Chapter One

Measurement:
Where Knowledge and Reality Meet
Introduction
• Measurement systems have important vital
applications in our everyday lives, whether at
home, in our vehicles, offices or factories.
– We use measuring devices in buying our fruits and
vegetables.
– We assume that the measuring devices are accurate,
and we assume that
– we are all referring to the same units (e.g., kilogram,
meter, liter…).
The consequence of inaccurate measuring devices in
this case leads to financial losses on our part.
Cont…
For instance
• We check the temperature of our homes and assume
that the thermostats reading the temperature are
accurate.
• If not, then the temperature will be either too high or
too low, leading to inconvenience and discomfort.

• We pay for our electricity in units of kWh and we assume that the
electricity meter is accurate and faithfully records the correct
number of electricity units that we have used.
• We pay for the water we consume in liters, and we also assume
that the water meter is correctly measuring the flow of water in
liters. In this case as well, the error will lead to financial loss.
Cont…
• The accuracy of the measurement systems
mentioned above is very important, but is more
critical in some applications than others.
• For example, a pharmacist preparing a medication
is reliant on the accuracy of his/her scales to make
sure he/she includes the correct amounts of
ingredients in the medication.
• Another example is the manufacturing of present-
day integrated circuits and photo-masks that
requires a high degree of accuracy.
• Certain chemical reactions require high accuracy
in the measurement and control of temperature.
The evolution of measurement
• We will list the steps of progress in measurement,
which we define somewhat arbitrarily, according to
human needs as these emerged throughout history:
– the need to master the environment (dimensional
and geographical aspects);
– the need to master means of production
(mechanical and thermal aspects);
– the need to create an economy (money and trade);
– the need to master and control energy (electrical,
thermal, mechanical, and hydraulic aspects);
– the need to master information (electronic and
optoelectronic aspects).
Cont…
• measurement of time;
• measurement of physical phenomena;
• measurement of chemical and biological
phenomena.

In addition to these is the mastery of knowledge

which has existed throughout history and is
intimately connected:
 Functions of Measurement systems
• Measurements are made or measurement systems
are set up for one or more of the following
functions:
– To monitor processes and operations
✓Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas
and electricity meters only indicate certain quantities.
Their readings do not perform any control function in
the normal sense. These measurements are made for
monitoring purposes only.
Cont…
– To control processes and operations
✓The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser
determines the temperature of the relevant
environment and accordingly switches off or on the
cooling or heating mechanism to keep the
temperature constant, i.e. to control the temperature
✓A single system sometimes may require many
controls. For example, an aircraft needs controls
from altimeters, gyroscopes, angle-of-attack sensors,
thermocouples, accelerometers, etc.

Controlling a variable is rather an involved process

and is therefore a subject of study by itself.
Cont…
– To carry out some analysis
✓Measurement are also made to test the validity of
predictions from theories,
✓build empirical models, i.e. relationships between
parameters and quantities associated with a
problem, and
✓characterize materials, devices and components.

In general, these requirements may be called

analysis.
 Basic requirements for a meaningful
measurement
• The standard used for comparison purposes must
be accurately defined and should be commonly
accepted.
• The apparatus used and the method adopted must
be provable (verifiable).
Measurement units
• The very first measurement units were those used
in barter trade to quantify the amounts being
exchanged and to establish clear rules about the
relative values of different commodities.
• For purposes of measuring length, the human torso
was a convenient tool, and gave us units of the
hand, the foot and the cubit.
• Although generally adequate for barter trade
systems, such measurement units are of course
imprecise, varying as they do from one person to
the next.
Cont…
• The first improved measurement unit was a unit of length
(the meter) defined as 10-7 times the polar quadrant of the
earth.
• The early establishment of standards for the measurement
of physical quantities proceeded in several countries at
broadly parallel times, and in consequence, several sets of
units emerged for measuring the same physical variable.
• For instance, length can be measured in yards, meters,
or several other units.
• Apart from the major units of length, subdivisions of
standard units exist such as feet, inches, centimeters
and millimeters, with a fixed relationship between each
fundamental unit and its subdivisions.
• The latest standards for defining the units used for
measuring a range of physical variables are:
Fundamental and derived SI units

Supplementary fundamental units

Derived units
 Methods of Measurement
• Measurement of any quantity involves two
parameters: the magnitude of the value and
unit of measurement.
– For instance, if we have to measure the temperature
we can say it is 10 degree C. Here the value “10” is
the magnitude and “C” which stands for “Celsius” is
the unit of measurement.
– Similarly, we can say the height of wall is 5 meters,
where “5” is the magnitude and “meters” is the unit
of measurement.
Cont…
There are two methods of measurement:
– Direct Method
– Indirect method
Direct Method: In the direct method of
measurement, we compare the quantity directly with
the primary or secondary standard.
– for instance, if we have to measure the length of the
bar, we will measure it with the help of the
measuring tape or scale that acts as the secondary
standard. Here we are comparing the quantity to be
measured directly with the standard.
Cont…
• The direct comparison method of measurement is not
always accurate.
• In above example of measuring the length, there is
limited accuracy with which our eye can read the
readings, which can be about 0.01 inch. Here the
error does not occur because of the error in the
standards, but because of the human limitations in
noting the readings.

Thus, in direct method of measurement there is

always some difference, however small, between the
actual value of the quantity and the measured value
of the quantity.
Indirect Method:
• There are number of quantities that cannot be
measured directly by using some instrument. For
instance,
– we cannot measure the strain in the bar due to applied force
directly.
– We may have to record the temperature and pressure in the
deep depths of the ground or in some far off remote places.
• In such cases indirect methods of measurements are
used.
• In the indirect method of measurements some
transducing devise, called transducer, is used, which is
coupled to a chain of the connecting apparatus that
forms the part of the measuring system.
Cont…
• In this system the quantity which is to be
measured (input) is converted into some other
measurable quantity (output) by the transducer.
• The transducer used is such that the input and
the output are proportional to each other.
• The readings obtained from the transducer are
calibrated to as per the relations between the
input and the output thus the reading obtained
from the transducer is the actual value of the
quantity to be measured.
Cont…
• The indirect method of measurements comprises
of the system that senses, converts, and finally
presents an analogues output in the form of a
displacement or chart.
• The majority of the transducers convert
mechanical input into analogues electrical output
for processing, though there are transducers that
convert mechanical input into analogues
mechanical output that is measured easily.
 Elements of a measurement system
• Each measurement system consists of five
elements. These elements could all be in one item
or could be all in separate five items. They could
be adjacent to each other or they could be
separated by a distance. Some simple systems
might not contain all of the components.
Components of a measurement system.
Each of these components is discussed in more detail
below.
a) Sensor:
– The sensor is the element that gives an output
that is proportional to the input applied to it.
– In general the output is in an electrical format as
this is the most suitable format for later use (in
processing, transmission and storage).
– The input format depends on the variable to be
measured (e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity,
pH, speed, acceleration, light…).
– Sensors usually have a near linear relationship,
although this is not always the case.
Cont…
b) Signal Conditioning Element (SCE):
– This is also referred to sometimes as a variable
conversion element:
– When the output variable of a primary sensor is
in an unsuitable (or inconvenient) format, a
signal conditioning element is used to convert it
to a suitable form.
– For example, the change in resistance of a strain
gauge cannot be directly measured and
– thus a deflection type bridge circuit is used to
convert it to a suitable voltage.
Cont…
• The combination of the sensor and the signal
conditioning element (SCE) is called the
transducer.
• By definition, a transducer is a device the
converts from one form of energy to another.
C. Signal Processing Element (SPE):
• This component is needed to improve the quality of the
signal. A very common example is filtering a signal that
contains mains frequency noise (i.e., 50 Hz).
• Some of the examples of signal processing elements as
used in a measurement system are:
– Remove the mean value from an a.c. signal (i.e., dc shift).
– Filter out induced noise (example 50 Hz hum/pick-up).
– Convert an analogue signal to a digital format.
– Convert a time signal into voltage (e.g., an ultrasonic level
sensor).
• The combination of the sensor, SCE and SPE is called the
transmitter.
• The output signal from the SPE could be in a number of formats:
voltage, current, frequency or on/off (such as in a switch).
D. Signal Transmission:
• The signal is then transmitted to the final
location where it is needed.
• Most modern measurement system could be
distributed over a wide area, and hence
transmission in this case is necessary.
• There are three reasons why the signal needs to
be transmitted to a remote location:
Cont…
i. Convenience: It is easier for example to locate the final
equipment in a warm office than on a the roof of the
building where the transmitter is located.
ii. Inaccessibility: The transmitter may sometimes be
located in an area that cannot be accessed or reach. The
measured variable could be inaccessible because it is
located in a narrow tunnel if it is located in a high
position.
iii. Hazardous location: The transmitter might be located
in an area that is accessible, but hazardous to humans.
An example of the hazardous situation is where the
measured variable is in a chemical or nuclear plant, or
in an area with very high temperatures.
Cont…
Transmission can be done by a number of methods,
some of which are:
Cable Transmission: This is typically done by
screened single core or multi-core. This method
suffers from the problem of losses and attenuation
especially over long distances and from
electromagnetic interference. The cable is screened
to reduce noise interference. Where the distance is
long and losses become excessive, repeaters are
needed at regular distances to re-amplify the signal.
Fiber optics: Fiber optic cables are now more widely
used. They offer the following advantages (the first two
being most important to measurement systems):
– They are resistant to interference by electric and magnetic
fields.
– They have low losses over long distances (as opposed to
copper cable that might need repeaters at long distances,
e.g., 2 km).
– They have a large bandwidth and can offer high speeds (up
to Tera-Hz). This is not much of an issue in low speed
sampling system used in most measurement systems and is
more relevant to high speed communication and data
systems.
– They offer electrical isolation (galvanic isolation) between
the transmitter and receiver. In some cases this is necessary
for safety reasons.
Cont…
• The main disadvantage of fiber optic systems
is their high cost.
• They also need special equipment for
installation, testing and repair and they require
highly trained and specialized technicians.
Wireless transmission:
• This removes the need for cabling and can be very
attractive in cases where the transmitter is placed
in inaccessible or remote locations.
• However, it does suffer from the problem of
obstacles interrupting the connection (e.g.,
reinforced concrete) and from attenuation.
• Most transmitter manufacturers offer wireless
versions of their systems nowadays.
• Many of the home weather stations are equipped
with a wireless connection.
 Display, recording or analysis:
• D/R/A or use in automatic feedback systems:
This is where the final signal is utilized. One
of the following actions is taken:
– It is either fed into the automatic feedback system.
– The signal is displayed, recorded or analyzed: The
signal can either be displayed on a screen or
industrial display, it could be recorded on a hard-
disk for example over a period of days or months
and it could be analyzed to understand trends or
draw conclusions.
 Measurement systems and
measurement devices
• A measurement system is the generic term of an
instrument or a complex system.
• A person using a thermometer to measure his
body temperature represents a measurement
system.
• This system is made of: the human observer, the
thermometer and the measured variable
(temperature) from the process (the human body).
• If the observer makes an error in reading the
temperature from the thermometer scale, then an
error results from the whole measurement system.
 Overview of variables that are
measured
• The following is a selection of the most widely
measured quantities:
• a. Electrical parameters: The basic seven
parameters are: voltage, current, resistance,
capacitance, inductance, frequency and phase
shift. Other electrical parameters that are
effectively derived from the 7 above in terms
of measurement are: power and power factor.
Cont…
a) Magnetic: One of the magnetic parameters that can be
directly measured is the magnetic flux density.
b) Environmental variables such as: Temperature,
pressure and humidity.
c) Mechanical measurements such as: Mass, force,
torque, length, area, volume/capacity, angle and
surface roughness.
d) Fluid measurements such as: Viscosity, level
measurement and flow measurement.
e) Motion measurement such as: Translational motion
and rotational motion.
f) Others: Sound pressure, gas sensing and PH in
solutions.
 Classification of Measuring
Instruments
I. Basic classification of measuring instruments:
1. Mechanical instruments:- They are very reliable for
static and stable conditions. The disadvantage is they
are unable to respond rapidly to measurement of
dynamic and transient conditions.
2. Electrical instruments:- Electrical methods of
indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than
mechanical methods. The electrical system normally
depends upon a mechanical meter movement as
indicating device.
3. Electronic instruments:- These instruments have very
fast response. For example a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is capable to follow dynamic and transient
changes of the order of few nano seconds (10-9 sec).
II. Other classification of instruments:
1. Absolute instruments or Primary
Instruments:- These instruments gives the
magnitude of quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument
e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments
do not require comparison with any other
standard instrument
– These instruments give the value of the electrical
quantity in terms of absolute quantities (or some
constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
– In this type of instruments no calibration or
comparison with other instruments is necessary.
Cont…
– They are generally not used in laboratories
and are seldom used in practice by
electricians and engineers. They are mostly
used as means of standard measurements
and are maintained lay national
laboratories and similar institutions.
– Some of the examples of absolute
instruments are:
a) Tangent galvanometer
b) Raleigh current balance
c) Absolute electrometer
2. Secondary instruments:-
• These instruments are so constructed that the
quantity being measured can only be determined
by the output indicated by the instrument.
• These instruments are calibrated by comparison
with an absolute instrument or another secondary
instrument, which has already been calibrated
against an absolute instrument.
Cont…
Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly
used.
– They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be
measured by these instruments can be determined from the
deflection of the instruments. They are often calibrated by
comparing them with either some absolute instruments or
with those which have already been calibrated.
– The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be
meaningless until it is not calibrated.
– These instruments are used in general for all laboratory
purposes.
– Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are:
ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour
meter), ampere-hour meters etc.
End of chapter 1