Introduction to Communication 2.

ACCURACY - The system must deliver the

data accurately. Data that have been altered in
TELECOMMUNICATION – communication at
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
a distance
3. TIMELINESS - Data delivered late are
DATA – refers to information presented in
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely
whatever form is agreed upon by others.
delivery means delivering data as they are
DATA COMMUNICATION – are the exchange produced, in the same order that they are
of data between two devices via some form of produced, and without significant delay.
transmission medium such as wire cable.
4. JITTER - Refers to the variation in the packet
- is the process of transferring digital arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
information between two or more points. delivery of audio or video packets.
- can be summarized as the transmission,
Components of Data Communication
reception, and processing of digital
information. 1. SENDER - The device that sends the data
message. It can be a computer, workstation,
For data communications to occur, the
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
communicating devices must be part of
2. MESSAGE - The message is the
communication system made up of a
information (data) to be communicated.
combination of hardware (physical equipment)
3. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM - The physical
and software (programs). The effectiveness of a
path by which a message travels from sender
data communications system depends on four
to
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
receiver.
timeliness, and jitter.
4. PROTOCOL - A protocol is a set of rules
INFORMATION – is defined as the knowledge that govern data communications. It
or intelligence represents an agreement between the
communicating devices.
Fundamental Characteristics of a Data
5. RECEIVER - The receiver is the device that
Communication System
receives the message. It can be a computer,
*DJAT* workstation, telephone handset, television,

1 . DELIVERY - The system must deliver data and so on.

to the correct destination. Data must be received

by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
 Data Representation images, each a discrete entity, arranged to
convey the idea of motion.
TEXT
Data Transmission
Represented as a bit pattern, a sequence
of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns 1. SIMPLEX
have been designed to represent text symbols. - The communication is unidirectional.
Each set is called a code, and the process of Only one of the two devices on a link
representing symbols is called coding. can transmit; the other can only receive.
- The simplex mode can use the entire
NUMBER
capacity of the channel to end data in
Numbers are also represented by bit one direction.
patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not 2. HALF-DUPLEX
used to represent numbers; the number is - Each station can both transmit and
directly converted to a binary number to receive, but not at the same time. When
simplify mathematical operations. one device is sending, the other can only
IMAGE receive, and vice versa.
- In a half-duplex transmission, the entire
An image is composed of a matrix of
capacity of a channel is taken over by
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a
whichever of the two devices is
small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the
transmitting at the time.
resolution.
3. FULL DUPLEX (DUPLEX)
BIT DEPTH - Both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
Specifies how much color information is
- In full-duplex mode, signals going in
available for each pixel in an image.
one direction share the capacity of the
AUDIO
link with signals going in the other
Refers to the recording or broadcasting direction.
of sound or music. It is continuous, not discrete. - Used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The
VIDEO
- capacity of the channel, however, must
Video refers to the recording or be divided between the two directions.
broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can
either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g.,
by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
 - THROUGHPUT - How many bits per
second are going through the network
NETWORK
- DELAY - How long does it take a bit to
A network is a set of devices (often travel from one end to the other
referred to as nodes) connected by  FACTORS
communication links. A node can be a computer,
1. Number of users
printer, or any other device capable of sending
2. Type of transmission medium
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
3. Capabilities of the connected
on the network.
hardware and efficiency of the
DATA TERMINATING EQUIPMENT (DTE) software.
2. RELIABILITY
Used primarily for those devices that
- Network reliability is measured by the
display user information. It also includes any
frequency of failure, the time it takes a
devices that store or generate data for the user.
link to recover from a failure, and the
DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT network's robustness in a catastrophe.
(DCE) 3. SECURITY
- Network security issues include
Any device which can be used to gain
protecting data from unauthorized
access to a system over telecommunication lines.
access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.

Network Connections

A network is two or more devices connected

Network Criteria
through links. A link is a communication
1. PERFORMANCE pathway that transfers data from one device to
 MEASURE another.
- TRANSIT TIME - The amount of time
1. POINT – TO – POINT (P2P)
required for a message to travel from
one device to another Provides a dedicated link between two
- RESPONSE TIME - The elapsed time devices. The entire capacity of the link is
between an inquiry and a full response reserved for transmission between those two
 METRICS devices.
 - Each device has a dedicated point-to-
point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
Network Topology - A signal is passed along the ring in one

The geometric representation of the relationship direction, from device to device, until it

of all the links and linking devices (usually reaches its destination.

called nodes) to one another. - When a device receives a signal

intended for another device, its repeater
1. BUS TOPOLOGY
regenerates the bits and passes them
- Bus topology was the one of the first
along
topologies used in the design of early
local area networks (LANs). Ethernet ADVANTAGES

LANs can use a bus topology. - Easy to install and reconfigure.

- Characterized by a P2P connection.
- To add or delete a device requires
ADVANTAGES changing only two connections.
- Fault isolation is simplified.
- Ease of Installation
- Uses less cabling than mesh or star DISADVATANGES

topologies - Unidirectional traffic

- Only the backbone cable stretches
- A break in the ring (such as a disabled
through the entire facility
station) can disable the entire network.
DISADVANTAGES
3. STAR TOPOLOGY
- Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
- Each device has a dedicated point-to-
- Signal reflection at the taps can cause
point link only to a central controller,
degradation in quality
usually called a hub.
- Adding new devices may therefore
- The devices are not directly linked to
require modification or replacement of
one another.
the backbone
- If one device wants to send data to
- A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
another, It sends the data to the
transmission.
controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device
2. RING TOPOLOGY
ADVANTAGES
- Less expensive than a mesh topology Network Categories
- Each device needs only one link and one
The category into which a network falls is
- I/O port to connect it to any number of determined by its size.
others.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK
- Easy to install and reconfigure
- Robust connection - Usually private-owned and links the devices
- Easy fault identification in a single office, building, or campus.
- Size is limited to a few kilometers (less
DISADVANTAGES
than 2 miles)
- Dependency of the whole topology on - A given LAN will use only one type of
one single point, the hub. transmission medium
- More cabling is required in a star than in - Most common LAN topologies are bus, ring,
bus and ring. and star
- Speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps
4. MESH TOPOLOGY
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
- Every device has a dedicated point-to
point link to every other device. - A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a
network with a size between a LAN and a
n (n−1) WAN.
N=
2 - It normally covers the area inside a town or

ADVANTAGES a city.
- It is designed for customers who need a
- Robust connection
high-speed connectivity.
- Promotes privacy and security
- A network with a size between a LAN and a
- Easy fault identification and fault WAN
isolation
WIDE AREA NETWORK
DISADVANTAGES
- Provides long-distance transmission of data,
- Costly installation image, audio, and video information over
- Bulky large geographic areas that may comprise a
- Hardware required to connect each link country, a continent, or even the whole
(I/O ports and cable) can be world.
prohibitively expensive. A. Switched WAN
- Usually comprise a router (internetworking - It is the process of finding the most efficient
connecting device) that connects to another route between source an destination before
LAN or WAN. sending the data.
B. Point to Point WAN
- Normally a line leased from a telephone or
cable TV provider that connects a home
computer or a small LAN to an lSP. 3. FLOW CONTROL

What is protocol? - All machines are not equally efficient in

terms of speed. Hence the flow control
Is the directives that are entered by the
regulates the process of sending data
user or a system administrator into the
between fast sender and slow receiver.
communication software before any
4. ERROR CONTROL
communication can occur between computers on
- Error detecting and recovering is the one of
a network such as internet.
the main functions of communication
Elements Of a Protocol software. It ensures that data are transmitted
without any error.
1. SYNTAX - Structure or format of the data.
Indicates how to read the bits - field Data Communication Standards
delineation
The primary reason for standards is to
2. SEMANTICS - Interprets the meaning of
ensure that hardware and software produced by
the bits. Knows which fields define what
different vendors can work together. Without
action
networking standards, it would be difficult—if
3. TIMING - When data should be sent and
not impossible—to develop networks that easily
what. Speed at which data should be sent or
share information. Standards also mean that
speed at which it is being received.
customers are not locked into one vendor. They
The data transmission software or protocols can buy hardware and software from any vendor
perform the following functions for the efficient whose equipment meets the standard. In this
and error free transmission of data. way, standards help to promote more
competition and hold down prices.
1. DATA SEQUENCING
- A long message to be transmitted is broken Two types of Standards
into smaller packets of fixed size for error
1. FORMAL STANDARD
free data transmission.
- is developed by an official industry or
2. DATA ROUTING
government body. For example, there are
 formal standards for applications such as - ITU-T membership consists of government
Web browsers (e.g., HTTP, HTML), for authorities and representatives from many
network layer software (e.g., IP), data link countries and it is the present standards
layer software (e.g., Ethernet IEEE 802.3), organization for the United Nations.
and for physical hardware (e.g., V.90
modems).
- Formal standards typically take several years
to develop, during which time technology INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND
changes, making them less useful. ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS (IEEE)
2. DE FACTO STANDARDS
- IEEE is an international professional
- are those that emerge in the marketplace and
organization founded in United States and is
are supported by several vendors but have
comprised of electronics, computer and
no official standing.
communications engineers.
Standard Organizations for Data - It is currently the world’s largest
Communications
professional society with over 200,000
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD members.
ORGANIZATION (ISO) - It develops communication and information
processing standards with the underlying
- is the international organization for
goal of advancing theory, creativity, and
standardization on a wide range of subjects.
product quality in any field related to
- It is comprised mainly of members from the
electrical engineering.
standards committee of various governments
throughout the world. AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS

- It is even responsible for developing models INSTITUTE (ANSI)

which provides high level of system - ANSI is the official standards agency for the
compatibility, quality enhancement, United States and is the U.S voting
improved productivity and reduced costs. representative for the ISO.
- The ISO is also responsible for endorsing - ANSI is a completely private, non-profit
and coordinating the work of the other organization comprised of equipment
standards organizations. manufacturers and users of data processing
INTERNATIONAL equipment and services.
TELECOMMUNICATION UNION- - ANSI membership is comprised of people
TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR form professional societies, industry
 associations, governmental and regulatory Research Projects Agency) so as to analyze
bodies, and consumer goods. the activities of ARPANET whose purpose is
to accelerate the advancement of
technologies useful for U.S military.
1. Oversees the architecture protocols and
procedures used by the Internet.
2. Manages the processes used to create
Internet Standards and also serves as an
ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION
appeal board for complaints regarding
(EIA)
improper execution of standardization
- EIA activities include standards process.
development, increasing public awareness, 3. Responsible for administration of the
and lobbying and it is responsible for various Internet assigned numbers
developing the RS (recommended standard) 4. Acts as a representative for Internet
series of standards for data and Society interest in liaison relationships
communications. with other organizations.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY 5. Acts as a source of advice and guidance
ASSOCIATION (TIA) to the board of trustees and officers of
Internet Society concerning various
- TIA is the leading trade association in the
aspects of internet and its technologies
communications and information technology
industry. INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE

- It facilitates business development - The IETF is a large international community

opportunities through market development, of network designers, operators, vendors and
trade promotion, trade shows, and standards researchers concerned with the evolution of
development. the Internet architecture and smooth
- It represents manufacturers of operation of the Internet.
communications and information technology
INTERNET RESEARCH TASK FORCE
products and also facilitates the convergence
of new communications networks. - The IRTF promotes research of importance
to the evolution of the future Internet by
INTERNET ARCHITECTURE BOARD
creating focused, long-term and small
- earlier known as Internet Activities Board is research groups working on topics related to
a committee created by ARPA (Advanced
 Internet protocols, applications, architecture
and technology.

FORUMS

- work with universities and users to test,

evaluate, and standardize new technologies.

REGULATORY AGENCIES

- The purpose of these agencies is to protect

the public interest by regulating radio,
television, and wire/cable communications.

INTERNET STANDARDS

- is a thoroughly tested specification that is

useful to and adhered to by those who work
with the Internet.

INTERNET DRAFT

- is a working document (a work in progress)

with no official status and a 6-month
lifetime.