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The Role of Psychological Safety in Human Development

Article in Research in Human Development · January 2016

DOI: 10.1080/15427609.2016.1141283

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 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  1  
 

Wanless,  S.B.  (2016)  The  role  of  psychological  safety  in  human  development.  Research  in  Human  
Development,  13(1),  6-­‐14,  DOI:  10.1080/15427609.2016.1141283  

The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  

Shannon  B.  Wanless  
University  of  Pittsburgh  
 

Abstract   individuals   as   capable   of   directing   their  

The  degree  to  which  individuals  feel  comfortable   development   in   concert   with   a   nonlinear  
taking  positive  interpersonal  risks  (such  as  trying   pathway   of   experiences   and   adaptations.   In  
something   new)   is   known   as   psychological   other   words,   feeling   psychologically   safe   may  
safety.   When   individuals   feel   psychologically   decrease   barriers   to   engagement   and   allow  
safe,  they  can  exercise  their  agency  to  engage  in   individuals  to  freely  exercise  agency  to  activate  
experiences   and   interactions   throughout   life.   and   interact   with   the   world   around   them.  
This   article   describes   existing   research   on   Unfortunately,   many   individuals   are   in   families  
psychological  safety  and  situate  it  in  the  field  of   (Cummings,   George,   McCoy,   &   Davies,   2012),  
human   development.   Examples   are   presented   schools  (Holley  &  Steiner,  2005),  and  workplaces  
that  highlight  the  ways  that  individuals  and  their   (Detert   &   Edmondson,   2011)   that   they   do   not  
contexts   come   together   to   mutually   create   perceive   as   psychologically   safe.   Living   in   these  
moments  that  may  or  may  not  be  perceived  as   contexts   may   limit   individuals’   willingness   to  
psychologically   safe.   By   considering   engage  in  experiences  that  would  facilitate  their  
psychological   safety’s   role   in   developmental   development.  
research,  we  may  gain  new  insights  about  ways  
Although   psychological   safety   has   had   a   recent  
to   create   contexts   that   increase   the   likelihood  
rebirth   in   the   fields   of   business   and  
that   individuals   feel   psychologically   safe   to  
organizational   leadership   (Edmondson   &   Lei,  
engage,  learn,  and  develop.  
2014),   it   has   not,   thus   far,   received   the   same  
Psychological   safety,   the   feeling   that   taking  
attention  in  the  field  of  human  development.  A  
interpersonal   risks   will   not   result   in  
review   of   current   research,   however,   suggests  
embarrassment,   ridicule,   or   shame,   enables  
that   this   construct   may   offer   a   useful  
people   to   engage,   connect,   change,   and   learn  
conceptualization  for  contemporary  researchers  
(Edmondson   &   Lei,   2014).   Rather   than   being  
in   this   field.   Considering   the   usefulness   of   this  
inhibited   by   anxiety   and   identity   management,  
construct  may  begin  by  examining  how  existing  
individuals   can   focus   on   activating   and  
research   on   psychological   safety   relates   to   key  
accomplishing   goals,   regardless   of   the  
tenets   in   the   human   development   field.   In  
discomfort   that   inevitably   accompanies   new  
particular,   this   includes   conceptualizing  
experiences  and  ideas  (English  &  Stengel,  2010).  
development   as   occurring   in  
In   studying   human   development,   psychological  
individual↔contextual   relations   (Overton,  
safety   may   be   particularly   relevant   because   it  
2015).  This  conceptualization  would  make  it  less  
enables   individuals   to   utilize   their   agency,   or  
likely   that   researchers   would   study   individual  
their   ability   to   make   choices   that   influence   the  
characteristics   that   lead   to   a   greater   sense   of  
way   they   develop.   Then,   they   are   able   to   up-­‐
psychological   safety,   or   the   contextual  
regulate,   or   actively   engage,   as   they   see   fit.  
characteristics   that   lead   people   to   feel   more  
Agency   is   a   critical   aspect   of   conceptualizing  
psychologically   safe.   Instead,   it   would   lead   the  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  2  
 

field   to   consider   how   individual   and   contextual   not   feel   psychologically   safe,   they   may   end   up  
characteristics   work   together   to   co-­‐construct   a   unengaged   in   opportunities   to   learn   and   grow  
moment  that  is  perceived  as  psychologically  safe   (Hamilton,   Hamilton,   &   Pittman,   2004).   As   a  
or   not.   In   this   article,   I   describe   psychological   result,  positive  human  development  is  limited.  
safety,   relations   to   important   developmental  
A   positive   feeling   of   psychological   safety,  
experiences,   relevance   to   the   study   of   human  
however,   can   encourage   individuals   to  
development,   and   implications   for   future  
participate   and   be   active   agents:   feeling   the  
practice  and  research  in  this  and  related  fields.  
freedom   to   choose   when,   with   whom,   and   in  
By   bringing   psychological   safety   to   this   field,  
which   contexts   to   co-­‐construct   meaningful   and  
developmentalists   may   be   better   able   to  
productive  experiences.  The  feeling  that  it  is  safe  
understand   why   individuals   make   certain  
to   not   only   engage,   but   also   to   engage   in  
decisions   that   actively   facilitate   or   hinder   their  
authentic   ways   that   align   with   personal  
experiences  and  opportunities  for  development  
motivations,  may  produce  ongoing  benefits.  This  
(Wanless,  this  issue).  
type   of   engagement   may   generate   a   sense   of  
EXPERIENCING  MORE  OR  LESS  PSYCHOLOGICAL   empowerment  and  affirmation  of  one’s  identity  
SAFETY  DURING  CHALLENGING  SITUATIONS   (Simonet,   Narayan,   &   Nelson,   2015).   Previous  
research   suggests   that   when   individuals   feel  
When  individuals  feel  psychologically  safe,  they  
psychologically  safe  they  are  more  likely  to  enact  
expect  that  taking  an  interpersonal  risk  will  not  
self-­‐regulated   strategies   such   as   offering   ideas,  
pose  an  intolerable  level  of  threat  to  identity  or  
admitting  and  learning  from  mistakes,  asking  for  
sense   of   self   (Edmondson   &   Lei,   2014).   This  
help,   engaging   in   learning   opportunities,  
sense   of   safety   may   be   critical   for   people   to  
providing   feedback   to   others,   and   speaking   up  
achieve   optimal   development,   which  
(Edmondson  &  Lei,  2014;  Hirak,  Peng,  Carmeli,  &  
necessitates   feeling   free   to   make   decisions   on  
Schaubroeck,   2012;   Holley   &   Steiner,   2005).  
when/how   to   engage   with   their   contexts.   If  
Indeed,  previous  research  suggests  that  creating  
individuals   are   interested   in   engaging   in   an  
environments   that   feel   warm   and   responsive  
interaction,  a  perceived  threat  to  their  sense  of  
(more   psychologically   safe)   may   help   children  
psychological   safety   may   inhibit   them   from  
exhibit  greater  self-­‐regulation  (Merritt,  Wanless,  
acting  on  that  desire  to  engage.  Specifically,  they  
Rimm-­‐Kaufman,   Cameron,   &   Peugh,   2012).  
may   feel   that   the   costs   associated   with   taking  
Speaking  up,  as  an  example,  may  be  particularly  
interpersonal   risks   are   too   great   to   tolerate.  
important   for   individuals   in   abusive   or  
Their   fear   of   being   embarrassed,   losing   face,  
discriminatory  situations  who  may  need  to  feel  
feeling   ashamed,   or   losing   an   aspect   of   their  
safe   enough   to   engage   in   this   critical   step   to  
identity  would  be  too  great  to  be  overcome  by  
advance  their  situations  (Brown  &  Gilligan,  1993;  
their  desire  to  engage  with  others  and  to  learn.  
Kish-­‐Gephart,   Detert,   Treviño,   &   Edmondson,  
In   context,   this   may   be   operationalized   in  
2009).  
different   ways   across   development.   For   young  
children,   this   might   be   an   unwillingness   to   Situations   that   Increase   the   Need   for  
explore   in   new   play   situations   (Paquette   &   Psychological  Safety  
Bigras,   2010).   For   adolescents   or   adults,   being  
Many   situations   do   not   pose   a   threat   to  
absent  from  work  (Astor,  Guerra,  &  Van  Acker,  
psychological   safety,   but   in   others,   the  
2010)  or  changing  jobs  often  (Chandrasekaran  &  
perception   of   risk   can   be   high.   In   these  
Mishra,   2012)   may   indicate   decisions   to  
situations,   individuals   have   the   sense   that   they  
disengage.  Taken  together,  when  individuals  do  
will  not  be  given  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  and  are  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  3  
 

left   with   uncertainty   and   hesitancy   to   engage   Schein,   1993).   Examples   of   this   are   evident   in  
(Kahn,   1990).   Some   factors   that   may   make   research  that  focuses  on  human  change,  such  as  
moments   feel   higher   stakes   are   when   they   are   a  study  describing  teachers  who  were  asked  to  
more   public,   more   unclear,   have   more   change  their  teaching  strategies  to  align  with  a  
pronounced  hierarchies,  or  have  more  salient  or   new   intervention   approach.   This   change   could  
identity-­‐related   issues   at   play   (Nembhard   &   have   threatened   their   identity   as   competent  
Edmondson,   2006).   One   reason   that   public   risk   professionals.   Teachers   said   that   feeling  
taking  can  feel  high  stakes  is  the  sense  that  the   psychologically  safe  eased  their  concerns  about  
people  watching  may  be  evaluating  the  risk  taker   colleagues   viewing   them   as   incompetent,  
(Edmondson,   2002).   In   fact,   this   phenomenon   particularly   when   they   made   mistakes   when  
can   be   seen   in   public   virtual   spaces   where   trying   out   new   practices   (Wanless,   Patton,  
individuals   are   increasingly   feeling   the   need   to   Rimm-­‐Kaufman,   &   Deutsch,   2013).   In   other  
manage   the   way   others   perceive   them   and   words,  significant  and  day-­‐to-­‐day  life  situations  
decreasingly   feel   psychologically   safe   to   take   may  be  easier  to  optimize  when  individuals  feel  
interpersonal  risks  (Netzley  &  Rath,  2012).  Being   a  positive  sense  of  psychologically  safety.  
in  situations  that  are  enmeshed  in  issues  that  are  
salient  to  an  individual’s  identity,  such  as  gender,  
SITUATING   PSYCHOLOGICAL   SAFETY   IN  
race,   and   perceived   status   in   a   group,   also   has   INDIVIDUAL↔CONTEXT  PROCESSES  
implications.   When   people   feel   they   have   low   Interindividual   Differences   in   Perceptions   of  
status  within  a  group,  for  example,  they  are  less   Psychological  Safety  
likely  to  feel  psychologically  safe  to  engage  in  the  
group.   This   is   less   likely,   however,   when   the   People   develop   as   whole   systems   that   are  
group   leader   conveys   the   importance   of   constantly   co-­‐acting   with   their   contexts.  
everyone’s   contributions   (Huo,   Binning,   &   Meanings  that  are  created  in  those  interactions  
Molina,  2010;  Nembhard  &  Edmondson,  2006).   are  based  on  the  interplay  between  the  person  
In   sum,   risk-­‐taking   moments   that   are   public,   experiencing  them  and  the  context  in  which  they  
unclear,   have   pronounced   hierarchies,   or   occur  (Overton,  2015).  As  such,  multiple  people  
challenge   identities   may   necessitate   greater   may   perceive   the   same   moment,   in   the   same  
psychological  safety  to  foster  individuals’  active   context,  as  having  different  degrees  of  risk  and  
engagement  in  developmental  opportunities.   thus   have   different   needs   for   psychological  
safety.  Although  individuals  and  contexts  are  not  
Throughout   development,   individuals   are   faced   a   dichotomy   to   be   pulled   apart   and   examined  
with  the  need  to  grow,  maintain  resilience,  and   separately,   there   are   individual   characteristics  
regulate   loss   (Baltes,   Lindenberger,   &   that  inform  perceptions  of  how  much  of  a  risk  is  
Staudinger,   1998).   Across   the   life   span,   present,   and   how   much   psychological   safety   is  
individuals   need   to   take   interpersonal   risks   needed.  
during  major  life  transitions  (e.g.,  divorce,  having  
a   baby,   beginning   a   new   job,   losing   a   parent),   As  a  field,  human  development  researchers  are  
and   during   the   typical   tasks   of   daily   life   (e.g.,   interested   in   interindividual   differences   in  
classroom   learning   activities,   workplace   experiences   and   development.   In   other   words,  
professional   development   opportunities,   social   the   aim   is   to   understand   not   only   what   the  
gatherings   with   unfamiliar   others).   In   these   pathway  of  human  development  looks  like  over  
moments,   a   sense   of   psychological   safety   may   time,   but   how   that   pathway   may   differ   across  
decrease   the   need   to   focus   on   self-­‐protection   people.   Previous   research   is   mixed   about   the  
and  identity  management  (Bradley  et  al.,  2012;   way  that  sociodemographic  characteristics  such  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  4  
 

as  gender  and  race  may  play  a  role  in  perceptions   messages   about   the   value   of   an   individual’s  
of   psychological   safety.   For   example,   research   identities   (e.g.,   being   Black   and   male)   may  
found   that   males   often   perceive   less   risk   than   decrease   dissonance   and   increase   adolescents’  
females   (Wang,   Kruger,   &   Wilke,   2009),   and   sense   of   psychological   safety   to   engage   in  
Blacks  are  often  less  tolerant  of  risks  than  Whites   learning  at  school.  
(Sahm,   2012).   Another   study   however,   did   not  
A   related   phenomenon   was   found   in   work  
find   any   differences   across   gender   and   race  
settings   such   as   in   recent   research   of   adults   in   a  
(Holley   &   Steiner,   2005).   These   mixed   findings  
production  organization.  When  the  organization  
may   suggest   that   though   race   and   gender   may  
had  a  more  accepting  stance  on  racial  diversity,  
be  related  to  perceptions  of  psychological  safety,  
all   employees,   regardless   of   their   race,   felt  
there   may   be   other   factors   to   consider.   More  
greater   psychological   safety   and   were   more  
specifically,   developmental   profiles   cannot  
engaged   at   work   (Singh,   Winkel,   &   Selvarajan,  
always   be   defined   by   gender   or   other   typically  
2013).   These   relations   were   even   stronger   for  
used   demographic   categories   (Wanless   et   al.,  
racial   minorities,   possibility   due   to   a   sense   of  
2016).   There   may   be   other   individual  
identity   threat   or   misalignment   between   their  
characteristics,   groups   of   characteristics,   or  
race  and  likelihood  of  being  valued  and  accepted  
combinations   of   characteristics   and   ecological  
in   their   organization.   In   other   words,   accepting  
assets  that  are  more  salient  and  worthy  of  future  
diversity   climates   contribute   to   racial   minority  
research.  
employees’  perceptions  of  greater  psychological  
It   is   important   to   note   however,   that   race   and   safety.  This  sense  of  psychological  safety  at  work  
gender  may  be  more  relevant  in  moments  that   had  a  more  profound  effect  on  increasing  work  
directly   devalue   this   part   of   their   identity.   engagement  for  racial  minority  employees  than  
Feeling   a   dissonance   between   an   aspect   of   their   counterparts.   By   attending   to   the   distinct  
identity   and   the   likelihood   of   being   successful   experiences  of  individuals  of  different  identities,  
can   be   particularly   threatening.   One   example   of   particularly  when  aspects  of  their  identities  may  
this   is   being   a   Black   male   in   institutions   with   lead  to  dissonance  in  certain  contexts,  it  may  be  
norms   that   do   not   align   with   those   identities.   possible  to  address  interindividual  differences  in  
Research  has  found  that  Black  male  adolescents   development.  
may   feel   the   need   to   “act   White”   or   distance  
Other   individual   factors,   beyond  
themselves  from  their  own  identities  and  peers  
sociodemographic   characteristics,   may   also   play  
to  be  academically  successful  in  school  (Fryer  &  
a   role   in   perceptions   of   psychological   safety.   A  
Torelli,   2010).   This   connection   between   “acting  
history   of   secure   attachment   in   early   childhood,  
White”  and  grades  was  particularly  pronounced  
for  example,  may  relate  to  being  more  likely  to  
in  public  schools,  for  children  from  families  with  
trust   and   give   others   the   benefit   of   the   doubt  
low-­‐educational  attainment,  and  in  schools  with  
(Fonagy   &   Allison,   2014).   A   history   of   insecure  
greater   inter-­‐racial   contact.   Although   this  
attachment,   however,   can   lead   to   heightened  
research   did   not   explicitly   assess   psychological  
sensitivity   to   cues   about   whether   to   feel  
safety,   the   findings   and   their   variation   across  
psychologically   safe,   like   negatively   perceiving  
contexts  might  suggest  that  Black  males  may  not  
others’   emotions   (Fang,   Hoge,   Heinrichs,   &  
feel   psychologically   safe   to   engage   with  
Hofmann,   2014).   Other   early   experiences   are  
academic   learning   when   they   are   trying   to  
also   relevant.   In   one   study,   researchers   found  
maintain   their   racial   and   gender   identities.  
that   individuals   who   lived   in   more   dangerous  
Aligning   developmental   tasks   (e.g.,  
neighborhoods   as   children   perceived   a   greater  
opportunities  to  learn  in  school)  and  contextual  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  5  
 

amount   of   risk   in   their   adult   neighborhoods   adolescents   with   less   secure   attachment  
(Sherman,   Minich,   Langen,   Skufca,   &   Wilke,   histories   respond   more   positively   than   their  
2015).   Those   adults   may   have   calibrated   their   peers   to   having   a   strong,   trusting,   working  
judgments  of  how  much  risk  is  present,  based  on   alliance   with   adults   (Zack   et   al.,   2015).   This  
experiences   in   early   childhood.   Later   finding  suggests  a  particularly  fruitful  alignment  
experiences   such   as   becoming   a   parent   may   between   adolescents   and   the   sense   of  
decrease  risk  tolerance  (Wang  et  al.,  2009),  and   psychological  safety  felt  in  their  relationship  with  
completing   postgraduate   education   or   getting   an  adult:  an  ecological  asset.  For  adults,  having  
married   may   increase   risk   tolerance   (Sahm,   stronger   relationships   with   colleagues   makes  
2012).   More   stable   characteristics   such   as   them   more   comfortable   speaking   up   in  
personality   (Simonet   et   al.,   2015)   may   also   workplace   discussions   (Carmeli,   Brueller,   &  
influence  how  much  risk  individuals  can  tolerate   Dutton,  2009).  This  interplay  between  individual  
(Gilaie-­‐Dotan   et   al.,   2014;   Sahm,   2012).   Taken   characteristics   and   aspects   of   the   context  
together,   these   characteristics   cannot   solely   demonstrates  that  it  may  be  important  to  view  
drive   perceptions   of   psychological   safety,   but   psychological   safety   holistically:   as   the  
they  can  contribute  to  a  feedback  loop  wherein   productive   accumulation   of   many   factors,  
an   individual   perceives   a   situation   in   one   way,   generating   a   perception   of   safety   that   is  
determines   whether   the   amount   of   risk   is   qualitatively  distinct  from  the  sum  of  its  parts.  
tolerable   enough   to   safely   engage   in   the  
Although   individual   strengths   and   ecological  
situation,   and   then   is   continually   influenced   by  
assets   relate   to   perceptions   of   psychological  
the  developing  meaning  of  that  moment.  
safety,  this  is  not  a  unidirectional  phenomenon.  
Contextual   Differences   in   Perceptions   of   It   seems   more   likely   that   there   are   feedback  
Psychological  Safety   loops   in   place,   in   which   individual   strengths   and  
developmental  assets  contribute  to  perceptions  
Individuals  in  the  same  moment  and  setting  may  
of   psychological   safety.   In   turn,   a   sense   of  
also  have  different  perceptions  of  psychological  
psychological  safety  contributes  to  the  presence  
safety   because   of   their   different   access   to  
of   individual   strengths   and   developmental  
relationships  and  resources.  Ideally,  there  would  
assets.   For   example,   in   a   recent   study   of  
be   alignment   between   a   person’s   perceived  
psychological   safety   and   social   support,  
need  for  psychological  safety  and  the  availability  
researchers  found  the  relation  between  the  two  
of   relationships   and   resources   in   their   contexts  
to  be  reciprocal.  Having  a  feeling  of  psychological  
(i.e.,   ecological   assets).   For   example,   young  
safety  helped  individuals  seek  out  their  peers  for  
children   sometimes   exhibit   challenging  
advice   and   friendship.   And   having   positive  
behaviors   as   a   way   to   express   their   feelings   of  
relationships  with  peers  generated  a  more  like-­‐
unsafety.  Pairing  these  children  with  caregivers  
minded   perception   of   the   degree   of  
or  teachers  who  make  an  extra  effort  to  build  a  
psychological   safety   in   the   group   (Schulte,  
warm   and   responsive   relationship   might  
Cohen,   &   Klein,   2012).   The   authors   of   this   study  
increase  the  child’s  sense  of  psychological  safety  
characterized   this   process   as   coevolution,   and   it  
(Driscoll  &  Pianta,  2010).  The  resulting  “mutually  
seems   possible   that   its   multidirectionality   may  
beneficial  exchanges”  between  the  child  and  his  
apply  in  other  situations  as  well.  
or  her  context  (Lerner  et  al.,  2012,  p.  293)  may  
decrease  the  symptomatic  challenging  behaviors   INCORPORATING   PSYCHOLOGICAL   SAFETY   IN  
and  enable  the  child  to  focus  on  freely  engaging   HUMAN   DEVELOPMENT   RESEARCH   AND  
with   peers   and   activities.   As   another   example,   PRACTICE  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  6  
 

There   are   research   and   practice   considerations   reference   is   also   an   issue   across  
for   bringing   psychological   safety   to   the   field   of   sociodemographic   categories   and   other   factors  
human   development.   In   terms   of   research,   the   that   define   interindiviudual   differences   in  
most   pressing   considerations   may   have   to   do   developmental  pathways  (Heine,  Lehman,  Peng,  
with   measurement.   The   question   is   how   to   &  Greenholtz,  2002).  
develop   measures   that   capture   the   interaction  
In   terms   of   practice,   research   has   begun   to  
between   the   individual’s   perception   and  
outline   specific   strategies   or   moves   that   may  
contextual  features.  Although  it  may  be  possible  
increase   individuals’   perceptions   of  
to   develop   observational   measures   of  
psychological   safety.   One   underlying   theme  
psychologically   safe   moves,   strategies,   or  
across   these   findings   is   particularly   consistent  
resources   in   the   context,   these   measures   would  
and   noteworthy:   positive   relationships.   One  
be   limited   because   they   could   not   capture   the  
critical   function   of   authentic   and   empathetic  
way   they   are   perceived   differently   across  
relationships  is  that  they  provide  individuals  with  
individuals.  It  is  those  perceptions,  situated  in  a  
a   sense   of   trust   and   belonging   (Gong,   Cheung,  
certain   place   and   time,   that   generate   meaning  
Wang,   &   Huang,   2012;   Seligson   &   MacPhee,  
and   have   implications   for   development.  
2004).   Providing   training   and   professional  
Conceptualizing   psychological   safety   as  
development  for  adults  that  work  with  children  
generated   in   individual↔context   exchanges  
and  adolescents,  workplace  leaders,  and  others  
requires   thinking   about   measures   that   are  
to  cultivate  their  ability  to  empathize  may  be  one  
designed   to   capture   this   interplay   and   its  
step   to   enhancing   positive   relationships   across  
nonlinearity   and   are   flexible   enough   to   detect  
contexts.   Engaging   in   mindfulness   practices,  
person-­‐centered   changes   over   time   and   across  
role-­‐playing,   fiction   reading,   and   mirroring   of  
contexts  (adaptations).  Questionnaires  might  be  
experiences  are  some  promising  ways  to  develop  
used   for   this   purpose,   but   items   must   be  
these   skills   (Gerdes,   Segal,   Jackson,   &   Mullins,  
intentionally   created   to   capture   person   ↔  
2011).  
context   interactions   (e.g.,   see   Hilliard   et   al.,  
2014)   and   may   be   supplemented   with   other   In  addition  to  access  to  positive  relationships,  it  
types  of  measures.   is   also   possible   to   increase   psychological   safety  
by   limiting   the   potential   risks   and   threats   that  
Frequently   used   psychological   safety   measures  
individuals   perceive   in   a   given   context.   Two  
are   often   self-­‐report   questionnaires   with   10   or  
areas  of  research  in  schools  that  describe  ways  
fewer   items,   created   for   adults   in   workplace  
to   do   this   are   through   Restorative   Practices  
situations   (Detert   &   Burris,   2007;   Edmondson,  
(Gregory,  Clawson,  Davis,  &  Gerewitz,  2015)  and  
1999).  Only  measuring  individuals’  perceptions,  
Culturally   Responsive   Pedagogy   (Cholewa,  
however,   may   lead   to   problems   detecting  
Goodman,  West-­‐Olatunji,  &  Amatea,  2014).  For  
change  over  time  because  individuals’  frame  of  
example,   an   effective   classroom   practice   for  
reference   likely   shifts.   Their   “high”   may   mean  
increasing  overall  psychological  safety  is  to  show  
something  different  when  they  are  younger  than  
students   that   the   teacher   is   aware   of   their  
it   would   later   in   life.   Therefore,   incorporating  
emotional   state.   When   a   teacher   accurately  
mixed  methods  may  be  one  useful  approach  to  
states  that  the  class  seems  tired,  overwhelmed,  
assessing   the   perceived   quantitative   degree   of  
or  excited,  the  teacher  lets  them  know  that  he  or  
psychological   safety,   as   well   as   the   individual’s  
she   is   attuned   to   their   perspective   and  
qualitative   definition   of   what   it   means   to   be  
experience   and   will   keep   them   in   mind   when  
“high”  or  “low”  at  that  time  and  place  in  their  life  
deciding   how   to   proceed   with   the   lesson.  
(Tolan  &  Deutsch,  2015).  Difference  in  frames  of  
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  7  
 

Knowing  the  teacher  is  aware  of  their  perception   CONCLUSION  

and   responsive   decreases   student   concerns  
In   sum,   burgeoning   focus   on   the   benefits   of  
about   their   psychological   safety   in   this  
psychological   safety   for   organizational  
classroom.  
development  (Edmondson  &  Lei,  2014)  may  also  
It   may   also   be   possible   to   increase   individuals’   encourage   scholars   to   consider   how   this  
tolerance   for   taking   risk   in   the   face   of   low   construct  is  beneficial  for  human  development.  
psychological   safety.   For   example,   research   Ultimately,   if   our   goal   is   to   support   individuals’  
found   that   providing   opportunities   for   self-­‐ active   engagement   in   shaping   their  
affirmations   may   increase   tolerance   for   taking   development,  studying  psychological  safety  may  
risks,   even   when   feeling   psychologically   unsafe   advance   understanding   of   how   that   process  
in  the  presence  of  identity  threats  (Sherman  et   unfolds  differently  for  individuals  with  particular  
al.,   2013).   These   findings   point   to   the   fact   that   characteristics,   across   portions   of   the   life   span,  
though   psychological   safety   is   a   co-­‐creation   in   specific   contexts,   and   with   access   to   unique  
between  individuals  and  contexts,  there  is  much   ecological  assets.  
that  can  be  done  to  influence  this  interaction.  

 
 The  Role  of  Psychological  Safety  in  Human  Development  8  
 

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