WELL COME 2 GEOPHYSICS

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 CHAPTER ONE
The Earth’s Gravity
Geophysics : is a hybrid of geology and physics that study the physical
properties of Earth materials below the surface of the Earth using the
principles of physics.
Earth materials
 Water
 mineral
 coal
 petroleum
other underground geological features.

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The physical properties of earth materials are
 Resistivity
 Magnetic susceptibity
 Porosity
 Density
 Permeability
 Color
 velocity etc.

Some of the geophysical methods are

Seismic (earthquakes, refraction & reflection)
 Gravity
 Magnetic
 heat flow
electrical (DC resistivity, self potential, induced
potential) etc Complied by tigbu 3
Each geophysical methods is correlated with specific
physical properties of earth materials
Geophysical methods Dependent physical
properties

Gravity density

magnetic Magnetic susceptibility

Electrical resistivity

seismic velocity

Correlation of geophysical methods with physical properties of the Earth

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materials.
Geophysics is classified into two major parts as
solid Earth geophysics and applied geophysics.
Solid earth geophysics is to study the physical properties of the whole
earth and its internal constitution from the physical phenomena
associated with it.

For example
 Geomagnetic field
 heat flow
propagation of seismic wave
force of gravity etc.

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Applied geophysics is to investigate the earth crust and near-
surface to achieve a practical and an economic aim.
which includes
 Mapping of geological structures (faults and
folds),
 Salt domes
 For site investigation in different applications such
as :
for groundwater, mineral exploration, engineering,
environmental, petroleum etc.

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 What is a geophysicist?
A geophysicist is someone who studies the Earth using
gravity, magnetic, electrical, and seismic methods.
Some geophysicists spend most of their time outdoors
studying various features of the Earth, and others spend most
of their time indoors using computers for modeling and
calculations.

Newton's law and gravity (The Universal Law of

Gravitation)

 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation states that any two

point masses attract each other.

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The force attraction becomes noticeable if one or both of the
masses is big enough (like the Earth).
 The force due to gravity between two objects is proportional
to the product of two masses (m) and mathematically the
relationship can be written as:

Fg  m1m2
The force due to gravity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the two masses. This distance
(r) is always measured from the centers of the two objects.

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 We usually consider it to be a radius in the formulas. As the
distance increases, the force drops off (reduced) exponentially.
 This idea is explain in graphical form as follows.

1
Fg  2
r

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 Figure 1.1 moving the same mass at three different relative
distances from the earth.
 For each distance, the thickness of the arrow indicates the
relative amount of the gravitational force between the mass
and the earth.
Finally,
Newton’s formulated a formula for the force of gravitational
using the above two relationship by inserting a constant which
is called universal gravitational constant
(G  6.671011 m3 k.g 1s 2 )

m1m2
F G 2
(1)

r
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where F = gravitational force on each mass, G = 6.67 × 10-11
N m2 /kg2 is universal gravitational constant, m1, m2 are the
point masses, r is the distance between the masses.

Figure 1.2 pictorial representations of Newton’s laws of

gravity.

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 Gravitational Acceleration

 When making measurements of the earth's gravity, we

usually don't measure the gravitational force, F.
 Rather; we measure the gravitational acceleration, g.

 The gravitational acceleration is the time rate of change of a

body's speed under the influence of the gravitational force .
Newton's second law states that force is directly proportional
to acceleration.

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The constant of proportionality is the mass of the object.
 Combining Newton's second law with law of mutual
attraction (universal law of gravitational), the gravitational
acceleration on the mass m2 towards m1 can be obtained as
follows.
 Based on the Newton’s second law, force is related to
acceleration by

F  m2a (2)

Then, the two forces are equal.

We can solve for the acceleration (a) due to the gravity of a
point charge:
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 Gm1m2
F  m2a  2
r
(3)
Gm1
ag  2
r
When g, is vertical : a will be g

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 Gravitational acceleration on Earth

Newton was able to show that the gravitational field due to a

uniform sphere of mass is the same as if the sphere were a
point mass located at the sphere’s center of mass.
So, for example, we can use equation (3) to find the
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the spherical
Earth:

GM e
g 2
Re
(4)
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 Where Me is the mass of the Earth, and Re is the radius of
the Earth. Substituting the known values of GMe and Re, we
find

3.986005  1014 m3s 2

g
(6.378140  106 m) 2
 9 .8 m
s2

The gravity on the surface of the Earth varies due to a

number of effects. The major factors are:

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o Elevation
o Variation in mass
o Tides
o Slab Effects
o Topographic Effects
o Latitude

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Elevation: At higher elevations, you are further from the
center of the Earth, so the Earth’s pull is less.
Variation in mass: Gravity is a function of mass, and since
the mass of the earth is not uniform, the gravity varies as well.
Tides: Tidal variation (due to the gravitational pull of the sun
and moon) contributes to a variation of about ± 0.000003 m/s2.
Slab Effects: Changes in the observed acceleration caused by
the extra mass underlying observation points at higher
elevations.
Topographic Effects: Changes in the observed acceleration
related to topography near the observation point.
Latitude: Two features of the earth's large-scale structure and
dynamics affect our gravity observations: its shape and its
rotation.

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 Shape
The shape of the earth is elliptical, with the widest portion of
the ellipse aligning with the equator and thinner at the poles.
Although the difference in earth radii measured at the poles
and at the equator is only 22 km (this value represents a
change in earth radius of only 0.3%), this, in conjunction with
the earth's rotation, can produce a measurable change in the
gravitational acceleration with latitude.

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Figure1.3 simple shape of the earth

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 Rotation

In addition to shape, the fact that the earth is rotating also

causes a change in the gravitational acceleration with
latitude.

This affect is related to the fact that our gravimeter is rotating

with the earth as we make our gravity reading.

Because the earth rotates on an axis passing through the poles

at a rate of once a day and our gravimeter is resting on the
earth as the reading is made, the gravity reading contains
information related to the earth's rotation.

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Figure 1.4 rotation of the earth on its axis

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Gravitational potential
•Let’s assume:
•A particle of unit mass (m) moving freely
•A body of mass (M)

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•The particle is attracted by M and moves toward it by a small
quantity dr.
•This displacement is the result of work (W) exerted by the
gravitational field generated by M :

W  F . dr  m a dr  a dr
M
W  G 2 dr
r
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•The potential U of mass M is the amount of work necessary
to bring the particle from infinity to a given distance r:

r M r 1 1 1
U   G 2 dr  GM  2 dr  GM   
r r  r 

GM

r

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 Gravitational potential of the earth and acceleration

Earth’s gravitational acceleration g exerts a work to move a

unit mass particle from U+dU to U (Spherical homogeneous
non rotating Earth):

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 GM dU GM e
U    2  dU  gdr
r dr r
dU dU
g   grad (U )
dr dr
Shape, structure and composition of the earth

Shape of the earth

Most people think Earth is perfectly round, like a ball.

However, this is not quite true.
 Earth is actually slightly squashed/flat between the North
and South Poles.
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The distance from the North to South Pole, about 12, 700
km, is slightly less than the distance across the equator, about
12,744 km. ( d at equator >d at pole).
The reason for this bulge across the equator is that Earth is
spinning about an axis through the North and South Poles,
turning once every day.
Composition and internal structure of the earth
The Earth is a differentiated planet, according to density it is
layered like an onion
It is composed of materials with different nature.
 Based on chemical composition and physical properties, our
planet earth has different layers.

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According to the chemical composition, the Earth has three
main layers.
These are
 Crust,
 Mantle and
 Core

Earth's Crust
 is the thin outermost layer of the Earth ranging up to 40 km
in thickness

 made up of light weight materials (light silicate rocks) with

low melting temperatures

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 These are mostly compounds of the elements silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
combined with oxygen
The average density of the crustal rocks ranges between 2.7
g/cm3 and 3.0 g/cm3

This layer has two types

 Continental and
 Oceanic crust
Continental crust

 thicker
 as much as 70 km
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 composed, generally, of light weight rocks such as Granite.
 Its average density is about 2.7 g/cm3.

oceanic crust

 isthinner
 about 8 km thick and
 composed of dark, dense volcanic rocks called
Basalt.
 Its average density is 3.0 g/cm3.

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Figure 1.5 Internal layers of the Earth (© 2000 Geothermal Education
Office)
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 Earth's Mantle
 located between the crust and the core
 a region that is the bulk of the solid Earth that constitutes
about 82% by volume and 68% by mass.
 ranges from 40 to 2900 km in depth.
 the material left in the middle zone after most of the
heavy matter sank and the light matter rose towards the
surface.
 consists of rocks of intermediate density mostly
composed of heavy silicates with iron, magnesium, and
other oxides and sulphides.
 Its density ranges from 3.4 to 5.5g/cm3

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 Earth's Core

 Central mass extending from 2900km up to the center,

6400km(7,000km in diameter)
 It is composed of iron and nickel alloys
 Iron which accounted for about a third of the primitive
planet's material, is denser than the other elements and sank
to form a central core
 The average density of the core is 11 g/cm3.
 This layer constitute 16% by volume and 32% by mass of
the Earth.

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Based on the physical properties of the materials,
The earth has about five layers

 Lithosphere,
 Asthenosphere,
 Mesosphere,
 the Outer core, and
 Inner core.
Lithosphere

 the solid,
 strong and rigid outer part of the Earth
 Contains the crust and the upper most part of the
mantle (crust +upper most part of the mantle).
 It extends from surface to 100 km depth.
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 Asthenosphere:
 There is a major zone within the upper mantle where
temperature and pressure are at just the right balance so that
part of the material melts.
 The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft
plastic and flow like warm tar.
 This zone of easily deformed mantle is called the
asthenosphere (meaning "Weak sphere").
 It is a distinctive zone in the upper mantle and extends from
100 kms to 350 kms depth.

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 Mesosphere

 this zone is stronger and much rigid than the asthenosphere

because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of
high temperature
 This is the region b/n the asthenosphere and the core

The Core
 On the basis of physical properties the core is divided
into the outer and inner core

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 Scientists have found that the core, which exists at a depth
beginning at 2900 km is molten on the outside, but the inner
core, from about 5200 to 6400 km, is solid. Why? The reason
is that the temperature at which any material melts increases
with pressure

 The iron core is solid nearest to Earth's center, where

pressures are highest. Heat lose from the core and the rotation
of Earth probably causes the liquid outer core to circulate and
its circulation generates Earth's magnetic field.

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Figure 1.6 Internal layering based on physical properties and
chemical composition
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 Observed gravity anomalies
 is the anomaly that are obtained by directly plot the field
data.
 This anomaly is due to a number of factors such as
geological features, instrumental drift, tidal, latitude variation,
elevation variation, and slab and topography effects.

Normal gravity
Normal gravity is the gravitational acceleration due to the
shape and rotation of the earth without any sub surface
geological features.

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 Geoid anomalies
 the geoid anomalies are the gravity anomalies obtained at
the sea levels. This means the anomalies obtained after the
elevation effect is removed.
Gravity anomalies
 Gravity anomalies are anomalies due to the sub surface
geological materials. Gravity anomalies can divide as local
and regional anomalies.

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Local anomalies:
The response of shallow local features
Regional anomalies:
The response of deep geological features

Flexure of the lithosphere and the viscosity of the mantle

Flexure of the lithosphere

 The lithosphere behaves as a thin elastic plate in geological

time scales
 In reality, the weight of a load is also resisted by the
strength of the lithosphere
 If the load is large enough compared to that strength, the
(elastic) lithosphere bends downwards which is flexure.
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The elasticity of the lithosphere affects the uplift of mountain
ranges and the subsidence of sedimentary basins to leave
geological records of the behavior.

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 Causes for flexure of oceanic lithosphere:
•Sea amount loading
•Oceanic plateau loading
•Sediment loading
Causes for loading of continental lithosphere:
•Sediment loading
•Ice sheets

Viscosity of the mantle

Mantle is a layer which is found between the crust and the

outer core.
Earth's mantle is a rocky shell about 2,890 km that constitutes
about 84 percent of Earth's volume.
Mantle is divided into three sections based upon the physical
properties. 45
 Uppermost mantle
 are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular
layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km.
Asthenosphere
 Below the lithosphere
the mantle becomes notably more plastic
Mesosphere
 The lower part of the mantle
 is stronger and much rigid than the asthenosphere
 because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of
high temperature

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Therefore: the middle part of the mantle (asthenosphere) are
less viscos as compare to the lower and upper part of the
mantle i,e
Viscosity : is the ability to resist the flow of liquids.
Asthenosphere-less viscous than lower and upper mantle.

The End! 10Q U

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CHAPTER TWO

ISOSTASY

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 Introduction
The term isostasy is derived from the Greek words “iso” and
“stasis” meaning equal standing.

The term is used to describe a condition to which the earth’s

crust and mantle tend, in the absence of disturbing forces.

Isostasy views that the lithosphere floats upon the semi-fluid

asthenosphere
Lithosphere – rigid -solid
Asthenosphere- ductile- liquid

It is therefore an idealized state: a condition of rest and quiet.

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But due to the sedimentation process, tectonics and volcanism
the isostasy condition is disturbed.

If a section of lithosphere is loaded, as by ice, it will slowly

subside to a new equilibrium position; if a section of
lithosphere is reduced in mass, as by erosion, it will slowly
rise to a new equilibrium position.

The concept of isostasy is that mountains are compensated by

masses of smaller density under the mountains while oceans
are compensated by masses of higher density under the water.

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In 18th and 19th century surveys set out to measure the shape of
the Earth. They used plumb bobs and expected them to be
attracted toward adjacent mountain chains (eg. the Andes and
Himalayas),
But the plumb bob was not attracted as much as the expected.

As shown below in the figure, the actual deflection is less than

the expected deflection. This is due to the mass deficiency
beneath the mountains.

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53
 Mechanics of isostasy
Isostasy is based on Archimedes’s Principle: stated that when
an object is placed in a liquid
(a) it will sink until it displaces a mass of fluid equal to its
mass, and
(b) it will float only if its mass is less than that of the displaced
liquid.
 Isostasy also helps to explain why the top of continental
crust is at a higher elevation than the top of oceanic crust.
 Isostasy is particularly useful for understanding vertical
motions, which are generally not explained well by plate
tectonic theory.

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In the Earth Sciences, the concept of isostasy is often applied
to the crust, which is imagined to be "floating" in the upper
mantle
In fact, the Earth's crust and upper mantle are part of the
lithosphere, and both the crust and upper mantle are solid and
rigid, so the Earth's crust does not actually float in the mantle
Isostasy is more correctly applied to the entire lithosphere,
being supported by the underlying asthenosphere (which can
flow over long time scales)
However, because the lower lithosphere has virtually the same
density as the upper asthenosphere

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, much of the isostatic buoyancy of the lithosphere is created
by the crust. Thus we can imagine the crust floating on the
mantle as an approximation.
Isostasy condition states that the weight of columns of rock at
depth of compensation is equal everywhere.
There are several models based on different assumptions. The
two most commonly mentioned models are:

Airy's model

The crust has variable thickness but of constant density and is

thicker under elevated terrain than under depressions such as
oceans.
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The depth of the underlying 'roots' is related to the height of
the overlying topography.

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58
Based on the diagram on the right side the airy model is

c hm  hc  hr   c hc  mhr
c hm  hr m  c 

c hm
hr 
  m  c 
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 Pratt's model
Pratt assumed that the crust of the earth comprised blocks of
different density:

 Blocks of lower density need to extend further into the air

in order to exert the same pressure as thinner blocks of higher
density

 By this model the base of the crust is flat, so that the surface
of equal pressure (depth of compensation) is a flat crust-
mantle boundary
 The crust has variable density but has a constant depth
below sea level. Topographic height is related to the crustal
density at that point
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Complied by tigbu 61
 c hm  hc   o hc
Based on the diagram above on the right side the pratt model is

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  o  c 
hm  hc 
 

 c 

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 SHORT SUMMARY
Airy and Pratt Models of Isostasy

•Two end member models have been proposed to account for

isostasy.

•Airy Model: All blocks have the same density but

different thicknesses
•Pratt Model: All blocks float to the same depth but have
different densities

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 Which model is correct in practice?
• Both
•Mountains are supported by large roots
•There is also support due to lateral changes of density.
• Continents are higher than ocean floors due to both density
and thickness differences.

Airy is correct if topography can be viewed as applied load.

e.g. volcanic loading, erosion & sediment loading and plate
collision etc.

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Seismology shows that the crust is thicker (30-60 km)
underneath continents and mountains, but is thinner (5-15 km)
under oceans.

This variation of the depth of the Moho and the general

agreement between the thickness of the crust estimated from
seismic and gravity methods lend support to Airy isostasy.

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70
Pratt mechanism is valid when topography is due to thermal
expansion or contraction.

Isostasy and lithosphere (oceanic and continental)

Lithosphere is the rigid, solid outer layer (brittle) and which

includes crust and uppermost mantle.
The density of the upper mantle below the continental and
oceanic crust is the same.

Oceanic lithosphere = oceanic crust + upper mantle

Continental lithosphere = continental crust + upper mantle

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The generally principles of isostasy is the pressure at the bases
of various parts of the crust is equal.
The density of the oceanic crust is differing from the
continental crust. So, to have the same pressure at certain
depth the thickness of the two crusts should be differ.

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CHAPTER THREE

SEISMICITY

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 Definition of waves
Waves are typically disturbances in some medium

They include electro- magnetic waves (such as light or radio

waves); movements of gas molecules (sound waves) and
movements in solids (seismic waves)

The important parameters to describe waves are

 Amplitude
 Wavelength
Frequency and
 Period

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 Amplitude
 is the maximum height of the wave from the horizontal
axis.
 The maximum disturbance , A, from the central value is
the amplitude of the wave
 The maximum amplitude is called crest
 The minimum amplitude is called trough

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Let consider the waves in the above figure on the right side
The solid red and blue parts are both a full cycle
 For the blue cycle the wave oscillates up from its central
value to a crest, then down through a trough and back up to
its central value
Wavelength ()
is the length of a full cycle
this is measured from crest to crest or trough to trough.

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This wave has amplitude of 3mm and a wavelength of 4 cm

Again A is the amplitude of the wave. The time taken for a full
cycle T is the period of the wave
The frequency (f) is the number of cycles per second

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 The frequency is given by:
1 sec ond 1
f  
period T

Example 2 If the frequency of a wave is 4 Hz, what is its

period?
1 1
T    0.25s
f 4

This result show that four times the period is equal to one
second, i.e., the frequency is 4 cycles per second
Frequency, wavelength and the speed of a moving wave (v)
are related as follows: during the period of a full cycle, T, the
wave travels a wavelength (), so its speed (v) is
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 dis tan ce 
v 
time T
Since f = 1/T, this can be rewritten as

v  f
Thus, for a given speed, high frequencies corresponding to
short wave lengths while low frequencies have long
wavelengths.

Waves through the earth (seismic waves)

Stress and strain

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When an external force F is applied across an area of A of a
surface of a body, forces inside the body are established in
proportion to the external force.

The ratio of the force to area (F/A) is called stress

Stress can be resolved into two components

 one at right angle (perpendicular) to the surface area which
is called normal (dilatational) stress.
 The other is tangential to the surface or in the plane of the
surface that know as shear stress.

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The stressed body undergoes change in length or volume
which is called strain.

 Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length

(volume) to the original length (volume)
 Based on the Hooke’s law, stress and strain are linearly
dependent and the body behaves elastically until the yield
point is reached

 Below the yield point, on the relaxation of stress, the body

returned to its pre- stressed shape and size
 At the stressed beyond the yield point, the body behaves in
a plastic or ductile manner and permanent damage results. If
further stress is applied, the body is strained until it fractured

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The stress/strain relationship for any materials is defined by
various elastic moduli, as shown below the figure3.1 and
table3.1.

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Figure 3.1 the relationship between the stress and strain

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85
 What is elasticity of materials?
 Elasticity is the competence of materials to resisting change
in size or shape and returning to the un deformed condition
when the external load is removed.

Bulk Modulus
 Is also known as the incompressibility of the medium.
 The bulk modulus describes the ratio of the pressure applied
to the cube to the amount of volume change that the cube
undergoes.
 If k is very large, then the material is very stiff.
 meaning that it doesn't compress very much even under
large pressures.

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If k is small, then a small pressure can compress the material
by large amounts.
For example, gases have very small incompressibility.
Solids and liquids have large incompressibility.

Shear Modulus

The shear modulus describes how difficult it is to deform a

cube of the material under an applied shearing force.
 Gases and fluids cannot support shear forces. That is, they
have shear moduli of zero. From the equations given, notice
that this implies that fluids and gases do not allow the
propagation of S waves.
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88
 Seismic waves
 Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy
from the source of the shaking outward in all directions.
 Seismic waves are elastic waves that propagate through the
medium without causing permanent deformation of any point
in the medium.
 You can picture this concept by recalling the circular waves
that spread over the surface of a pond when a stone is thrown
into the water.
 A seismic wave is a more complicated process than a stone
splashing into water, and the seismic waves that are set up
during an earthquake are more varied than those on the pond.

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Figure 3.2 seismic wave though the earth
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There are two useful parameters to describe seismic waves:
Wave fronts and
 Ray paths
Ray paths are lines that show the direction that the seismic
wave is propagating.
 For any given wave, there are an infinite set of ray paths
that could be used.
 In the example shown below, for instance, a valid ray paths
could be any radial line drawn from the source.
We have shown only a few of the possible ray paths.

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Wave fronts connect positions of the seismic wave that are
doing the same thing at the same time.
 In the example shown below, the wave fronts are spherical
in shape.
 Wave fronts are perpendicular to ray paths.
 This is in general always true. So, given either a set of wave
fronts or a set of ray paths, we can construct the other.

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Figure 3.3 Ray paths and wave fronts
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 Types of seismic waves

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all
move in different ways.
The two main types of waves are body waves and surface
waves.
Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but

 Surface waves can only move along the surface of the

planet like ripples on water.

Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface

waves

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Figure 3.4 Types of seismic waves (body wave
and surface wave)

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Body waves - These are elastic waves that they propagate outward in all
directions from a source (such as an earthquake) and travel through the
interior of the Earth. Because of this, body waves are the source of
information used to image the Earth's interior.

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 Figure 3.5 Body wave through the interior part of the earth
Seismic body waves can be further subdivided into two classes
of waves: P waves and S waves.

P- Waves
 the alternative names for the P waves are primary,
Compression and Longitudinal.
 The p-wave is called primary wave because they propagate
through the medium faster than the other wave types.
This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently,
the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
 P waves are also known as compression waves, because of
the material is being extended and compressed as P waves
propagate through the medium.
97
 The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like
water or the liquid layers of the earth.

 In P- waves, particles constituting the medium are displaced

in the same direction that the wave propagates due to this, the
p-wave also called longitudinal wave.

 Material returns to its original shape after the wave passes.

P waves are analogous to sound waves propagating through
the air.

98
Figure 3.6 propagation of p-wave
99
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 S- Waves
 the alternative name for the s-wave are Shear, Secondary
and Transverse.
 S waves are sometimes called secondary waves, because
they propagate through the medium slower than P waves.
 This means that s-waves arrive at seismic station next to the
p-waves.
 An S wave can only move through solid rock, not through
any liquid medium.
 It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to
conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid.
 In S waves, particles constituting the medium are displaced
in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction that the
wave is propagating. Material returns to its original shape after
the wave passes. 101
Figure 3.7 propagation of s-wave
102
103
 Surface Waves
Surface waves are waves that propagate along the Earth's
surface.

 Their amplitude at the surface of the Earth can be very

large, but this amplitude decays exponentially with depth.

 These are waves that do not penetrate deeply into sub-

surface media.

 Surface waves propagate at speeds that are slower than S

waves and have amplitudes that decay with distance from the
source more slowly than body waves.
Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that
are almost entirely responsible for the damage and destruction
of engineering structures. 104
This damage and the strength of the surface waves are
reduced in deeper earthquakes because of the amplitudes of
the wave decay with depth.
 Shown below is a cross section through a simplified Earth
model showing how surface waves would appear at various
times.

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 Figure 3.8 propagation of surface-waves
Like body waves, there are two classes of surface waves, Love
and Rayleigh waves that are distinguished by the type of
particle motion they impose on the medium.

Love wave

They are formed by the interaction of S waves with Earth's

surface and shallow structure. This wave occurs only where a
medium with a low velocity overlies a layer with a higher s-
wave velocity.

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Particle motion is at right angle to the direction of wave
propagation but parallel to the surface.
 Material returns to its original shape after the wave passes.

Figure 3.9 propagation of love-wave

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 Rayleigh wave
 Rayleigh waves are waves that travel along the surface of
the earth with amplitude decrease exponentially with depth.
 Rayleigh waves are waves that travel along the surface of
the earth with amplitude decrease exponentially with depth.
 Rayleigh waves are the slowest of all the seismic wave
types and in some ways the most complicated.
 Particle motion consists of elliptical motions in the vertical
plane and parallel to the direction of propagation.
 Rayleigh waves can travel only through a solid medium.
Material returns to its original shape after the wave passes.

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Figure 3.10 propagation of Rayleigh-wave

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By observing a representative seismogram some of the
differences among these seismic waves becomes apparent
based on their arrival times (velocity), amplitude (wave
height), and periods (time interval between crests)

Figure. 3.11 A seismogram that shows the first arrival of the P-waves, S-waves and
surface waves 112
P waves are the fastest and surface waves are the slowest to
arrive on the seismograph station.
Surface waves have the greatest amplitude and the longest
periods where as p-waves have the least amplitudes and the
shortest periods.
Types of seismic Speed (v) ,f Amplitude(A) Period(T)
waves
P-wave Fastest Smallest Shortest

S-wave Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate

surface wave Slowest Greater Longer

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 Seismic wave velocities
The velocities of seismic wave propagating through elastic
media are dictated by the elastic moduli (bulk modulus (k) and
shear modulus (μ)) and density of the rock through which they
pass.

As a broad generalization, velocities increase with increase

density.
The velocity of seismic waves is increase with depth in the
earth. Why? As go to depth the shear modulus, bulk modulus
and density of the materials are increase.

114
Due to this the seismic wave velocities increase with depth.
However, the increase in the velocity of seismic waves is a
result of the shear and bulk modulus of the materials increase
with depth faster than density.
Density is in the denominator and actually slows the waves.
The seismic wave velocities in sedimentary rocks in particular
increase both with depth of burial and age.

The velocity (v) of propagation through an elastic material is

given by the equation

appropriate elastic mod ulus

v
density
115
 The velocity of p- wave is:

4
k 
v 3


The velocity of s- wave is:

v


116
Where k = bulk modulus, μ = rigidity (shear modulus) and 
= density

EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY/ EQ ENGINEERING

OR ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

What is EQ?
ANS- EQ is trembling or tremoring (shaking ) of the earth

117
The study of Earthquake is important for scientific, social, and
economic reasons.
Stress builds up through time, storing strain energy;
earthquakes represent sudden release of the strain energy.
Most tectonic activity occurs due to interaction between
plates;

Q. What controls EQ distribution all over the world?

The distribution of the earthquakes thus dramatically

outlines Lithospheric plate boundary.
There are only shallow earthquakes at divergent and
transform plate boundaries, but earthquakes occur over a
broad range from shallow to deep where plates converge.
118
Q , What are the merits of EQ?

Earthquakes also provide crucial data on the deep interior of

the earth because seismic waves travel through the entire earth
and are recorded by a worldwide network of seismometers.

Interpretations of the thickness, structure and composition of

the crust, mantle, and core can be made from the types and
speeds of waves that travel through each zone.
Earthquakes are important from a human and economic point
of view.
In some years, earthquakes kill thousands of people and
cause damage totaling billions of dollars.
119
It is useful to understand how earthquakes occur, where they
are likely to occur, and when they might occur.
We can minimize earthquake effects by:
 mapping hazardous regions,
 predicting the time and
 the place of future earthquakes,
 designing buildings that will withstand earthquakes, and
 by not building in areas prone to intense shaking.
Earthquakes
 Earthquake is the vibration of Earth, produced by the rapid
release of energy (stress).
 This energy radiates in all directions from its
source, called the focus, in the form of waves.
120
We know that most earthquakes result from movements along large fractures called
faults.

Figure. Energy propagation in all directions from its source

121
When earth material is stressed beyond its elastic limit, failure
could be through ductile flow or brittle fracture as shown
below in figure 3.2.
For earthquakes to occur, two factors are necessary:
1) there must be some sort of movement that will stress the
material beyond its elastic limit; and
2) the material must be fail by brittle fracture. What about
ductile deformation ? It create EQ or not?
It is possible to say only brittle deformation create EQ?

The region of the earth that fits the above criteria is the
lithosphere. Only EQ happen here?

122
Other regions, such as the asthenosphere and outer core,
behave ductilely and fluidly, respectively,
when the large stresses are applied over long periods of time.
The lower mantle (mesosphere) and the inner core are solid,
they are not subjected to large differential stresses.
Earthquakes are, therefore, almost exclusively
confined to the moving, rigid lithosphere, particularly
where stresses are concentrated near the boundaries of
the plates.
IS IT EQ EXCLUSIVELY CONFINED TO LITHOSPHERE
PLATES ONLY? Why not other Earth layers ? i,e
Ashenosphere -liquid
Mesosphere-solid
OC-fluid
IC-solid
123
124
Elastic rebound theory states that rocks can be stressed,
obeying Hooke’s law, until it reaches its elastic limit.
If the rock fails in a brittle fashion, it rebound (snaps) into a
new position as the stored strain energy is released (7.1).
The sudden release of energy/stress is an earthquake, which
sends of strain energy is an earthquake, which sends off
vibrations as seismic waves.

Scientists believed that stress and strain

Egg and chicken argument

Stress/EQ strain Vibration (as seismic waves , p, s, R and L)

125
126
Instruments that record seismic waves are called
Seismographs. Seismographs have a mass freely suspended
from a support that is attached to the ground.

Figure. Seismograph
127
The records obtained from seismographs, called seismograms,
provide a great deal of information about the behavior of
seismic waves.
Seismographs – For EQ Seismology
Geophone – For Exploration Geophysics
Hydrophone – Geophone on marine body
Seismographs ( instruments that measure EQ)
Seismograms (traces of EQ)

128
 Figure. A Seismogram
Location of earthquakes
How locate an EQ?
The location of an earthquake can be described by
 latitude,
 longitude, and
 depth of the zone rupture.
The focus (sometimes called Hypocenter) of an earthquake is
the location within Earth where an earthquake originates.

When locating an earthquake on a map, seismologists plot the

epicenter, the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Focal depth is the distance from the epicenter to the focus.

129
Figure. Focus and Epicenter of an earthquake

130
 Focal depth
Earthquakes occur in the upper 70 km of the earth, because
they are confined to the rigid lithosphere, which can undergo
brittle failure.
Focal depths are normally related to the types of plate
boundary.

Most earthquakes are shallow focus, from the surface to 70 km

depth; shallow focus earthquakes occur at all types of plate
boundaries.
Most intermediate focus (70 to 300 km) and virtually all deep
focus earthquakes occur in convergent (subduction) setting,
where lithosphere extends deeply through the asthenosphere.
Why deep EQ always in Convergent boundaries?
131
132
The initial compressional waves from an earthquake travel
faster than the initial shear waves; p-waves therefore arrive
stations some time before the s-waves (fig. 7.4a).
The amount of time (delay time) that elapses between the P
and S arrivals (TS - TP) is a function of the distance between
the epicenter and station.

The farther away the recording instrument is from the focus,

the greater the difference in arrival times of the first P wave
compared to the first S wave.

133
134
135
For example, look at the following seismograms, Paris-France
is located farthest from the epicenter and Nagpur-India is the
nearest to the epicenter.

136
How the distance between the station and earthquake epicenter
is determined?
To determine the distance between a recording station and an
earthquake epicenter, seismologists use the following travel-
time graph.

Figure. Travel-Time Graph 137

For example look at the seismograms above, when the first p
wave arrives 4 minutes before the first s wave, from the travel-
time graph the earthquake occurred about 2500 kilometers
from the recording station.

To determine the location of earthquake epicenter we need

three seismograph stations.

Using seismograms from three recording stations and a travel-

time graph, we can establish the location of the earthquake
epicenter.
For example from the above three seismograms, the
epicenter from a recording station located in Nagpur-
India is about 3200 km.
138
From this information, we conclude that this earthquake
occurred somewhere along a circle centered around Nagpur
with a radius of 3200 kilometers.

Similarly, the distance from the epicenter to the seismic

stations located in Darwin-Australia and Paris-France are 4900
kilometers and 8200 kilometers respectively.
Drawing a circle with radius of 3200, 4900, and 8200
kilometers on the map from their respective stations, we
conclude that the earthquake occurred at the intersection of the
three circles.

139
 82000km-france

3200km india

4900km australia

Figure. Location of the earthquake (epicenter) using the seismograms from the three stations, at a
distance of 3200, 4900, and 8200 kms from Nagpur, Darwin, and Paris respectively.
140
 How the Depth of the Focus is determined?

The depth for the source of an earthquake can be computed

from the epicenter distance and the travel time of p-waves.
Let E is the distance between the epicenter and the station, D
is the distance between the focus and the station, and H is the
depth of the focus.

141
 D2=E2 +H2, this implies that H =  D2- E2.
We have seen in the previous sections how to determine E. D
can also determined from the travel time and velocity of P-
waves.

Seismologists determine from different earthquake data that

the average velocity of P-waves (Vp) in crustal rocks. And
from the travel-time graph we can read the total travel time
taken for the p-wave (Tp). Then

142
Vp = D/Tp
D = VpTp, therefore, H =  D2- E2
H =  (VpTp) 2- E2

Strength of an earthquake

There are two terms used to describe the strength of an

earthquake:
magnitude is quantitative, related to the amount of energy
released by the earthquake( amount of energy released when
EQ happen).
intensity is qualitative, describing the severity of the ground
motion at a given location (degree of seismic hazard when
EQ happen). 143
 Magnitude
Magnitude is based on precise measurements of the amplitude
of seismic waves, at known distances from the epicenter, using
seismographs.
It is expressed according to a logarithmic scale, whereby an
increase in magnitude by one unit corresponds to a 10- fold
increase in amplitude of the seismic waves.

for example, consider a magnitude 6 earthquake, compared to

a magnitude 8 earthquake, occurring in exactly the same place
(fig. 7.5). at the same seismic station, the grounds moves up
and down 100 times as high for the magnitude 8 event as it did
during the magnitude 6 (108/106 =102=100 ).

144
145
 Intensity
intensity of an earthquake is based on effects at the surface, as
witnessed by people.
For a give location, intensity is reported as roman numbers
according to the Mercalli scale. Three factors that tend to
increase intensity/Shaking/motion at a given location are:

• Magnitude of the earthquake

• Proximity to the earthquake focus/Distance
• Loose soils as opposed to firm bed rocks/Geology.

How we relate this with Damage of the

buildings.
146
A large magnitude earthquake would have higher intensity
everywhere, compare to a small one.

Seismic wave amplitude get smaller with increasing distance

from the earthquake source, so that intensities generally
decrease with distance from the focus.

Exceptions occur due to local ground conditions. Seismic

waves are amplified in area where there are unconsolidated
sediments or landfill locally increasing the intensity.

147
148
149
 3.4 Behavior of seismic waves at boundary
Q, What will happen when seismic waves reach at layer
boundary?

When the seismic wave travels through the earth and reach at
the layer boundary, they encounter changes in physical
properties like
bulk modulus,
shear modulus and
density and composition of the materials.

Change in physical properties of the materials cause the rays

to be reflected and refracted.
150
Normal incidence: when a ray hits an interface with normal
incidence (at right angle to the boundary) some of the waves
are reflected where as the rest of the waves are passed through
in to the lower medium

Incidence ray
Layer 1

Layer 2

151
Oblique incidence: when a ray hits an interface with oblique
incidence (at some angle from the vertically) some of the
waves are reflected. Whereas the rest of the waves are passed
through in to the lower medium and refracted according with
Snell’s law. Incidence ray
N o rmal (vertical) line

Layer 1 r R eflected ray

i

Layer 2

R efracted ray

152
Snell’s law: Snell’s law is a law that described how the waves
refracted when the waves reach at the boundary.
This law describes the relationship between the angle of
incident and angle of refracted as the seismic waves pass
through a boundary between different medium.

sin i V1

sin R V2

153
Where i = incident angle from the vertical, v1= velocity of the
first layer, v2 = velocity of the second layer and R = refracted
angle from the vertical.

Reflection: seismic waves are reflected from the boundary by

obey the Snell’ law. The angle of incident is equal to the angle
of reflected. Why?
Incident angle (i) is the angle between the incident ray and
vertical (normal) line.
Reflected angle is the angle between the reflected ray and
vertical (normal) line.

154
 Normal line

i r

Refracted: seismic waves are refracted from the boundary

(interface) based on the Snell’s law. The refracted angle is
related to the angle of incidence through the velocity ratio of
the layers. 155
Case 1 when an incidence ray goes from a material (with high
velocity) to a material (with low velocity), the refracted wave
bend toward the vertical.

when v1 > v2

i
Layer 1 V1

Layer 2

V2
R

Refracted wave
156
Case 2 when an incidence ray goes from a material (with low
velocity) to a material (with high velocity), the refracted wave
bend toward the horizontal.

When v1 < v2

i
v1
Layer 1

Layer 2 R
v2

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Seismic waves can also critically refract at the interface
(boundary). The refracted wave travels along the boundary of
the two layers with the velocity of the second layer. This
occurs when the refracted angle is 900.

i
Layer 1 v1

Layer 2 R v2

158
How seismic waves are important to study interior
part of the earth?
How do we know anything all about Earth’s deep
interior if we’ve never sampled it directly?
Other than meteorite and laboratory studies, most of what we
know about Earth’s deep interior comes to us through the
study of seismic waves (S and P waves).

If the properties of the earth, i.e. K,, and μ where the same
throughout, then Vp and Vs would be constant throughout the
Earth and seismic waves would travel along straight line paths
through the Earth.

159
We know however that density must change with depth in the
Earth, because the density of the Earth is 5,200 kg/cubic meter
and density of crustal rocks is about 2,700 kg/cubic meter.

In fact we know that K,  , and μ change due to changing

temperatures, pressures and compositions of material.
The job of seismology is, therefore, to use the observed
seismic wave velocities to determine how K, and μ change
with depth in the Earth, and then infer how P, T, and
composition change with depth in the Earth.
In other words to tell us something about the internal structure
of the Earth.

160
One of the earliest discoveries of seismology was a
discontinuity at a depth of 2900 km where the velocity of P-
waves suddenly decreases. T

This boundary is the boundary between the mantle and the

core and was discovered because of a zone on the opposite
side of the Earth from an Earthquake focus receives no direct
P-waves because the P-waves are refracted inward as a result
of the sudden decrease in velocity at the boundary. This zone
is called a P-wave shadow zone.

This discovery was followed by the discovery of an S-wave

shadow zone.

161
The S-wave shadow zone occurs because no S-waves reach
the area on the opposite side of the Earth from the focus.
Since no direct S-waves arrive in this zone, it implies that no
S-waves pass through the core.

This further implies the velocity of S-wave at outer core is 0.

In liquids µ = 0, so S-wave velocity is also equal to 0.

From this it is deduced that outer core or at least part of the

core is in the liquid state, since no S-waves are transmitted
through liquids.

Thus, the S-wave shadow zone is best explained by a liquid

outer core.
162
163
164
 Figure 3.15. propagation of seismic waves along the interior
part of the earth
 Over the years seismologists have collected data on how
seismic wave velocities vary with depth in the Earth.

 Distinct boundaries, called discontinuities are observed

when there is sudden change in physical properties or
chemical composition of the Earth.
 From these discontinuities, we can deduce something about
the nature of the various layers in the Earth.

 As we discussed way back at the beginning of the course,

we can look at the Earth in terms of layers of differing
chemical composition, and layers of differing physical
properties. 165
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Based on velocities derived from travel-time curves, especially
the seismic wave velocity rapidly at about 35 and 2900km
depth, three major zones of earth were recognized in the early
20th century. This division based on chemical composition.

Crust
Mohorovicic discovered the boundary between crust and
mantle, thus it is named the Mohorovicic discontinuity or
Moho, for short.
The composition of the crust can be determined from seismic
waves by comparing seismic wave velocities measured on
rocks in the laboratory with seismic wave velocities observed
in the crust. Then from travel times of waves on many
earthquakes and from many seismic stations, the thickness and
composition of the crust can be inferred. 167
In the ocean basins crust is about 8 to 10 km thick, and has a
composition that is basaltic. Whereas the depth of continental
crust is varies 40 – 70 km and has granitic composition.

Mantle
Seismic wave velocities increase abruptly at the Moho.
In the mantle, wave velocities are consistent with a rock
composition of Perdotite which consists of olivine, pyroxene,
and garnet.

168
 Core
At a depth of 2900 km P-wave velocities suddenly decrease
and S-wave velocities go to zero.

This is the top of the outer core. As discussed above, the outer
core must be liquid since S-wave velocities are 0.

At a depth of about 4800 km the sudden increase in P-wave

velocities indicate a solid inner core.

The core appears to have a composition consistent with mostly

Iron with small amounts of Nickel.

169
Refined seismic observations led to modern divisions based on
physical properties lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere,
outer core and inner core.
At a depth of about 100 km there is a sudden decrease in both
P and S-wave velocities.

This boundary marks the base of the lithosphere and the top of
the asthenosphere.

The lithosphere is composed of both crust and part of the

upper mantle.

It is a brittle layer that makes up the plates in plate tectonics,

and appears to float and move around on top of the more
ductile asthenosphere. 170
At the top of the asthenosphere is a zone where both P- and S-
wave velocities are low. This zone is called the Low-Velocity
Zone (LVZ).
It is thought that the low velocities of seismic waves in this
zone are caused by temperatures approaching the partial
melting temperature of the mantle, causing the mantle in this
zone to behave in a very ductile manner.
At a depth of 400 km there is an abrupt increase in the
velocities of seismic waves, thus this boundary is known as
the 400 Km Discontinuity.
Experiments on mantle rocks indicate that this represents a
temperature and pressure where there is a polymorphic phase
transition, involving a change in the crystal structure of
Olivine, one of the most abundant minerals in the mantle.
171
Another abrupt increase in seismic wave velocities occurs at a
depth of 670 km.

It is uncertain whether this discontinuity, known as the 670

Km Discontinuity, is the result of a polymorphic phase
transition involving other mantle minerals or a compositional
change in the mantle, or both.

From 2900 to 5100km depth no s-waves are recorded extends

beyond 1030 angular distance: this ‘’

“Shadow zone” is the evidence that S- waves are not

transmitted through this region. Therefore this region is liquid
outer core.
172
At about 5100km depth the velocity is suddenly increase and
the inner core is solid.

THE END OF THIS CHAPTER!!!!

1OQ U!!!!

173
 CHAPTER FOUR
GEOMAGNETISM
4.1. Origin of Earth’s magnetic field

4.2. Basic concepts of magnetic fields

Forces Associated with Magnetic Monopoles
The fundamental magnetic element appears to consist of two
magnetic monopoles,
 one positive and one negative, and
 separated by some distance.

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This fundamental magnetic element consisting of two
monopoles is called a magnetic dipole. The mathematical
expression for the magnetic force between two magnetic
monopoles is given by:

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Where μ is a constant of proportionality known as the
magnetic permeability, p1 and p2 are the strengths of the two
magnetic monopoles, and r is the distance between the two
poles.
Magnetic permeability is a property of the material in which
the two monopoles, p1 and p2, are located.
If they are in a vacuum, μ is called magnetic permeability of
free space.

The p1 and p2 can be either positive or negative in sign. If p1

and p2 have the same sign, the force between the two
monopoles is repulsive.
If p1 and p2 have opposite signs, the force between the two
monopoles is attractive.
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 4.2.1 Field Lines for a Magnetic Dipole

Another way to visualize the magnetic force field associated

with a magnetic dipole is to plot the field lines for the force.

Field lines are nothing more than a set of lines drawn such that
they are everywhere parallel to the direction of the force you
are trying to describe, in this case the magnetic force.

Shown below is the spatial variation of the magnetic force

(green arrows)* associated with a magnetic dipole and a set of
field lines (red lines) describing the force.
Field lines- parallel with direction of force.

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Figure 4.1 Field lines for magnetic dipoles.
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 4.2.2 Magnetic field strength (H)
The magnetic field strength (H) is defined as the force per unit
pole strength exerted by a magnetic monopole, p1. H is
nothing more than Coulomb's expression divided by p2. The
magnetic field strength H is the magnetic analog to the
gravitational acceleration, g.

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Given the units associated with force, N, and magnetic
monopoles, Amp - m, the units associated with magnetic field
strength are Newton per Ampere-meter, N / (Amp - m). N /
(Amp - m) is referred to as a tesla (T), named after the
renowned inventor Nikola Tesla.

When describing the magnetic field strength of the earth, it is

more common to use units of nanotesla (nT). The average
strength of the Earth's magnetic field is about 50,000nT. A
nanotesla is also commonly referred to as a gamma.

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 4.2.3 Magnetic Field Nomenclature

At any point on the Earth's surface, the magnetic field, F has

some strength and points in some direction. The following
terms are used to describe the direction of the magnetic field.

Declination: The angle between north and the horizontal

projection of F. This value is measured positive through east
and varies from 0 to 360 degrees.

Inclination: The angle between the surface of the earth and F.

Positive inclinations indicate F is pointed downward, negative
inclinations indicate F is pointed upward. Inclination varies
from -90 to 90 degrees.
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Magnetic Equator: The location around the surface of the
Earth where the Earth's magnetic field has an inclination of
zero (the magnetic field vector F is horizontal). This location
does not correspond to the Earth's rotational equator.

Magnetic Poles: The locations on the surface of the Earth

where the Earth's magnetic field has an inclination of either
plus or minus 90 degrees (the magnetic field vector F is
vertical). These locations do not correspond to the Earth's
north and south poles.

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Figure 4.2. Elements of earth’s magnetic fields

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 4.3. Magnetization of rocks
When a magnetic material, like iron, is placed within a
magnetic field, H, the magnetic material will produce its own
magnetization.

This phenomenon is called induced magnetization. Ability of

materials to become magnetized is called magnetic
susceptibility. Rocks may retain that magnetization to the
present which is called remanent magnetization.

The strength of the magnetic field induced by the magnetic

material due to the inducing field is called the intensity of
magnetization, I.
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The nature of magnetization material is in general complex,
governed by atomic properties.

Source of magnetism in rocks are magnetic atoms. All

magnetic materials may be grouped into five magnetic classes.

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 These are:

 Diamagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic
 Antiferromagnetic
 Ferrimagnetic

There is no magnetic order at any temperature in diamagnetic

and paramagnetic materials, whereas there is a magnetic order
at low temperatures in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials.

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 Diamagnetic
 Discovered by Michael Faraday in 1846.
 This form of magnetism is a fundamental property of all
materials and is caused by the alignment of magnetic moments
associated with orbital electrons in the presence of an external
magnetic field.

 For those elements with no unpaired electrons in their outer

electron shells, this is the only form of magnetism observed.

 These substances have atoms or ions with complete shells,

and their diamagnetic behavior is due to the fact that a
magnetic field acts to distort the orbital motion.

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The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are relatively
small and negative ranges from -10-6 to -10-5.

Negative magnetic susceptibility means that the diamagnetic

materials acquire the magnetization, which is pointed opposite
to the applied magnetic field.
In diamagnetic materials, the susceptibility nearly has a
constant value independent of temperature.
Noble metals, Quartz and salt are two common diamagnetic
earth materials. Finally, diamagnetic materials acquire a very
weak magnetization opposite an external applied magnetic
field, and lose their alignment when the field is removed.
weak
not retained/ removed.
independent
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 Paramagnetic
This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that
have an odd number of electrons in their outer electron shells.
Paramagnetism is associated with the alignment of electron
spin directions in the presence of an external magnetic field.
It can only be observed at relatively low temperatures.

The temperature above which Paramagnetism is no longer

observed is called Curie temperature.(540 ).

The susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances are small and

positive varies from10-4 to 10-5.
Positive magnetic susceptibility means the paramagnetic
materials acquire magnetization, which is in the same direction
to the applied field.
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The best-known examples of paramagnetic materials are the
ions of transition and rare-earth ions.

Paramagnetic materials acquire a weak magnetization aligned

with an external applied magnetic field, and also lose their
magnetization when the field is removed.
weak
not retain/ removed
observed at low T.
Ferromagnetic
This has dipoles which can align with an external magnetic
field to produce a much stronger magnetization, and also they
retain the magnetization after the field is removed.
stronger
retain H
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This is a special case of Paramagnetism in which there is an
almost perfect alignment of electron spin directions within
large portions of the material referred to as domains.

Like Paramagnetism, ferromagnetism it is observed only at

temperatures below the Curie temperature.

The susceptibilities of ferromagnetic materials are typically of

order +103 or 104 or even greater.

Among the elements, only cobalt, iron and nickel are strongly
ferromagnetic, their Curie temperatures being about 1400,
1040 and 630 K respectively.

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 Ferrimagnetic
have non-zero magnetization below the Curie temperature
which is similar to ferromagnetic materials. However,
significant departures occur over a range of temperatures.

Another difference between ferrimagnets and ferromagnets is

that in ferrimagnetic materials the saturation magnetizations
against temperature behave in a more complicated way.

For example, for some ferrimagnets the magnetization can

increase with increasing temperature and then drops down.
Similar with ferromagnetics, but
magnetization increase with T. then drops.

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 Antiferromagnetic
have small positive susceptibilities at high temperatures.
Hematite is an antiferromagnetic material.

The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains

are opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each
spin direction is approximately equal. The observed magnetic
intensity for the material is almost zero.
I – observed Zero

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 4.4. Paleomagnetism and plate motions

 The study of rock magnetism developed during the 1950s

with the perfection of new, highly sensitive magnetometers.
 When igneous rocks containing magnetic minerals
crystallize, the magnetic minerals align themselves with the
Earth's magnetic field when rocks solidify.

 Certain rocks, such as basalt, are fairly rich in iron and

become magnetized by Earth’s magnetic field as they cool.

 Similarly, the iron-oxide grains in some red sandstone

become oriented in Earth’s magnetic field as the sediment is
deposited, so some sedimentary rocks also can show the
orientation of the paleomagnetic
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fields. 195
These rocks therefore retain an imprint of Earth’s magnetic
field at the time of their formation.

Paleomagnetism is the remanent magnetism in ancient rocks

that recording the direction and intensity of Earth’s magnetic
field at the time of the rock’s formation.

In a sense, the mineral grains in the rock become “fossil”

magnets that show the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field at
the time when the minerals crystallized and cooled; they thus
preserve a record of paleomagnetism.

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This magnetic alignment is “frozen” and retained if rock is not
subsequently reheated.

Paleomagnetism of ancient rocks are used to determine

direction and polarity of Earth’s magnetic field, paleolatitude
from inclination (dip) and apparent position of N and S
magnetic poles. Earth's magnetic field periodically reverses
polarity – the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic
pole, and vice versa. Why ?
Geologists started to sample across the Mid Atlantic and other
oceanic ridges, they made an amazing discovery.
Used – direction and polarity Earth’s magnetic field.
- Paleoaltitude from dip/inclination
- Apparent position of N and S magnetic poles.

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Based on the analysis of rock samples from mid Atlantic and
other oceanic ridges, the paleomagnetic signatures recorded in
the rocks shows that the polarity of Earth’s magnetic field was
reversed many times over its history as shown in Figure 4.4.

The magnetic field is said to have normal polarity

when the magnetic North Pole and the geographic North Pole
are adjacent.

The magnetic field exhibits reverse polarity when the

magnetic "North Pole" lies adjacent to the south geographic
pole.

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Figure 4.4. Reversals of lines of force in Earth’s magnetic
field are documented by paleomagnetic studies of numerous
rock samples from throughout the world. This shows the
patterns of changing polarity with time.

The present period of normal polarity began about 780,000

years ago. It was preceded by a major period of reversed
polarity, which began about 2.5 million years ago. The major
intervals of alternating polarity (about 1 million years apart)
are termed polarity chrons.

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The pattern of alternating polarities has been clearly defined,
and evidence of the occurrence of polarity reversals has been
found in widely separated places.

From the sequence of magnetic anomalies and their

radiometric ages, a reliable chronology of magnetic reversals
has been established for the last 4 million years as shown
figure 4.4.

In 1963 Fred Vine and D. H. Matthews saw a way to use

paleomagnetism to test the idea of seafloor spreading put forth
by Hess.

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If seafloor spreading has occurred, they suggested, it should be
recorded in the magnetism of the basalts in the oceanic crust.
(The same idea was developed independently by L.W.
Morley.)

If Earth’s magnetic field reversed intermittently, new basalt

forming at the crest of the oceanic ridge would be magnetized
according to the polarity at the time it cooled.

As the ocean floor spreads, a symmetrical series of magnetic

stripes, with alternating normal and reversed polarities, would
be preserved in the crust along either side of the oceanic ridge.
Subsequent investigations have conclusively proved this
theory.
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Figure 4.5. As magma cools and solidifies along the ridge, it becomes
magnetized in the direction of the magnetic field existing at that time
(normal polarity). Complied by tigbu 203
As seafloor spreading continues, the magnetized crust formed
during earlier periods separates into two blocks.

Each block is transported laterally away from the ridge, as

though on a conveyor belt.
New crust, formed at the ridge, becomes magnetized in the
opposite direction.

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 4.5. Magnetic anomalies
The goal of magnetic exploration methods is to determine
subsurface structures based on observed spatial variations of
the magnetic field.
The origin of magnetic anomalies is from contrasts in
subsurface magnetization.

In order to isolate the signal produced by buried bodies, we

need first to remove the magnetic field from other sources:
 The main field produced by the geodynamo.
 The external variations from its interaction with the solar
wind.
Magnetic anomalies is simply the difference between the
measured data (contains all magnetic source) and estimated of
the core and external fields.
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 CHAPTER FIVE
The Sources of Heat for earth and
their applications

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OUTTLINE OF THE CHAPTER

 Sources of heat on Earth

 What is heat?
 Mechanisms / models of heat transfer
 Heat transfer across earth’s surface
 Heat flow Equation
Measurement of heat flow
 Geothermal Gradient
 Geobaric Gradient
 Continental and oceanic heat flow
 (Plate tectonics and Heat Flow)
 Geothermal Energy
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5.1 Source of heat for earth

What really is heat?

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Kinetic energy is related to motion, potential energy is
related to the ability to do work, and
heat is just the energy that related to temperature.
Generally, heat source for earth can be classified into two.
These are
Internal and
External heat source.
External heat sources (99.982 %) ------ solar energy (99.98
%) and tidal energy (0.002 %).

Internal heat sources (0.018 %) -------- radioactive decay,

original heat and friction heat.

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The largest source of energy driving terrestrial processes,
roughly 50,000 times all other sources, is radiant thermal
energy from the Sun in which the 70% is trapped in the
atmosphere.

Radiant solar energy does not conduct very far into the
ground, perhaps only a few meters in sunny areas.

A major source of internal heat within the Earth is decay

radioactive elements.
New heat is produced when the radioactive elements
decays from one form to another, primarily in the earth’s
mantle.

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The production of heat depends on the decay of radioactive
elements, like uranium, thorium and potassium.

Crustal rocks especially continental are high in those elements

and these produced large quantities of heat per unit volume.

The earth’s mantle is, however, far more voluminous than the
crust, so that the most of new heat is produced in the mantle.

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Other important sources of thermal energy in the Earth
(Verhoogen, 1980) are due to tidal and the “original” heat.

Tidal deformation of the solid Earth and oceans due to the

gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon is dissipated as
thermal energy, but this contribution is estimated to be an
order of magnitude less than that of radioactive decay.

In addition to current heat production by radioactive decay

and dissipation from tides, some original heat inherited from
the formation of the Earth.
Thermal energy is manifest in temperature, T; the rate at
which T increases into the interior of the Earth is the
geothermal gradient, or ΔT/ΔZ. In parallel fashion,
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The force of gravity acts on mass to produce pressure, P, in
the interior of the Earth; the rate at which P increases into the
interior of the Earth is the geobaric gradient, or ΔP/ΔZ.

5.2 Mechanisms (Models) of Heat Transfer

The transfer of heat from one region to another can involve

electromagnetic waves (radiation), atomic interaction
between materials of different temperature (conduction) or
the actual movements of hot materials (convection).

1. Radiation

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A common and obvious source of heat at Earth’s surface is
radiation from the sun.

This radiation is on the order of 2*1017W (= 4*102Wm-2

average over the surface), resulting in an average surface
temperature of about 200C (Fowler, 1990).

Solar heat derives atmospheric and oceanic circulation, which

in turn drives surface geological processes (weathering,
erosion, stream flow, glaciations) virtually all of the heats that
shines on the earth is radiated back and lost, however, so the
solar radiation cannot explain the amount of heat that flows
from the earth’s deep interior (= 8*10-2Wm-2).

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Other heat sources are responsible for the earth’s internal
processes (earthquakes, volcanism, and Lithospheric plate
motion).

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 2. Conduction
The conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from one
point of a medium to another under the influence of
temperature differences
Heat can be transferred by atomic vibrations, flowing from a
region of higher to one of lower temperature.

Therefore, the conduction is attributed to the elastic collisions

of molecules in gases and liquids, to the motion of free
electrons in metals, and to the longitudinal oscillation of
atoms in solid insulators of electricity.

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Conductive transfer of heat from earth’s interior to its surface
set up a geothermal gradient, with temperature increasing
rapidly near the surface, more slowly with depth. Transfer
heat through conduction is a relatively slow process on
geological time scale.

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 3 . Convection
The transfer of heat in conjunction with the movement of
material is called convection. In a container of boiling
water, convection currents move heat rapidly.

Hot water heat to the source rises, dense water at the surface
descends to near the burner, where it is heated.

This system is resemble the earth’s

lithosphere/asthenosphere system; convection of filling
asthenosphere produced currents that rise and fall, in place
deforming the lithosphere.

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Advection is a special type of convection, whereby heat is
transferred through movement of material in a solid state.

Advective heat flow generally proceeds slowly, so that

conduction readjusts the temperature.

In some instance, however, tectonic processes quickly move

blocks of hot materials large horizontal or vertical movement
a long deep seated thrust faults, as well as uplifting of
mountain ranges due to erosion and isostatic rebound.

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The heat flow through continental crust takes place not only
by conduction but also by advection. How?

The crustal materials are composed of either metamorphic,

igneous and sedimentary or combinations of the three rocks.
This rock unit may be porous, permeable and saturated with
fluids.
The fluid contained in the pore space of the formation will
flow as a result of pressure difference. This ability of fluid to
flow through the crustal rock enable them to transmit heat.
In this case the fluid motion is not derived by pressure
difference rather than temperature gradient, thus the heat
transfer is due to advection.
This motion of fluid through continental crust is source of
geothermal energy.
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 5.3. Heat flow across Earth’s surface
Heat flow equation

The rate that heat flows by conduction/allow through from

earth’s interior to its surface can be imagined through a
simple plate model (Fig. 10.11a).

Heat energy is conducted from the level with highest

temperature (T2) to the lowest temperature surface (T1),
according to:

 T2  T1 
q  k 
 h 
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where: q = rate of heat flow per unit area through the top of
the plate (Wm-2)
k = thermal conductivity of the plate (Wm-1 C-1)
T1 = temperature at the surface of the plate (0C)
T2 = temperature at the base of the plate (0C)
h = thickness of the plate (m)

If there is a linear increasing in temperature from the surface

downward (Fig. 10.11b), the heat flow can be expressed as a
function of depth as:

 T1  T  T1 
q z   k  
 z 
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where: q(z) = heat flow at depth z (positive downward)
T = change in temperature from the surface to depth z
z = distance from the surface to depth z

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Taking the limit, for very small z:

 T 
lim q z   lim k  
z  0  z 
z  0

 T 
 k 
 z 

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 where: q = rate heat flows outward across earth’s surface
(heat flow)
k = the ability of the rocks in the region to conduct
heat (thermal conductivity)
T/z = rate at which the temperature increases
from surface downward in the region (geothermal
gradient)

Table 10.1 shows that thermal conductivities for most rocks

range from 2 to 3 Wm-1C-1. Values for rock’s rich in quartz
(sandstone and quartzite) can be significantly higher.

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For a given thermal conductivity, higher heat flow results
from higher geothermal gradient (fig. 10.12a). If the
geothermal gradient is constant, regions with rocks of higher
thermal conductivity have higher heat flow (Fig. 10.12b).

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 Measurement of heat flow
Fig. 10.13 illustrates that heat flow is measured by taking the
temperature at different depths in a drill hole, yielding the
geothermal gradient (T/z).

If an average thermal conductivity (k) is known for rocks in

the region, the heat flow (q) can be calculated.

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 5.4. Oceanic and Continental heat flow
Continental heat flow

Continental heat flow is defined as the quantity of heat

escaping per unit time from the Earth’s interior across each
unit area of the Earth’s solid surface.

The quantity varies from place to place over the surface of

the Earth, as well as with time throughout Earth history.

The total heat being lost from the Earth at a given time is the
integral of the heat flow taken over the entire surface of
earth.
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The heat flow from the continents is therefore but a part of
the larger picture of global heat loss,
indeed/really/uncertianly the lesser part when compared to
the heat loss through the floor of the ocean basins.

This is so not only because of the lesser continental area, but

also because of the generally smaller heat flow found on the
continents than in the ocean basins.
Continental heat flow is significantly affected by
 the age and intensity of the last orogenic event,
 the distribution of radioactive elements in the crust, and
 the amount of heat coming from the mantle (Chapman
and Furlong, 1992).

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So, Continental heat flow can be considered in terms of three
components, all of which decay with time (Vitorello and
Pollack, 1980).
1. Radiogenic heat in the upper crust
contributes about 40% of the total heat flow in
continental crust of all ages.
The absolute amount of heat from this source decreases
with time in response to erosion of the upper crust.
2. Residual heat from igneous activity associated with
orogeny.
A second component, contributing about 30% to the heat
flow in Cenozoic terranes.
These two components decay rapidly in a few hundred million
years.
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3. Generally minor component comes from convective heat
from within the mantle.

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Continental surface heat flow (qo) is linearly related to
average radiogenic heat production (Ao) of near-surface
basement rocks.

In this expression,
qr, commonly called the reduced heat flow, is the intercept
value for rocks with zero heat production;

D, the slope of the line relating surface heat flow to

radiogenic heat production, has units of depth and is
commonly called the characteristic depth.
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Fig. 10.14 is a map of heat flow determined for the united
state.

Table 10.3 shows approximate geothermal gradients and heat

flow values for three regions, one cold, one normal and one
hot.

The geothermal gradients for the three regions are

superimposed on phase diagrams for upper continental crust
rock (granite) and mantle (peridotite) in fig. 10.15.

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 Continental craton
On the stable interior of a continent (craton), there is normal
increase in temperature with depth(T vs Z).

Granitic rocks of the upper to middle mantle crust are

therefore too cold for partial melting to occur (fig. 15a).

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Because the region is not active a relatively flat
lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary has been established at
about 150 km depth (10. 16a).

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 Brittle deformation

Ductile Deformation

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 Continental Rift
hot asthenosphere is in a shallow position beneath a
continental rift.
 At a depth of about 20 km beneath the basin and range
province, granitic rocks are hot enough to initiate slight
partial (fig. 10.15a).
 Earthquakes are thus limited to the upper 15 km
because the high geothermal gradient results in a shallow
brittle to ductile transition.
 Low seismic velocities are observed for the upper
mantle beneath the basin and range province consistent
with very shallow asthenosphere.

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The high geothermal gradient suggests that, at 45 km depth,
the temperature is around 13000C (fig. 10.15b). The pressure
on the hot asthenosphere is so slow at that depth that
significant partial melting occurs.

Remnant Subduction Zone

 The Sierra Nevada Mountains in California and Nevada are
the eroded roots of a volcanic arc that existed prior to the
development of the San Andreas transform plate boundary.

 Low heat flow suggests the presence of thick, cold

lithosphere, a former of subduction zone.

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 Oceanic heat flow
 Seafloor heat flow is the highest at the mid oceanic
ridges(MORs), and decrease with age of the lithosphere.
 Oceanic regions are generally hotter than the continents,
because their lithosphere is younger.
WHY? Older,

 This variation is one of the key models of plate tectonics;

the oceanic lithosphere cools as it spreads away from mid-
ocean ridges and reheated upon returning to the mantle at
the subduction zones.
Controls ,q (heat flow)

The average surface heat flow decreases with the average

age of crustal rocks in both oceanic and continental areas
(Sclater et al., 1980; Morgan,
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The age of the oceanic crust is increases as a function of
distance from ocean ridges and as a function of decreasing
mean elevation. Mid oceanic ridge
At the mid oceanic ridges, both heat flow values and
topography decrease exponentially with distance from the
ridge axis (fig. below).

For a given spreading rate, the farther from the ridges, the
older the lithosphere; decreasing heat flow values thus
indicate cooling of the lithosphere as its ages.
Note : Farther from ridges---Lithosphere is old (age)------heat
is decreased------lithosphere is cooled---low elevation.
Near to ridges----Lithosphere is young (age)-------heat is
increased------lithosphere is hotter-----high elevation
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The continental heat flow falling from
70-80mwm-2 in younger provinces to
steady-state value of 40-50mwm-2in
Precambrian region older than 800ma.

Why?cold
Why?/ hot

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At the same distance from the ridge axes, fast spreading
ridges are more elevated than slow spreading ridges (10.17b).

The elevation is the function of temperature; hotter regions

have thermal expand mantle and, hence, are more elevated.

Collectively the observations in fig.10.17 suggest that, as

material move away from a ridge axis, they cool and contrast,
causing the top of the crust to sink deep below sea level.

Fast spreading ridges remains hot and elevated some distance

from the ridge axis, leading to a very broad profile (east
pacific rise fig.10.18a).
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Slow spreading ridges are older and cooler a similar distance
from the ridge, producing steep profiles (Mid Atlantic Ridge
fig. 10.18b).

Note- Fast Spreading ridges ---hotter/younger---more

elevated---- leading to a very broad profile (east pacific rise)
Slow Spreading ridges----cooler/older-------low elevated---
producing steep profiles (Mid Atlantic Ridge)

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 Subduction zone
when a slab of lithosphere subducts, it perturbs temperature
contours, decreasing the geothermal gradient in the region of
subduction zone (fig.10.17).

Heat flow measurements commonly show a broad low in

forearc region, with a local high at the volcanic arc. The low is
a result of the cold slab, while the high reflects transfer of
heat within the ascending magma
Heat flow high- local volcanic arc-transfer of heat with
the ascending magma

Heat flow low- forearc region-result of cold slab

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Low heat flow High heat flow
Why ? Why?

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5.6. Worldwide heat flow: total heat loss from the
Earth
Considering all sources of heat loss, the total heat loss from
the Earth is about (44.2 + 1.00) × 1012W,
split between (13.1 + 0.3) × 1012 W from the continents and
 (31.2 + 0.7) × 1012 W from the oceans (Sclater et al., 1980).
The total heat flow the earth is (87 + 2.0) mW/m2, split into
(65+ 1.6) mW/m2 from the continents and (101 + 2.2) mW/m2
from the ocean.

5.4. Geothermal energy

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 What is geothermal energy?
Geothermal energy is defined as heat from the Earth.
It is a clean, renewable resource that provides energy in
world in a variety of applications and resources.

Although areas with telltale signs like hot springs are more
obvious and are often the first places geothermal resources
are used, the heat of the earth is available everywhere, and
we are learning to use it in a broader diversity of
circumstances.
Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source
because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is
continuously produced deep within the Earth. We won’t run
out of geothermal energy.
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The heat continuously flowing from the Earth’s interior, which
travels primarily by conduction, is estimated to be equivalent
to 42 million megawatts (MW) of power, and is expected to
remain so for billions of years to come, ensuring an unlimited
supply of energy.

The most active geothermal resources are usually found along

major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are
concentrated.
Amazingly, Do see how plate boundaries are
useful?
Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs in an area
called the Ring of Fire. This area borders the Pacific Ocean.

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There is more than one type of geothermal energy, but only
one kind is widely used. It is called hydrothermal energy.

Hydrothermal resources have two common ingredients:

water (hydro) and heat (thermal).

Depending on the temperature of the hydrothermal resource,

the heat energy can either be used for making electricity or
for heating.

A geothermal system requires heat source, reservoir, and

water. The heat from the Earth’s core continuously flows
outward.

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Sometimes the heat, as magma, reaches the surface as lava,
but it usually remains below the Earth’s crust, heating nearby
rock and water.

When water is heated by the earth’s heat, hot water or steam

can be trapped in permeable and porous rocks under a layer
of impermeable rock and a geothermal reservoir can form.

This hot geothermal water can manifest itself on the surface

as hot springs or geysers, but most of it stays deep
underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural
collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir.

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 Figure 5.2. The Formation of a Geothermal Reservoir

Geothermal energy can be used for

 electricity production
 for commercial
 industrial
 residential direct heating purposes and
 for efficient home heating.

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THANK
YOU
FUTURE
GRADUATE
NOMINEES
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