Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR917

Embedded Systems Basics

Konduru Sravani
Department of E.C.E, Bapatla Women’s Engineering College, Andhra Pradesh, India

Abstract:- Embedded systems play a pivotal role in  An Embedded System Major Component:
modern technological advancements, integrating Embedded systems consist of several major
computing capabilities into various devices and systems. components that work together to perform specific tasks or
This paper presents an abstract of an embedded system functions efficiently. Here are the key components of an
designed for real-time monitoring and control embedded system along with brief explanations for each:
applications in industrial automation. The system utilizes
a combination of microcontroller-based hardware and  Microcontroller or Microprocessor:
software components to achieve reliable and efficient
operation.  The microcontroller or microprocessor is the central
processing unit (CPU) of the embedded system.
Keywords:- Embedded System, Harvard and Von Neumann,  Microcontrollers are typically used in embedded systems
RISC and CISC. because they integrate the CPU, memory, input/output
(I/O) ports, and other peripherals on a single chip.
I. INTRODUCTION  Microprocessors are more powerful but may require
additional external components for complete
Embedded systems represent the technological functionality.
backbone of our modern world, quietly powering an  They execute the software instructions and control the
extensive array of devices and systems that we interact with operation of the embedded system.
daily. From the smartphones in our pockets to the complex
machinery in factories, embedded systems play a pivotal  Memory:
role in enabling functionality, automation, and connectivity.
In this introduction to embedded systems, we will explore  Embedded systems require memory to store program
their fundamental characteristics, applications, design code, data, variables, and temporary information during
considerations, and the evolving landscape of embedded operation.
technology. By delving into these aspects, we aim to gain a  There are two main types of memory in embedded
comprehensive understanding of the role embedded systems systems:
play in shaping our interconnected world and driving
innovation across myriad domains.  ROM (Read-Only Memory):
Stores permanent program code and data that should
II. WHAT IS EMBEDDED SYSTEM not change during normal operation.
An embedded system is a specialized computing
 RAM (Random Access Memory):
system designed to perform specific tasks or functions
Stores temporary data, variables, stack information,
within a larger mechanical or electrical system. Unlike
and dynamically allocated memory during runtime.
general-purpose computers, which are designed for a wide
range of applications and user interactions, embedded
 Input/Output (I/O) Interfaces:
systems are dedicated to executing predefined tasks
efficiently and reliably. These systems are typically
embedded into devices, equipment, or machinery to control,  I/O interfaces allow the embedded system to
communicate with external devices, sensors, actuators,
monitor, or interface with the physical world.
and human interfaces.
 Examples:  Common I/O interfaces include digital input/output pins,
analog – to -digital converters (ADCs), digital – to -
 Washing Machine analog converters (DACs), serial communication
interfaces (UART, SPI, I2C), Ethernet ports, USB ports,
 Digital Camera
and display interfaces (LCD, LED, touchscreen).
 Air Conditioner
 Navigation Systems  Sensors and Actuators:
 GPS Receivers
 Sensors detect physical parameters such as temperature,
pressure, light, motion, proximity, and more. They
convert these analog signals into digital data that the
microcontroller can process.

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR917

 Actuators, on the other hand, are used to control physical  Types of Embedded Processor Architectures:
processes or devices based on the input from the
microcontroller. Examples include motors, relays,  Based on Program Memory and Data Memory (Harvard
solenoids, valves, and LEDs. and Von Neumann).
 Based on Mechanism (RISC and CISC).
 Power Supply:  Based on Data transfer to the memory (Little Endian and
Big Endian).
 Embedded systems require a power supply to operate.  Based on Types of Address (I/O mapped I/O and
The power supply may be from batteries, external power Memory Mapped I/O).
sources, or power management circuits.
 Power management circuits ensure that the embedded  Based on Program Memory and Data Memory (Harvard
system operates within specified voltage and current and Von Neumann):
limits, and they may include voltage regulators, battery
charging circuits, and power-saving features.  Memory Block:
Von Neumann Architecture uses a single memory unit
 Communication Interfaces: to store both data and instructions. This unified memory
structure is often referred to as the "Von Neumann
 Communication interfaces enable the embedded system bottleneck" because it can lead to performance limitations
to communicate with other devices, systems, or when the CPU must access instructions and data from the
networks. This includes wired and wireless same memory sequentially.
communication protocols.
 Common communication interfaces include UART III. WHAT IS VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
(Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter), SPI
(Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C (Inter-Integrated Von Neumann Architecture is a computer architecture
Circuit), Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and CAN model proposed by John von Neumann in the late 1940s. It
(Controller Area Network). is named after the mathematician and computer scientist
John von Neumann, who played a significant role in the
 Operating System (OS) or Firmware: development of modern computing concepts.

 Embedded systems may run on a real-time operating  The Von Neumann Architecture is Characterized by the
system (RTOS), a lightweight operating system, or Following key Components and Principles:
custom firmware.
 The OS or firmware manages system resources,  Central Processing Unit.
scheduling tasks, handling interrupts, providing drivers  Memory
for peripherals, and supporting application software  Control Unit
development.  Data Bus
 Stored Program Concept
 User Interface (UI):
Von Neumann Architecture revolutionized computer
 Some embedded systems have user interfaces for design by introducing a unified memory structure and the
interaction with users or operators. UI components may concept of stored programs, laying the foundation for
include buttons, switches, displays (LCD, LED), modern computer systems. However, it also has limitations,
touchscreens, keypads, and indicators (LEDs, buzzers). such as the potential for bottlenecks due to the shared
memory bus and the inability to perform parallel processing
 Applications of Embedded Systems: efficiently. These limitations have led to alternative
architectures, such as Harvard Architecture and modified
 Networking and Communication. versions of Von Neumann Architecture with improved
 Aerospace and Defense. performance characteristics.
 Home Automation and IoT
 Medical Devices.  What is Harvard Architecture?
Harvard Architecture is a computer architecture design
 Embedded Systems Development environment: that separates memory into separate address spaces for
An Embedded Systems Development Environment instructions and data. It is named after the Harvard Mark I
refers to the tools, software, and hardware used to develop computer, developed at Harvard University in the 1940s,
software for embedded systems. Embedded systems are which first implemented this architecture. Unlike the Von
specialized computing devices designed to perform specific Neumann Architecture, which uses a single memory space
functions within a larger system. These systems can range for both instructions and data, Harvard Architecture has
from simple microcontrollers in household appliances to distinct memory spaces for program instructions and data.
complex systems in automotive, aerospace, and industrial
applications.

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR917

 Key Features of Harvard Architecture Include: embedded systems, digital signal processors (DSPs), and
microcontrollers.
 Separate Memory Spaces.
 Dual Memory Buses.  Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard
 Instruction and Data Pipelining. Architecture?
 Program Memory Protection. The Von Neumann Architecture and Harvard
Architecture are two distinct computer architecture designs
Overall, Harvard Architecture offers a structured and that differ primarily in how they handle memory
efficient approach to organizing memory and processing organization and access. Here are the key differences
elements, particularly suitable for systems that require high between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture:
performance and real-time responsiveness, such as

Table 1 Difference between Von Neumann and Harvard Architecture

Name Von Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture
Memory Organization It uses a single memory space for both It employs separate memory spaces for
instructions and data. instructions and data.
Memory Access Instructions and data share the same bus for the Sperate buses for instruction fetch and data
accessing the memory. access.
Instruction and Data Due to the shared memory space, the timing of Since instructions and data have dedicated
access Timing instruction and data access may be affected by memory spaces and buses, their access timing is
each other, potentially leading to performance independent, allowing for simultaneous access
limitations. and faster execution in certain scenarios.
Program Memory Program memory protection can be challenging Harvard Architecture makes program memory
Protection to implement in Von Neumann Architecture due protection more feasible by separating instruction
to the unified memory space. and data memory spaces.
Usages and Applications It is commonly used in general-purpose Microcontrollers, digital signal processing, etc.
computers, servers and desktop systems

In summary, the main difference between Von  What is CISC Architecture?

Neumann and Harvard Architecture lies in their memory CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing)
organization and access mechanisms. Von Neumann Architecture is a computer design philosophy that
Architecture uses a unified memory space for instructions emphasizes providing a wide variety of complex and
and data, while Harvard Architecture separates them into powerful instructions that can perform multiple operations
distinct memory areas with separate buses, allowing for in a single instruction. CISC architectures contrast with
parallel access and improved performance. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) architectures,
which prioritize simplicity and efficiency in instruction
 Based on Mechanism (RISC and CISC): execution.
RISC and CISC are two different types of computer
architectures that are designed the microprocessors that are  Ex: Motorola 68k, Digital Equipment Corporation
found in computers. Alpha, Virtual Address Extension.

 RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer.  The Following are some Important Characteristics of a
 CSIC: Complex Instruction Set Computer. RISC and CISC Processors-

 What is RISC Architecture?  RISC:

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)  Simplified Instruction Set.
Architecture is a computer design philosophy that  Single – Cycle Execution.
emphasizes simplicity and efficiency in instruction  Register – Register Architecture.
execution. It contrasts with Complex Instruction Set  Load and Store.
Computing (CISC) Architecture, which focuses on  Pipeline Execution.
providing a wide variety of complex instructions that can  Efficient for pipelining and parallelism.
perform multiple operations in a single instruction. RISC
Architecture became popular in the 1980s as a response to  CISC:
the complexity and inefficiency of CISC architectures.
 Rich Instruction Set.
 Ex: ARM, MIPS (microprocessor without interlocked  Variable – Length Instructions.
pipeline stages), power Architecture.  Memory to Memory Operations.
 Complex Addressing Modes.
 Hardware Support for High – Level Constructs.
 Microcode.

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR917

 Difference between RISC and CISC?

Table 2 Difference between RISC and CISC

Basis for Comparison RISC Architecture CISC Architecture
Instruction set Small, simple, and uniform Large, diverse, and complex
Execution speed Faster due to simpler instructions Maybe slow because of irregular size of instruction
set or complex instruction set
Compiler dependency Relies more on complier optimization Requires less to no complier intervention.
Code size Smaller due to simple instruction Large due to complex instruction set
Pipeline Often features in-depth pipelines Pipelines are comparatively shallower
Memory access Frequently use the load-store architecture for Supports direct memory access
memory access
Example ARM, MIPS X86, IBM System

Overall, RISC architectures prioritize simplicity,  What is Little Endian?

speed, and efficient use of hardware resources, while CISC In Little Endian byte ordering, the Least Significant
architectures offer a rich instruction set with complex Byte (LSB) of a multi – byte is stored at the lowest memory
operations and support for diverse programming constructs. address, and the Most Significant Byte (MSB) is stored at
Each architecture has its strengths and weaknesses, making the highest memory address.
them suitable for different types of computing tasks and
applications.  What is Big Endian?
In Big Endian byte ordering, the most significant byte
 Based on Data Transfer to the Memory (Little Endian (MSB) of a multi-byte data type is stored at the lowest
and Big Endian): memory address, and the least significant byte (LSB) is
Data transfer to memory in computing systems can stored at the highest memory address.
follow two different byte orderings: Little Endian and Big
Endian.  Difference between Little Endian and Big Endian?

Table 3 Difference between Little Endian and Big Endian

Little Endian Big Endian
Easier addition and multiplication of multiprecision number. Easier to determine sign of a number
Requires more number of comparisons for comparing two numbers Easier to divide two numbers
Not easier to print Easier to print
Ex: AMD, Intel systems Ex: IBM systems, TCP/IP

 Based on Types of Address (I/O Mapped I/O and  What is Memory Mapped I/O?
Memory Mapped I/O):
Address types in computer systems refer to how  Common address bus for I/O and Memory.
devices or components are accessed by the CPU. There are  There are no sperate IN and OUT instructions. What are
two main types of addressing methods: I/O mapped I/O and the instructions are to communicate memory same
Memory mapped I/O. instructions useful to communicate I/O.
 No sperate lines for I/O. Memory control lines only
 What is I/O Mapped I/O? (Input – Output Mapped Input MEMR, MEMW.
– Output)
 Difference between I/O Mapped I/O and Memory
 In I/O mapped I/O, a separate address space is used for Mapped I/O?
accessing I/O devices.
 Support IN and OUT Assembly Instructions.
 Separate control lines for I/O.

Table 4 Difference between I/O Mapped I/O and Memory Mapped I/O
I/O Mapped I/O Memory Mapped I/O
I/O peripherals are allotted separate or isolated, special address I/O peripherals share the same instructions and address
spaces called ports space
The size of the address space is about 8 bits. The size of the address space is about 16 bits.

The type of instructions involved in I/O writing and I/O reading. The type of instructions involved in memory writing and
memory reading.
Memory and I/O devices have separate and distinct types of Both memory and I/O devices share the same type of
instructions for the transfer of data. instructions for the transfer of data.

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR917

IV. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, embedded systems play a vital role in

modern society, powering a wide array of devices and
technologies across various industries. Their seamless
integration, real-time responsiveness, resource efficiency,
and adaptability contribute to their widespread adoption and
ongoing innovation. However, addressing challenges such as
security vulnerabilities and managing increasing software
complexity remains crucial for the continued success and
advancement of embedded systems.

REFERENCES

[1]. https://www.heavy.ai/technical-glossary/embedded-
systems.
[2]. https://www.refreshnotes.com/2016/02/von-
neumann-vs-harvard-architecture.html.
[3]. https://medium.com/@csoham358/a-beginners-
guide-to-risc-and-cisc-architectures-fc9af424db3b.
[4]. https://getkt.com/2019/04/06/endianness-little-
endian-vs-big-endian/.

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