salts through the roots for the formation of flesh, and the
excess is excreted as urea-in urine and faeces. When plants and animal die and decay,
the bacteria in the soil decompose the proteins into organic compounds of nitrogen
which are then converted into ammonia and ammonium salts, by PUTREFYING bacteria.
A portion of the ammonium salts, in alkali medium, is oxidized into trioxonitrate(v) salt
by NITRIFYING bacteria, while the remaining portion in acidic medium is oxidized to
nitrogen, by DENTRIFYING bacteria. The nitrogen eventually goes back into the
atmosphere. This is the process that usually compensate for the lost of atmospheric
nitrogen.

37
3. Manure and nitrogeneous fertilizers are being added to the soil periodically, in order to
replace nitrogen that has been used up by crops or plants. The nitrogen cycle operates
in nature such that the percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains constant.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

EVALUATION

1. Name one process, which converts atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate (v) in the soil.
2. Explain the formation of trioxonitrate (v) acid in the nitrogen cycle.

PERIOD 3: COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN-AMMONIA LABORATORY AND INDUSTRIAL

PREPARATION

OXIDES OF NITROGEN

The common oxides of nitrogen are:-Dinitrogen(i) oxide, N 2O- Nitrogen (ii) oxide, NO.
Nitrogen (iv) oxide, NO2, others are dinitrogen(iii) oxide, N 2O3, a pale blue liquid at room
temperature and dinitrogen(iv) oxide, N2O4, a yellow liquid below the room temperature
and dinitrogen(v) oxide N2O5 that exists as an unusual white solid at room temperature.

AMMONIA

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA

38
 The Haber process: Ammonia is manufactured from its constituent elements by a process
devised by a German chemist, Fritz Haber (1914). The raw materials used are: nitrogen
(obtained from water gas or natural gas).A mixture of dried nitrogen and hydrogen in the
ratio 1:3 by volume is subjected to a high pressure of 200 – 250 atmosphere, at about 450
℃ and in the presence of finely divided iron as the catalyst; the reaction is exothermic and
reversible

o
Fe .450 C
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
250 atm

Under these conditions, about 20% ammonia is produced.

Successive heating and cooling under pressure liquefy the ammonia gas produced and the
uncombined nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled. The flow chart for the production of
ammonia is shown

Mixture Mixture over finely Ammonia

in a drier liquefied
Divided catalyst +
and
heat +pressure
removed

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMMONIA:

Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by heating a mixture of ammonium salt and non-
volatile base. Calcium hydroxide is preferred to sodium hydroxide because calcium
hydroxide is cheap and non-deliquescent. Heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and
calcium hydroxide produces ammonia gas. The drying agent for ammonia is calcium oxide
(quick lime). Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and calcium chloride are not used to
dry ammonia because they react with ammonia to form salts

NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 →
CaCl2 + H2O + NH3

EVALUATION

39
1. State the type of chemical bond between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in a molecule of
ammonia.
2. In the industrial production of ammonia.
(a) What name is given to the process?
(b) State one source of each of the starting material.
(c) What are the operating temperature and pressure?

PERIOD 4: PROPERTIES AND USES, TEST FOR AMMONIA, FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA:

1. It is a colourless gas with choking smell.
2. It is very soluble in water.
3. In large quantities, ammonia is poisonous.
4. It is 1.7 times less dense than air
5. It turns moist red litmus paper red.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia burns in oxygen producing steam and nitrogen

4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O

Ammonia reacts with platinium- rhodium catalyst to form nitrogen (ii) oxide.

4NH3 + 5O2 Platinium−rhodium

→
4NO + 6H2O

2. Ammonia reduces copper (ii) oxide

2NH3 + 3CuO →
3Cu + 3H2O + N2

3. Ammonium precipitates many metallic ions from solution as insoluble hydroxides.

FeSO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + 2H2O(l) →

Fe(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq)
green ppt

USES OF AMMONIA

1. Ammonia is used in refrigeration, since it can be liquefied easily.

2. In softening water used in laundry, to prevent wastage of soap.

3. As a domestic cleaner- to neutralize as in sweat.

4. In treating insect stings- to neutralize methanoic acid injected by the insects

40
5. In the production of plastics by polymerization

6. In the production of ammonium salts. Fertilizer and trioxonitrate(v) acid.

7. As a precipitating regent for the identification of cations in solutions.

TEST FOR AMMONIA GAS

Place any ammonia salt in a test tube, add any alkali and heat the mixture. A colourless
gas with choking smell is given off. The gas turns moist red litmus paper to blue and
produces dense white fumes with hydrogen chloride gas (from concentrated HCl
reagent bottle. The gas is ammonia

EVALUATION:

1. State four physical properties of ammonia

2. With chemical equation, describe how ammonia is used to precipitate Pb 2+ and Zn2+

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. Which of the following contains the highest number of molecules at s.t.p?(Avogadro’s

constant)= 6.02 × 1023 mol-1 (a) 1.0g of H2 (H2=2) (b) 4.0g of N2(N2 = 28) (c) 8.0g of O 2 (O2=32)
(d) 16.0g of O3 (O3= 48)

2. The laboratory preparation of nitrogen from air requires the removal of (a)
carbon(iv)oxide (b) water vapour (c) oxygen and carbon (iv)oxide (d) carbon (iv) oxide,
oxygen and water vapour

3. Nitrogen combines reversibly with hydrogen under (a) catalyst (b) high voltage electric
spark (c) the presence of traces of NO2 (d) platinium

4. Nitrogen combines directly with metals except. (a) Cu (b) Mg (c) Ca (d) Al

5. Oxidation of Nitrogen in Mg3N2 is (a) -3 (b) +3 (c) -2 (d) +2

ESSAY QUESTIONS

41
1. Outline the laboratory preparation of Nitrogen from atmospheric air.

2. (a) State two physical properties of Nitrogen (b) Name the process used in the
commercial production of nitrogen.

3. Describe the laboratory preparation of nitrogen with the following (i) magnesium (ii)
oxygen

4. (i) What is the percentage by volume of nitrogen in air? (ii) Calculate the amount, in mole
of magnesium nitride that can be obtained from 3.0g of magnesium (Mg =24)

5. (a) State how nitrogen resemble or differ from NH 3. (b) How does nitrogen resemble or
differ from CO2 in its reaction with each of the following (i) litmus (ii) A burning candle (iii)
burning magnesium

WEEK 8 TOPIC

1. NITROGEN: COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN: TRIOXONITRATE(V) ACID –

LABORATORY PREPARATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

3. USES OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

4. TRIOXONITRATE(V) SALTS- ACTION OF HEAT, TEST FOR TRIOXONITRATE(V)

IONS.

PERIOD 1: NITROGEN: COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN: TRIOXONITRATE(V) ACID –

LABORATORY PREPARATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

Trioxonitrate (v) acid is prepared by heating solid sodium trioxonitrate (v) with concentrated
tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.

NaNO3 + H2SO4 → HNO3 + NaHSO4

42
The apparatus used is completely made of glass because rubber and cork are attack by
trioxonitrate (v) acid. The trioxonitrate (v) acid produced in this case is yellow in colour due
to the slight decomposition of the acid by heat to produce reddish-brown gas (nitrogen (iv))
which then dissolve in the acid to impart the yellow colour.

4HNO3 → H2O + 4NO2 + O2

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

1. It is corrosive and readily destroys organic materials.

3. It turns blue litmus paper red.

4. It is a colourless liquid which fumes in air on exposure.

EVALUATION:

1. Explain why trioxonitrate (v) acid produced in the laboratory is yellow in colour.

2. Why is all-glass apparatus used in the preparation of trioxonitrate (v0 acid.

4. State three physical properties of trioxonitrate (v0 acid.

PERIOD 2: CHEMICAL PPROPERTIES OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

1. Reaction as an acid:

(a) It reacts with base to form salt and water

HNO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + H2O

(b) It reacts with trioxonitrate (v) to liberate carbon (iv) oxide

HNO3 + CaCO3 →
Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

2. As an oxidizing agent:

(a) with metals: Trioxonitraye (v0 acid is a strong oxidizing agent and the oxidizing power of
trioxonitrate (v) acid depends on its concentration. In concentrated form, it oxidizes certain

43
metal to trioxonitrate (v) while the acid is reduced to nitrogen (iv) oxide and in moderately
concentrated form it reduced to nitrogen (ii) oxide.

Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2

3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO

Lead, mercury and silver react in similar way to copper with the metal

Magnesium, zinc nad iron react with dilute trioxonitrate (v) acid to give ammonium
trioxonitrate (v0 or nitrogen (i) e.g

4Zn + 10HNO3 → 4Zn(NO3)2 + 3H2O + NH4NO3

Aluminium and iron do not react with concentrated HNO3 due to initial formation of an
oxide coating on the metal, which prevent further reaction.

(b) With non-metals: Hot concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid oxidizes non-metals to
their oxides, which may dissolve in water to for the corresponding acids.

C + 4HNO3 →
CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2

S + 6HNO3 →
H2SO4 + 2H2O + 6NO2

P + 5HNO3 →
H3PO4 + H2O + 5NO2

I2 + 10HNO3 →
2HIO3 + 4H2O + 10NO2

EVALUATION:

1. Explain why metals can displace hydrogen from trioxonitrate (v0 acid.

2. State three chemical properties of trioxonitrate (v0 acid

PERIOD 3: USES OF TRIOXONITRATE (V) ACID

44
1. It is an important raw material for the manufacture of many useful trioxonitrate (v0 salts
and organic nitro-compounds such as those used for making dyes. Explosives, fertilizers and
drugs.

2. It is used for making of nylon and terylene.

3. It is useful oxidizing agent for many purposes in the laboratory.

EVALUATION:

State four uses of trioxonitrate (v0 acid.

PERIOD 4: TRIOXONITRATE(V) SALTS- ACTION OF HEAT, TEST FOR TRIOXONITRATE(V)

IONS.

All trioxonitrate (v) salts are decomposed by heat.

(a) Trioxonitrate (v0 of sodium and potassium are decomposed to the dioxonitrate (iii)
compound and oxygen.

NaNO3 heat
→
NaNO2 + O2

(b) Trioxonitrate (v) of Zn, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ca, Pb and Al are decomposed to the oxide of the
metal, nitrogen (iv) oxide and oxygen.

2Pb(NO3)2 heat
→
2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

(c) Trioxonitrate (v) of Hg and Ag are decomposed to the metal, oxygen and nitrogen (iv0
oxide because the metal oxides are unstable to heat

2AgNO3 heat
→
2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

TEST FOR TRIOXONITRATE (V0 IONS

BROWN RING TEST

Acidify an unkwon solution with dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid, then add some freshly
prepared iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) and shake. Then keep the test tube in a slanting
position and carefully add some concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid down the side of

45
the test tube. A brown ring will be formed ar the junction of the two liquid layers. This
shows that the unknown contains trioxonitrate (v) ions. the brown ring is FeSO 4.NO

GENERAL EVALUATION:

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Nitrogen combines directly with metals except (a) Ca (b) Mg (c) Cu (d) Al

2. Oxidation number of nitrogen in Mg3N2 is (a) -3 (b) +3 (c) -2 (d) +2

3. Hydride of nitrogen which is capable of turningred litmus blue make nitrogen to have an
oxidation state of (a) +2 (b) -2 (c) +3 (d) -3

4. Pyre trioxonitrate (v0 acid is colourless but the product of its laboratory preparation is
yellow because of the presence of dissolved (a) sulphur (b) sulphur (iv) oxide (c) nitrogen (iv)
oxide (d) nitrogen (ii) oxide

5. Which of the following will not leave a solid residue when decomposed by heat? (a)
(NH4)2SO4 (b) NaNO3 (c) Ca(NO3)2 (d) KNO3

ESSAY

1. Explain what is observed when lead (ii) trioxonitrate (v) is heated.

2. Explain why iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) is always prepared freshly whenever is to be
used for analysis.

3. Explain why trioxonitrate (v) acid is not used to acidify KMnO4 solution.

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about allotropes of sulphur on page 381 of New School chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio

WEEK ACTIVITY

Draw the nitrogen cycle in New School chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio

46
WEEK 9

TOPIC: SULPHUR

CONTENTS:

1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP VIA ELEMENT

2. ALLOTROPES AND USES OF SULPHUR

3. COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR- TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACIDS AND ITS SALTS

4. TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID: INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION, REACTIONS AND USES.

PERIOD 1: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP VIA ELEMENT

Group VIA elements usually called oxygen family have the following properties

(a) They are made up of oxygen (O), sulphur (S), Selenium (Se) Tellurium (Te) and Polonium
(Po)
(b) Oxygen gas is the first member of the group
(c) Sulphur comes as the second member of the group and it is a solid, followed by other
members.
(d) They have six valence electrons.
(e) They gain two electrons usually from group I and II metals to attain octet structure or
form negative divalent ions e.g. S2, O2
(f) They form covalent compounds with non-metals e.g. H -----O--------H in water and H----
S-----H , hydrogen sulphide
(g) Their oxidation states range from -2 in its compounds except peroxides like H 2O2 and
K2O2 where oxygent has -1

ELECTRON STRUCTURE OF SULPHUR

Sulphur is represented with a symbol S, it has 16 atomic numbers. The electronic

configuration is 2, 8,6. It is a P block element. Thus have its valence electrons in the p orbital
Is2 2s2 2p6 3s23p4

The distribution of electrons into shell is given in the figure below:

47
Electronic configuration of sulphur

EVALUATION

1. Enumerate any five (5) general properties of group VIA elements.

2. Explain briefly the electron structure of sulphur

PERIOD 2: ALLOTROPES AND USES OF SULPHUR

Sulphur exhibits the phenomenon of allotropy. Allotropy is the existence of an element in

two or more different forms in the same physical state. The various forms are known as
allotropes. The allotropes of sulphur are Rhombic (or ∝ - sulphur), Monoclinic or prismatic ¿-
sulphur), Amorphous sulphur (S- sulphur), Plastic sulphur

Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur are crystalline in nature and are actually the important
allotropes.

(a) Rhombic sulphur (α- sulphur): free sulphur exists as allotrope at below 96℃ . It has
octahedral structure made up of S8 molecules. The colour is brightly yellow and has a
melting point of 113℃ and density of 2.08gcm-3

48
PREPARATION

Rhombic sulphur is prepared by allowing a saturated solution of sulphur in carbon (IV)

sulphide (carbon disulphide) in a test tube kept below 95 oC to evaporate slowly.
Octahedral crystals will gradually deposit. This preparation should be done in a fume
cupboard because of the poisonous and flammability of carbon disulphide

(b) Monoclinic sulphur (β- sulphur): It is the only stable allotrope between 96℃ and 119℃
and consists of long, thin and needle shaped. The colour is amber. At room temperature
it changes to rhombic sulphur crystals. Monoclinic sulphur has a melting point of 119 oC
and density of 1.98gcm-3

PREPARATION

Monoclinic sulphur is obtained by cooling molten sulphur. Powdered sulphur is heated in a

crucible till it melts into amber -coloured liquid. More sulphur is added, heated and stirred
at the same time. This process is repeated until the crucible is filled with molten sulphur. It
is then allowed to cool while a hard crust formed at the top. Piercing one or two holes
through the crust and pouring off the remaining molten sulphur reveals a needle shaped
crystals of monoclinic sulphur deposited on the sides of the crucible.

o o
between 96 C∧119 C
Rhombic sulphur ⇌ monoclinic sulphur
o
below 96 C

49
c. Amorphous sulphur: it is pale – yellow in colour and has no regular crystalline shape. It is
prepared as a deposit when hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through water for a long time and
the saturation exposed to air. It can also be prepared by the action of dilute HCl acid on
trioxothiosulphate (v) solution

H2S (g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g) + S(g)

S2O32-(aq) +2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)

d. Plastic sulphur: this is prepared by heating yellow sulphur until it boils in a test tube. The
boiling sulphur is poured into cold water is seen to roll up into yellow ribbons which look like
a plastic. It changes to rhombic sulphur after sometime. It is therefore said to be unstable.

EVALUATION

1. (a) What is allotropy? (b)(i) Name two allotropes of sulphur (ii) State two differences
between them.

2. Explain briefly, how Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur are obtained.

3. Describe the formation of plastic sulphur and amorphous sulphur.

PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR

PHYSICSL PROPERTIES

1. Sulphur is a yellow solid existing in crystalline or amorphous

2. It is non-metallic and exhibits allotropy.

3. It sublimes to give flowers of sulphur.

4. It is a non-conductor of heat and electricity.

5. When heated in the absence of air, roll sulphur undergoes the following changes:

 at 1150C it forms amber - coloured liquid.

 at about 1150C the liquid becomes dark and discourse.
 near its boiling point, becomes mobile again and reddish brown in colour.

50
  at its boiling point of 440C it gives off a brown vapour, condensing this vapour on
a cold surface gives flowers sulphur.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

(i) Combustion in air: sulphur burns in air with a blue flame to produce sulphur (iv) oxide.

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

(ii) Reaction with metals: sulphur combines directly with metals to give the corresponding
anhydrous sulphides

Fe(s) + S(s ) → FeS(s)

2Cu(s) + S(s) → Cu2S(s)

(iii) Reaction with non- metals: sulphur reacts with coke in the furnace to produce carbon
(IV) sulphide

C(s) +2S(s) → CS2(l)

(iv). As a reducing agent: when powdered sulphur is warmed with concentrated H 2SO4, it is
oxidized to SO2, while its acid is reduced to SO2.

S(s) + H2SO4(aq) → 2H2O(l) + 3SO2(g)

USES OF SULPHUR

1. Used in the production of tetraxosulphate (VI) acid.

2. Used in vulcanizing rubber. It makes raw rubber to become hard, tough and elastic and
hence, suitable for making tyres

3. Used in the production of carbon (iv) sulphide used as a solvent and insecticides

4. It is used in gun powder and matches, dyes tuffs fungicides, ointment and germicides

5. Also used in the production of calcium hydrogen trioxosulphate (iv), Ca(HSO 3)2 used in
bleaching wood pulp for making news prints

EVALUATIONs

51
1. (a) What is flower of sulphur (b) what are the products of reaction of sulphur with it
concentrated H2SO4 acid
2. Mention three(3) physical and four (4) chemical properties of sulphur
3. Itemize the uses of sulphur

PERIOD 3: COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR- TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACIDS AND ITS SALTS

Trioxosulphate (IV) acid is a dibasic acid which is obtained by dissolving sulphur (IV) oxide in

water.

LABORATRY PREPARATION OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACID

It is prepared by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on heated sodium trioxosulphate (iv)

to produce sulphur (iv) oxide which is then dissolved in water.

Equations of the reactions

(a) Na2SO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(qg) + SO2 (g) + H2O(l)

(a) SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

Sulphur (IV) oxide is the acidic hydride of trioxosulphate (IV) acid.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACID

1. It is a colourless liquid, which smells strongly of SO2.

2. It turns blue litmus paper red.

3. It mixed readily with water.

4. It has an irritating and choking smell.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACID

52
1. Trioxosulphate (iv) acid is a weak dibasic acid. In the presence of a limited amount of

sodium hydroxide an acid salt, sodium hydrogen trioxosulphate (IV) is formed.

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO3 (aq) → Na2SO3 (aq ) + 2H2O(l)

However, when the alkali, sodium hydroxide, is in excess, the normal salt sodium trioxosulphate (IV)

is produced. That is, complete neutralisation takes place.

NaOH (aq )+ H2SO3(aq)→ NaHSO3(aq), + H2O(l)

2. It is oxidized in air t tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.

H2SO4(aq) + O2(g) →2H2SO4(aq)

3. Reducing properties

It is a strong reducing agent. It decolourises the purple colour potassium

tetraoxomanganate (vii) solution, and changes the colour of potassium heptaoxodichromate

(VI) from orange to green.

4. Bleaching properties: dyes are bleached by aqueous solution of trioxosulphate (IV) acid.

It bleaches by reduction. Material bleached by trioxosulphate(iv) acid and sulphur (iv) oxide

temporal, it can be re-oxidized by atmospheric oxygen.

USES OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) ACID

1. It is used for bleaching.

2. It is also used as a germicide.

TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) SALTS

Trioxosulphates (IV) are the salts of trioxosulphate (IV) acid.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) SALTS

53
1. By the action of trioxosulphate (iv) on excess alkali. Sodium hydroxide is used.

H2SO3 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)

This is a neutralization reaction.

2. Precipitation of an insoluble trioxosulphate (IV) from the solution of its metallic salt by sulphur (iv)
oxide.

SO2 (g) +2H2O (l) +ZNNO3 (ag) → ZnSO3(s) +HNO3 (l)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) SALTS

Most of the trioxosulphates (IV) are insoluble in water but the trioxosulphate (IV) of calcium;
ammonium, potassium and sodium are soluble in water.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) SALTS

1. They liberate sulphur (IV) oxide on reaction with aqueous hydrochloric acid e.g. Na 2CO3,

Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) +SO2 (g)

2. When exposed to air trioxosulphate (IV) salts are slowly oxidised to tetraoxosulphate (VI) salts.

3. On addition of barium chloride solution into solution of trioxosulphate (IV) white precipitate of
barium trioxosulphate (IV) which is soluble in dilute hydrogen chloride (HCl) is formed.

BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO3 (aq) → BaSO3(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

TEST FOR TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) SALT

1. On warming with dilute hydrochloric acid sulphur (IV) oxide is given off.

2. Add solution of barium chloride to the solution of the substance suspected to be trioxosulphate
(IV). Any white precipitate (barium trioxosulphate (IV)), soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid confirms
the presence of a trioxosulphate (IV) ion e.g. Na2SO3.

BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO3 (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO3(s)

DIFFERENTIATING TRIOXOSULPHATE (IV) AND TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) IONS

54
For trioxosulphate (IV), the white precipitate (barium trioxosulphate (IV)) is soluble in dilute
hydrochloric acid, while the precipitate from tetraoxosulphates (VI) is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric
acid.

PERIOD 4: TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID: - INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION, REACTIONS AND

USES.

Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid is a chemical compound with the formula H2SO4.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID - H2SO4

The industrial or commercial production of H 2SO4 is through a process known as the contact process.
The process involves:

1. The oxidation of sulphur (IV) oxide by air to sulphur (VI) oxide using a catalyst such as vanadium
(V) oxide, V2O5.

SO2 is produced by burning sulphur or by burning pyrite, FeS2 in air.

S + O2 →
SO2

V 2 O5
2SO2(g) + O2 ⇌ 2SO3(g)
¿

2. The absorption of sulphur (VI) oxide, SO 3 in conc. H2SO4 to form a fuming liquid called ‘Oleum’-
heptaoxosulphate (VI) acid.

H2SO4(aq)+ SO3(g)→ H2S2O7(aq)- oleum

3. The oleum is diluted with correct amount of water to produce the conc. H 2SO4.

H2S2O7(aq)+ H2O(l)→ 2H2SO4(aq)

Note: a direct absorption of SO 3 in water is not done - the reaction is violently exothermic, the heat
evolved will cause the acid to boil producing a mist of fine drops of di H 2SO4 which will fill the
environment.

PROPERTIES OF H2SO4

1. As an acid - H2SO4 is dibasic and ionizes almost completely in solution, this makes it a strong acid.
Due to it being dibasic, it forms two kinds of salts with alkalis.

55
2NaOH(aq)+ H2SO4(aq)→ Na2SO4(aq)+ 2H2O(l) and

NaOH(aq)+ H2SO4(aq)→ NaHSO4(aq)+ H2O(l)

2. Action of dilute H2SO4 on metals Reactive metals would displace hydrogen from dilute
tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid.

Zn(s)+ H2SO4(aq)→ ZnSO4(aq)+ H2(g)

Note:* Less reactive metals such as copper will not displace hydrogen from dilute acid.* Cold
concentrated H2SO4 is not attacked by any metal in the complete absence of water.

3. Action on trioxocarbonate(IV) ,Carbon(IV) oxide is liberated when H 2SO4 is added onto a

trioxocarbonate(IV).

Na2CO3(aq)+ H2SO4(aq)→ Na2SO4(aq)+ H2O(l)+ CO2(g) On a piece of marble, which has the chemical formula
CaCO3, the reaction obtained is prematurely stopped due to the formation of the sparingly soluble
salt, CaSO4, which forms a deposit on the surface of the marble.

4. Conc. H2SO4 as an oxidizing agent When hot and concentrated, the acid accepts electrons from
reducing agents such as Cu or Zn. It also oxidizes non-metals, such as carbon and sulphur, and is
reduced to SO2 in the process.

S(s)+ 2H2SO4(aq)→ 2H2O(l)+ 3SO2(g)

C(s)+ 2H2SO4(aq)→ 2H2O(l)+ 2SO2(g)+ CO2(g)

The SO2 given off is detected using a strip of filter paper moistened with potassium
heptaoxodichromate (VI) solution which turns orange to green - this is one of the tests for SO 2
discussed earlier.

5. As a dehydrating agent Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid has a strong affinity for water. The addition of
the acid to water (conc. acid should always be gradually added to water, with stirring of the liquid as
the acid is added - to prevent the acid from forming a lower layer) produces a great amount of heat,
hence the addition is not a physical change, but a chemical change.H 2SO4 is hygroscopic, that is, it
absorbs water from the air and becomes dilute. When conc. H 2SO4 is added to many compounds, it
decomposes them by removing elements water from them, that is, it dehydrates them. An example
is the removal of rust from iron, and the dehydration of sugar. The sugar becomes a black mass of
carbon. Dehydration is the removal of elements of water from a substance and the chemical
composition of the substance is changed.

56
C12H22O11(s) + nH2SO4(l)→ 12C(s)+ 11H2O(l)+ nH2SO4(aq))

In a similar way, conc. H2SO4 acts on the skin and cloth.

TEST FOR TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ION

The characteristic test for any soluble tetraoxosulphate(VI) is the formation of white precipitate
(barium sulphate) when a solution of barium chloride, acidified with dilute HCl, or when a solution of
barium trioxonitrate (v), acidified with dilute trioxonitrate (v) acid is reacted with it.

BaCl2(aq)+ Na2SO4(aq)→ 2NaCl(aq)+ BaSO4(s)

Ba(NO3)2(aq)+ Na2SO4(aq)→ 2NaNO3(aq)+ BaSO4(s)- white precipitate

Ionically, it represented thus

USES OF TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID

Below are some of the uses of H2SO4

1. for the manufacture of fertilizer, such as ammonium tetraoxosulphate (VI), (NH4)2SO4, and
superphosphates.

2. for the manufacture of paints and pigments.

3. for the manufacture of artificial and natural fibre.

4. for the manufacture of metallic tetraoxosulphate (VI), HCl, HNO3, HF, and plastics.

5. for the manufacture of detergents, dyes, explosives and drugs.

6. for the extraction of metals, example, in pickling (cleaning) iron and steel before plating them with
tin or zinc.

7. as electrolyte in lead-acid storage battery.

8. In petroleum refining, where to is used to wash impurities out of gasoline and other refinery
products

57
GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. If sulphur is dissolved in carbon(iv) sulphide and the solution is allowed to evaporate, the
allotrope of sulphur formed is (a) plastic sulphur (b) amorphous sulphur (c) Rhombic
sulphur (d) monoclinic sulphur (e) colloidal sulphur
2. Sulphur is used for the following except. (a) Coating of steel to prevent rusting (b)
vulcanization of rubber (c) prevention of growth of fungi (d) manufacture of dyes (e)
manufacture of H2SO4 acid
3. Mono clinic and Rhombic are allotropes of (a) carbon (b) oxygen (c) Neon (d) Polonium
(e) sulphur
4. The crystalline allotrope of sulphur that is stable at room temperature is (a) plastic
sulphur (b) amorphous sulphur (c) rhombic sulphur (d) colloidal sulphur (e) monoclinic
sulphur
5. Which of the following is the boiling point of sulphur (a) 115 ℃ (b) 160℃ (c) 240℃ (d)
444℃ (e) 119℃

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. State three properties of the element sulphur and outline three uses of sulphur
2. Monoclinic sulphur and rhombic sulphur are the allotropes of sulphur, (i) what are
allotropes (ii) name another element which has allotropes
3. Describe what happens when sulphur is heated (i) in the absence of air (ii) in air and the
product is dissolved in water. Give the equation of ll reactions involved.
4. (a) What is the atomic number of sulphur (b) name four forms in which sulphur is found
in nature?
5. Briefly describe any three allotropes of sulphur (b) put down in tabular form the
difference the main difference between rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio. Pages 381 -
403

58
PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read up compounds of sulphur

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Describe the stages in the manufacture of H2SO4 acid by contact process.

9. Revision.
10. Examination.

59