16.03.

2021

WORK STUDY & ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics (Quick Exposure Check, Cognitive ergonomics:
The Human Sensory System and Information Processing)

Lecture 5

ASSESSMENT OF ERGONOMIC RISKS USING QUICK

EXPOSURE CHECK (QEC)
• Observational analysis in ergonomics

• QEC application

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Observational analysis in ergonomics

Objective: To assess and quantify physical ergonomic risks

Recording and scoring;

Position of body parts

Prevalence of awkward posture

Degree of deviation neutral posture

Severity of ergonomic risks/problems

Inexpensive, easy to apply

More applicable to static jobs

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Observational analysis tools

•Ergonomic risks
Awkward postures
Prolonged static work
•Observational analysis
Workstation design problems
Work design problems

•MSD prevalence/severity/frequency
•Performance problems
•Poor quality
•Poor productivity
4

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Quick Exposure Check (QEC)

Observational & Subjective
Interaction between risk factors
Observational:
Postures of body parts and repetitive movement

Subjective:
Task duration
Handled weight
Hand force exertion
Vibration
Visual demand
Stress
Workpace

5Risk scores and risk exposure levels

Observational analysis tools

Quick Exposure Check (QEC)

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QEC example

x
2


x Back(Static)
6
MS Risk Levels
Very High Moderate
Low
High
29-40 23-29 16-22 8-15

x
6

7 Total score for Back

x 8 22

QEC example

x 4

x Shoulder/Arm

MS Risk Levels
8
Very High Moderate Low
High
41-56 31-40 21-30 10-20

x
6

Total score
for
Shoulder/Arm
x
8 30
8 4

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QEC example

4
4
x

x Wrist/Hand
8 8 MS Risk Levels
Very High Moderate Low
High
41-46 31-40 21-30 10-20

x
6 6
x

Total score
for
Wrist/Hand
9
4 4
8 30

QEC example


Neck
MS Risk Levels
Very High Moderate Low
High
x 10
16-18 12-14 8-10 4-6

Total score
x 8 for
Neck
18
x

10

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QEC example

Score
for
work pace
4
x
Work pace
Risk Levels
Very High Moderate Low
High
16 9 4 1

Stress
Risk Levels
Score Very High Moderate
for Low
High
x stress
16 9 4 1
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9

12

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13

COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS

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The Human Sensory System and

Information Processing
 The Human Sensory System
 Perception
 Attention Resources
 Memory
 Response Selection and Execution
 Common Cognitive Tasks
 Design Guidelines for Cognitive Work

Cognitive Ergonomics
Study of the capabilities and limitations of the human brain
and sensory system while performing activities that have a
significant information processing content
 Why cognitive ergonomics is important
 Growth in the service industry sector in which work has high
content of information processing and communication
 More use of mechanization and automation
 Increased use of technologically sophisticated equipment

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Human Information Processing

Model

Human Sensory System

 Humans receive stimuli from sources of energy both
external and internal to the body
 Receptors - the body’s sensory organs:
1. Vision ~ 80% of human information input
2. Hearing ~ 15% to 19% of information input
3. Touch
4. Smell
5. Taste

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Perception
Stage of cognition in which the human becomes aware of the
sensation caused by stimuli and interprets it in the light of his
or her experience and knowledge
 Consists of two steps:
1. Detection - human becomes aware of the stimulus of interest,
which may be mixed with other stimuli
2. Recognition - human interprets the meaning of the stimulus
and identifies it in the context of previous experience

Two steps of perception

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Bottom-Up and Top-Down

Processing
 Bottom-up processing - stimulation of the senses by
external sources
 Concerned with the detection step in perception
 Top-down processing - information processing
activities of perception that are based on a human’s
knowledge, experience, and expectations
 Concerned with the recognition step in perception

Attention Resources
Attention means keeping one’s mind on something
 Involves mental concentration and readiness for such
concentration
 Types of attention:
 Selective attention
 Focused attention
 Divided attention
 Sustained attention
 Lack of attention, sometimes caused by boredom

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Selective Attention
Refers to a situation in which a person needs to
monitor multiple sources of information in order to
perceive irregularities or opportunities
 Involves filtering out certain channels of information
in order to focus on one channel that is deemed
important
 Examples:
 Pilot checking gauges, looking for readings that might
explain airplane’s erratic behavior
 Football quarterback watching other team’s defensive
line to exploit weaknesses

Focused Attention
Refers to situations in which a person must cope with
multiple input channels but focus on only one channel
for a sustained period of time
 Person pays attention to one stimulus and is not
distracted by others ("noise")
 Examples:
 Conversing with a friend in a crowded room full of
people who are also talking
 Reading a book in an airport lobby
 Fighter pilot landing an airplane on the deck of an
aircraft carrier during rough seas

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Divided Attention
Refers to situations in which there are multiple stimuli, but
multiple tasks must be performed together
 Examples:
 Driving a car while talking on a cell phone with someone
 Doing income tax return while watching television
 Machine operator attending several machines in a machine
cluster

Sustained Attention
Refers to situations in which a person must watch for a
signal of interest over a relatively long period of time, and it
is important to avoid missing the signal
 Also known as vigilance
 Examples:
 Inspector looking for defective products moving along a
conveyor line
 Radar operator monitoring a radar screen for incoming aircraft

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Lack of Attention and Boredom

 Lack of attention - not concentrating on task
 Usually caused by boredom - state of being weary and
restless due to lack of interest
 Factors leading to boredom on the job:
 Short cycle times
 Low requirements for body movements
 Warm environment
 Lack of contact with other workers
 Low motivation
 Low lighting levels in workplace

Memory
 Three categories of memory in the model of human
information processing:
1. Sensory memory
2. Working memory
 Also called short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

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Sensory Memory
 Associated with the human sensory channels, mainly sight
and hearing
 Operates autonomously
 Does not require attention resources
 Vision sensory memory called iconic storage
 Only lasts ~ 1 second
 Hearing sensory memory called echoic storage
 Lasts a few seconds
 Sensory memory data disappears unless encoded and
processed in working memory

Working Memory
Consists of three primary components, according to one
plausible model:
1. Central executive component - coordinates activities of
other two components
 Also interacts with long-term memory
2. Visuospatial sketchpad - operates with visual and spatial
information while it is being processed in working
memory
3. Phonological loop - operates with verbal and acoustical
information while it is being processed in working
memory

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More on Working Memory

 Number of images, sounds, and ideas that can be
processed in working memory at one time is limited
 Key performance factors in operation of working
memory:
1. Capacity
2. Time factor
3. Attention resources
4. Similarity of information items

Long-Term Memory
 Much of the information processed in working memory is
transferred to and retrieved from long-term memory
 Information in long-term memory consists of semantic codes
 Individual items are given meaning and are organized into
symbolic structures and associations
 The structures allow for new information to be added

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Types of Long-Term Memory

 Semantic memory - used predominantly to store facts,
figures, and other information related to
 General knowledge about the world
 Specific knowledge about one’s work
 Episodic memory - refers to memory of important
events and episodes in one’s life
 Example: memory of the death of a parent

Response Selection
Cognitive process of figuring out what actions to take in
light of information perceived through sensory channels
(bottom-up processing) and information stored in long-term
memory (top-down processing)
 Accomplished in working memory as a series of
information-processing transformations
 Capability to perform these transformations is limited by the
capacity of working memory as well as the time factor

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Response Execution
Carrying out the actions determined in response selection
 Actions are usually executed by the human effectors (fingers,
hands, feet, and voice)
 Actions can also be passive, e.g., a person reading and the
action is to continue reading
 Involves both cognitive and physical elements
 Cognitive elements - coordinating the actions of the
musculoskeletal system
 Physical elements - expending the necessary strength and
energy for the action

Response Selection and Execution

 Some factors that affect the difficulty and speed with which
response selection and execution are carried out:
1. Decision complexity
2. Compatibility
3. Tradeoff between speed and accuracy

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Skill-Rule-Knowledge (SRK) Model

Identifies three types of behavior in cognitive processing
while performing various kinds of tasks:
1. Skill-based
2. Rule-based
3. Knowledge-based

Skill-Based Behavior
Characteristic behavior when a person has gained a high
degree of familiarity and proficiency in a task
 The task can be performed automatically and subconsciously
 The task usually has a high manual content
 Attention resources required are minimal
 Examples:
 Walking, riding a bicycle
 Unloading a production machine that produces the same part
every cycle

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Rule-Based Behavior
Characteristic behavior when a person performs a task
according to a set of rules or instructions
 Greater demands on attention resources than in skill-based
behavior because rules or instructions have to be
consciously followed
 Examples:
 Following a recipe in preparing a dessert
 Following a checklist when starting up a chemical process
 Setting up a fixture on a milling machine

Knowledge-Based Behavior
Characteristic behavior when a person performs a task that
requires a high degree of cognitive processing because the
situation is unfamiliar and rules or past experience cannot
be applied
 Person must define objectives, evaluate alternatives, and
mentally or physically test consequences of the alternatives
 Examples:
 Engineer designing a part
 Doctor making a medical diagnosis

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Common Cognitive Tasks

 Decision making
 Planning
 Problem solving

Design Guidelines for Cognitive

Work
 Guidelines for sensory reception and perception
 Guidelines for working memory
 Guidelines for long-term memory

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Reception and Perception

Guidelines
 Selection of sensory modality - visual presentation vs.
auditory presentation
When to use visual When to use auditory
Long message Short message
Complex message Simple message
Referred to later Requires action now
Noisy environment Very light or very dark
Person remains in Person expected to
one location move around

Reception and Perception

Guidelines
 Standardization - having similar devices operate in the same
way
 Example: all machines in the plant have the same controls
 Redundancy - presenting information using more than one
sensory mode
 Example: combine visual and auditory modes for warning
messages

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Reception and Perception

Guidelines
 Graphical displays - information presented graphically
usually more effective than same information presented as
text
 Example: Toyota production system’s use of graphical
instructions
 Stimulus variation - use of variable stimuli rather than
stimuli that are constant and continuous
 Example: flashing red light on control panel more likely to
alert operator than continuous red light

Working Memory Guidelines

 Minimize demands on working memory - minimize the
number of alphanumeric items that must be kept in
working memory and length of time they must be retained
 Exploit chunking
 Formulate meaningful sequences out of a string of
alphanumeric characters so string can be retained as one
chunk
 Use letters rather than numbers (letters are more likely to
have meaning)
 Limit chunk size to 3 or 4 characters

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Guidelines for Long-Term Memory

 Increase frequency and recency of using information stored
in long-term memory
 Drills to recall emergency procedures
 Regular and frequent training sessions
 Standardized procedures in batch operations
 Use memory aids
 Example: written instructions for procedures that must be
carried out in the correct sequence

References
 Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of
Work by Mikell P. Groover.

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