16.03.

2021

WORK STUDY & ERGONOMICS

Work measurement (The definition, scope and objectives of work
measurement, work measurement techniques)

-Lecture 3-

The importance of time

 Most workers are paid for their time on the job
 The labor content (cost of labor time) is often a major
factor in the total cost of a product or service
 For any organization, it is important to know how
much time will be required to accomplish a given
amount of work

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Some definitions
 Work measurement – evaluation of a task in terms of
the time that should be allowed by an average worker
to perform the task

 Standard time – amount of time that should be

allowed for an average worker to process one work
unit using the standard method and working at normal
pace

Functions of Time Standards

 They define a “fair day’s work”
 They provide a means to convert workload
into staffing and equipment needs
 They allow alternative methods to be
compared objectively
 They provide a basis for wage incentives and
evaluation of worker performance
 They provide time data for:
 Production planning and scheduling
 Cost estimating
 Material requirements planning

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Methods to Determine Time

Standards

Work Measurement Techniques

 Direct time study (DTS)
 Predetermined motion time system (PMTS)
 Performance rating is not required
 Can be applied to determine the time standard for a
task before production
 Standard data systems (SDS)
 Work sampling

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Task Hierarchy & Work

Measurement

Prerequisites for Valid Time

Standards
Factors that must be standardized before a time
standard can be set

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Average Worker
A worker who is representative of the persons who usually perform
tasks similar to the task being measured
 If the work is performed mostly by men, then the average worker
is male
 If the work is performed mostly by women, then the average
worker is female

Standard Performance
A pace of working that can be maintained by an
average worker throughout an entire work shift
without harmful effects on the worker’s health or
physical well-being
 The work shift includes periodic rest breaks and
occasional interruptions are experienced by the
worker
 Benchmarks of standard performance:
 Walking at 3 miles/hr on level flat ground

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Standard Method
 Must include all of the details on how the task is
performed, including:
 Procedure - hand and body motions
 Tools
 Equipment
 Workplace layout
 Irregular work
 Working conditions
 Setup

Standard Work Units

 The time needed to process the work unit depends on
its starting condition
 Therefore this condition must be specified
 If the actual condition deviates from the
specification, then extra time may be required to
accomplish the task
 Exactly what changes are made in the work unit by the
task?
 What is the final state of the completed work unit?

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Allowances in Time Standards

Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor
Apfd to obtain the standard time

Purpose of allowance factor is to compensate for

lost time due to work interruptions and other
reasons
Standard time:
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)
where pfd = personal time, fatigue, and
delays

Reasons for Lost Time at Work

Work-related interruptions Non-work-related interruptions

 Machine breakdowns  Personal needs (e.g.,

 Waiting for materials or restroom breaks)
parts  Talking to co-workers about
 Receiving instructions from matters unrelated to work
foreman  Lunch break
 Talking to co-workers about  Smoke break
work-related matters  Beverage break
 Rest breaks for fatigue  Personal telephone call
 Cleaning up at end of shift

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How to Allow for Lost Time

 Two approaches used by companies:
1. Scheduled rest breaks during the shift
 Typical - one 15-minute break in mid-
morning and another in mid-afternoon
2. A PFD allowance is added to the normal
time
 This allows the worker to take a break
on his/her own time

PFD Allowance
 Personal time
 Rest room breaks, phone calls, water
fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5% typical)
 Fatigue
 Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to
work-related stresses and conditions (5% or
more)
 Delays
 Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions
(5% typical)

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Other Types of Allowances

 Contingency (Unexpected) Allowance
 Additional allowance due to a problem with
the task (e.g., raw material problem ) - not
greater than 5%
 Temporary basis – solve the underlying
problem
 Policy allowance
 Machine allowance (set by company policy)
 Training allowance – for teaching new workers
 Learning allowance – learning a new task

Contingency (Unexpected)
Allowances
Problem area Problems and examples
Materials or Starting materials or parts are out of specification, and extra time is
parts needed to correct the nonconformance (e.g., oversized casting that
requires an extra machining pass or slower feed rate).
Process Manufacturing process is not in statistical control and additional
time is required to inspect every piece rather than inspect on a
sampling basis.
Equipment Equipment is malfunctioning or breaking down more frequently
than what is provided by the unavoidable delay factor, and
additional time is needed to compensate the worker to make
adjustments, lubricate the machine more frequently, or other extra
task(s) not included in the standard time.

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Relative Accuracy of Time

Standards

Relative Application Speed

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1.) Direct time study

Direct and continuous observation of a task using a
stopwatch or other timekeeping device to record the
time taken to accomplish the task
 While observing and recording the time, an appraisal
of the worker’s performance level is made to obtain
the normal time for the task
 The data are then used to compute a standard time
for the task

Direct Time Study Procedure

1. Define and document the standard method
2. Divide the task into work elements
3. Time the work elements to obtain the
observed time Tobs
4. Evaluate worker’s pace relative to standard
performance to obtain normal time Tn
 Called performance rating (PR)
Tn = Tobs(PR)
5. Apply allowance factor to compute standard
time
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)

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Divide Task into Work Elements

Guidelines:
 Each work element should consist of a logical group
of motion elements
 Beginning point of one element should be the end
point of the preceding element
 Each element should have a readily identifiable end
point
 Work elements should not be too long nor too short
 Separate irregular elements, machine elements,
internal elements.

Time the Work Elements

 Each element should be timed over several work
cycles to obtain a reliable average
 Stopwatch timing methods:
1. Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset
to zero at the start of each work element
2. Continuous timing method – stopwatch is
allowed to run continuously throughout the
duration of the work cycle.

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Performance Rating
Analyst judges the performance or pace of the worker
relative to the definition of standard performance used by
the organization
 Standard performance PR = 100%
 Slower pace than standard PR < 100%
 Faster pace than standard PR > 100%
 Normal time Tn = Tobs(PR)

Direct time study form

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Apply Allowances
 A PFD allowance is added to the normal time to
compute the standard time
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)
where Apfd = allowance factor for personal time,
fatigue, and delays
 The function of the allowance factor is to inflate the
value of standard time in order to account for the
various reasons why the worker loses time during the
shift.

Example
 A direct time study was taken on a manual work element
using the snapback method. The regular cycle consisted
of three elements, a, b, and c. Element d is an irregular
element performed every five cycles. The average values
for observed times and performance ratings are given for
the work elements.

Work element a b c d
Avg. obs. time (min) 0.56 0.25 0.50 1.10
Avg. perf. rating 100% 80% 110% 100%

 Determine (a) normal time and (b) standard time for the
cycle (Allowance factor is 15%)

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Solution
(a) Normal time:
Tn = 0.56(1.00) + 0.25(0.80) + 0.50(1.1)
+ 1.10(1.0)/5 = 1.53 min
(b) Standard time:
Tstd = 1.53(1 + 0.15) = 1.76 min

Machine Cycle in the Task

 If the work cycle includes machine-paced elements,
then standard time may include a machine allowance
applied to the machine time
Tstd = Tnw(1 + Apfd) + Tm(1 + Am)

where Tnw = normal time for worker (external)

elements, Tm = machine cycle time (assumed constant),
and Am = machine allowance

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Number of Cycles to be Timed

where
n=the number of required observations
n'=the number of trial observations
xi=the value of trial observation “i”

Performance Rating
Analyst observes and rates the worker’s performance
relative to the definition of standard performance
 The most difficult and controversial step in direct time
study
 Potential conflict of interest between the worker
and the analyst
 Most common performance rating method is based
on speed or pace

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Performance Rating Techniques

Determining the tempo is regarded as the most difficult
part of the time study. There are different types of
tempo rating methods in literature. The aim of all the
rating techniques is to help the formation of standard
time values. Main methods of performance rating are:
 Skill and Effort rating
 Synthetic Rating
 Objective rating
 Physiological Evaluation of Performance Level
 Westinghouse System of Rating

WESTINGHOUSE SYSTEM OF
RATING
This four-factor method was developed at Westinghouse and published in 1927.
The method is also called LMS including the initials of its founders’ names.

 Skill: Skill can be defined as "proficiency at following a given method". Skill does
not depend on the will of the operator. It can be increased by practice.
 Effort: Effort is defined as "the will to work". It is thought to be under the control
of the operator at every time.
 Conditions: Items that have a greater effect on the operator rather than the
operation are defined as conditions. Factors such as “light”, “heat” and
“ventilation” are considered for the rating of conditions (Polk, 1984).
 Consistency: It is about the consistency of the observed worker. If the worker
shows different performance at every observation, then it is concluded that there
is inconsistency. The consistency can be regarded as a minor factor when the
shares of other factors are concerned (Polk, 1984).

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Westinghouse Method (Rating

system)
Skill ratings Environmental condition
ratings
+0.15 A1 Superskill +0.06 A Ideal
+0.13 A2 Superskill +0.04 B Excellent
+0.11 B1 Excellent +0.02 C Good
+0.08 B2 Excellent 0.00 D Average
+0.06 C1 Good -0.03 E Fair
+0.03 C2 Good -0.07 F Poor
0.00 D Average Consistency ratings
-0.05 E1 Fair +0.04 A Perfect
-0.10 E2 Fair +0.03 B Excellent
-0.16 F1 Poor +0.01 C Good
-0.22 F2 Poor 0.00 D Average
Effort ratings -0.02 E Fair
+0.13 A1 Excessive -0.04 F Poor
+0.12 A2 Excessive
+0.10 B1 Excellent
+0.08 B2 Excellent
+0.05 C1 Good
+0.02 C2 Good
0.00 D Average
-0.04 E1 Fair
-0.08 E2 Fair
-0.12 F1 Poor
-0.17 F2 Poor

Time Study Equipment

1. Stopwatch
 Mechanical stopwatches
 Electronic stopwatches
2. Video cameras
 Provides visual and audio record of
method used by worker
3. Computerized techniques in direct time study
 Use of PCs and PDAs

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Stopwatches
Mechanical stopwatch Electronic stopwatch

2.) Predetermined Motion Time

Systems (PMTS)
A database of basic motion elements and their
associated normal time values, together with
procedures for applying the data to analyze manual
tasks and establish standard times for the tasks
 Basic motions include:
 Reach
 Grasp
 Move
 Release

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PMTS Procedure
1. Synthesize method that would be used to
perform the task
 The method is described in terms of basic
motion elements
2. Retrieve normal time values for each motion
element
 Sum the element times to determine the task
normal time
3. Evaluate method to make improvements
4. Apply allowances to determine standard time

PMTS Levels and Generations

 First-level PMT Systems use the basic motion
elements
 Reach, grasp, and move used separately to
define the task
 Higher-level systems combine several motion
elements into motion aggregates
 Reach and grasp combined into one element
called “get”
 First-level systems were chronologically the first to
be developed and are called first generation
PMTS

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Comparisons
First-level PMTS Higher-level PMTS
Most accurate Less accurate
High application speed ratio Less time to set
Most suited to highly standards
repetitive short cycles Longer cycle times
Basic motion elements feasible
Very detailed Motion aggregates
Highest flexibility Less detailed
Less flexible

Methods-Time Measurement
“Procedure which analyzes any manual
operation or method into the basic motions
required to perform it and assigns to each
motion a predetermined time standard which is
determined by the nature of the motion and the
conditions under which it is made”
 Time units are TMUs
1 TMU = 0.00001 hr = 0.0006 min = 0.036 sec
1 sec = 27.8 TMU
 MTM is a family of products available through
the MTM Association in Des Plaines, Illinois

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Methods-Time Measurement

MTM-1
 Operates at the basic motion element
level in our pyramidal structure of work
 Most MTM-1 basic motions involve
hand and arm movements
 Also includes elements for eye, leg,
foot, and body actions
 Many of the basic motion elements
correspond to the original therbligs
developed by Frank Gilbreth

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Other MTM Systems

 MTM-2 – Second-level PMTS in which basic
motion elements are combined into motion
aggregates
 GET – combines Reach and Grasp
 PUT – combines Move and Position
 MTM-3 – Third-level PMTS which has four
motion categories
1. Handle
2. Transport
3. Step and foot motions
4. Bend and arise

MTM-1 Example

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Maynard Operation Sequence

Technique
 MOST is a high-level PMTS based on MTM
 Same time units as MTM: TMU
 Developed around 1967 under the
direction of Kjell Zandin
 MOST is a product of H.B. Maynard and
Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

MOST in the Work Pyramid

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Basic MOST
 Focused on work involving the movement of objects
(e.g., parts, tools) from one location to another in the
workplace
 Uses motion aggregates
 Called activity sequence models
 Three activity sequence models:
 General move – object moved freely in space
 Controlled move – object remains in contact with a surface
 Tool use – use of hand tools (e.g., hammer, screwdriver)

Activity Sequence Model

 Consists of sequence model parameters, which
correspond roughly to basic motion elements
 Sequence model parameters for General Move:
 A – Action distance (move hands or feet)
 B – Body motion (sit, stand up)
 G - Gain control (closely related to grasp)
 P – Placement (e.g., position, lay aside, orient)
 Standard sequence in General Move:
AB GAB PA

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Other Versions of MOST

 Maxi MOST – for work cycles performed fewer
than 150 times per week and there are
variations in the cycle
 Can be applied to tasks of several hours
 Mini MOST – for highly repetitive work cycles
performed more than 1500 times per week
 Clerical MOST – similar to Basic MOST but
designed for clerical tasks
 MOST for Windows – Computerized technique
that allows user to apply Basic MOST, Maxi
MOST, or Mini MOST to the task

Example
 Develop the activity sequence model and determine the normal time for the
following work activity: A worker walks 5 steps, picks up a small part from the
floor, returns to his original position, and places the part on his worktable.

General Move activity sequence model = A B G A B P A

Index A = Action distance B = Body motion G = Gain control P = Placement
0 Close <= 5 cm (2 in.) Hold, Toss
1 Within reach Grasp light object using Lay aside
(but > 2 in.) one or two hands Loose fit
3 1 or 2 steps Bend and arise with Grasp object that is heavy, Adjustments, light
50% occurence or obstructed, or hidden, pressure, double
or interlocked placement
6 3 or 4 steps Bend and arise with Position with care, or
100% occurence precision, of blind, or
obstructed, or heavy
pressure

10 5, 6, or 7 steps Sit or stand

16 8, 9, or 10 steps Through door, or
climb on or off, or
stand and bend, or
bend and sit

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Example
 Referring to the table, the indexed activity sequence
model for this work activity would be the following:
A10B6G1A10B0P1A0 where:
A10 = Walk 5 steps
B6 = Bend and arise
G1 = Gain control of small part
A10 = Walk back to original position
B0 = No body motion
P1 = Lay aside part on table
A0 = No motion
The sum of index values is 28. Multiplying by 10, we have 280 TMUs
(About 10 sec)

3.) Standard Data Systems

A SDS is a database of normal time values,
usually organized by work elements, that can
be used to establish time standards for tasks
composed of work elements similar to those in
the database
 Normal times in the database are usually
compiled from previous direct time studies
 Using a standard data system, time standards
can be established before the job is running

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When a SDS is Most Suitable

 Similarity in tasks
 With many similar tasks, it is more efficient to
use a SDS than direct time study
 Batch production
 Best suited to medium production quantities
 Large number of standards to be set
 More productive than direct time study
 Need to set standards before production
 Direct time study requires observation of
actual task to set standard, SDS does not

PMTS and SDS Compared

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Using a Standard Data System

1. Analyze the new task and divide into work
elements
2. Access database to determine normal times
for the work elements
 Distinguish setup time from production
cycle time
3. Add element normal times to obtain the task
normal times for setup and production cycle
4. Compute standard times for setup and
production cycle by adding appropriate
allowances

SDS Database
A catalog of normal times, organized to allow the
analyst to access the values corresponding to
work elements performed under various work
variables
 Work variables - factors that affect the normal
time of the element
 Examples:
 Work unit characteristics (e.g., size, weight)
 Task parameters (e.g., distances moved)
 Working conditions (e.g., illumination)

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SDS Advantages
 Increased productivity in setting standards
 Associated costs savings
 Capability to set standards before production
 Avoids need for performance rating
 Controversial step in direct time study
 Consistency in the standards
 Based on averaging of much DTS data
 Inputs to other information systems
 Product cost estimating, computer-assisted
process planning, MRP

SDS Disadvantages and

Limitations
 High investment cost
 Developing a SDS requires considerable time
and cost
 Source of data
 Large file of previous DTS data must exist
 Methods descriptions
 Documentation still required
 Risk of improper applications
 Attempting to set standard for tasks not
covered by SDS

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Work Sampling
Statistical technique for determining the
proportions of time spent by subjects in various
defined categories of activity
 Subjects = workers, machines
 Categories of activity = setting up a machine,
producing parts, idle, etc.
 For statistical accuracy
 Observations must be taken at random times
 Period of the study must be representative of
the types of activities performed by the subjects

When is Work Sampling

Appropriate?
 Sufficient time is available to perform the study
 Several weeks usually required for a work
sampling study
 Multiple subjects
 Work sampling suited to studies involving
more than one subject
 Long cycle times for the jobs covered by the
study
 Nonrepetitive work cycles
 Jobs consist of various tasks rather than a
single repetitive task

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Example: How Work Sampling

Works
 A total of 500 observations taken at random
times during a one-week period (40 hours) on
10 machines with results shown below.
Category No. of observations
(1) Being set up 75
(2) Running production 300
(3) Machine idle 125
500
 How many hours per week did an average
machine spend in each category?

Example: Solution
 Proportions of time determined as number of observations
in each category divided by 500
 Time in each category determined by multiplying proportion
by total hours (40 hr)

Category Proportion Hrs per category

(1) Being set up 75/500 = 0.15 0.15 x 40 = 6
(2) Running production 300/500 = 0.60 0.60 x 40 = 24
(3) Machine idle 125/500 = 0.25 0.25 x 40 = 10
1.00 40

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Work Sampling Applications

 Machine utilization - how much time is spent by
machines in various categories of activity
 Previous example
 Worker utilization - how workers spend their time
 Allowances for time standards - assessment of
delay components in PFD allowance factor
 Average unit time - determining the average time
on each work unit
 Time standards - limited statistical accuracy when
standards set by work sampling

Statistical Basis of Work Sampling

 Binomial distribution, in which parameter p =
true proportion of time spent in a given category
of activity
 There are usually multiple activity categories,
so we have p1, p2, . . , pk, . ., pK proportions for
K different activity categories
 The binomial distribution can be approximated
by the normal distribution, where
=np

 = np1  p 

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Alternative Parameters
 The parameters  and  can be converted
back to proportions by dividing by the number
of observations n

p= μ np
=
n n

p1  p 
p 
n

Estimating the Proportion p

 In a sampling study, we let p̂ = the proportion of the
total number of observations devoted to an activity
category of interest
 The proportion p̂ is our estimate of the true value of the
population proportion p

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Confidence Intervals
 The general statement of a confidence interval for p̂
relative to p can be expressed as follows

 p̂  p 
Pr   z / 2    z / 2  = 1 - 
 ˆ p 
 

Confidence Intervals
 This can be rearranged to the following
 
Pr p̂  z / 2ˆ p  p  p̂  z / 2ˆ p = 1 - 

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Example: Confidence interval in

work sampling
 Determine the 95% confidence interval for the proportion of
time spent setting up the machines, category (1).

Number of Observations Required

 How many observations are required to achieve a given
confidence interval about the estimate of p?
 We need to decide two parameters:
1. Confidence level 1 - 
 This allows us to find the corresponding value of z/2
2. The half-width c of the confidence interval, defined as
the desired acceptable deviation from p
 Thus, we have p  c

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Number of Observations Required

 Given z/2 and c, the number of observations required
to achieve the specified confidence level is given by
the following
z / 2 2 p̂1  p̂ 
n
c2

Example: Number of observations

required

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Example: Number of observations

required

Determining Average Task Times

 Average task time for a given work category is
determined by computing the total time associated
with the category and then dividing by the total
count of work units produced by that category
p (TT )
Tci = i
Qi
where Tci = average task time, pi = proportion of
observations associated with category i, TT = total
time, Qi = total quantity associated with category i.

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Determining Standard Times

 Similar to determining average task time, except
performance rating must be factored in
 First determine normal time for activity i
pi (TT )(PR i )
Tni =
Qi

 Then determine standard time

Tstdi = Tni(1 + Apfd)

Defining the Activity Categories

Some guidelines:
 Must be defined to be consistent with objectives of
study
 Must be immediately recognizable by observer
 If output measures are included, then activity
categories must correlate with those measures
 If more than one output measure, then an activity
category must be defined for each
 Helpful to limit the number of categories to ten or
fewer

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Work Sampling Observation Form

Advantages of Work Sampling

 Can be used to measure activities that are
impractical to measure by direct observation
 Multiple subjects can be included
 Requires less time and lower cost than continuous
direct observation
 Training requirements less than DTS or PMTS
 Less tiresome and tedious on observer than
continuous observation
 Being a subject in work sampling is less
demanding than being watched continuously for a
long time

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Disadvantages and Limitations

 Not as accurate for setting time standards as
other work measurement techniques
 Usually not practical to study a single subject
 Work sampling provides less detailed information
about work elements than DTS or PMTS
 Since work sampling deals with multiple subjects,
individual differences will be missed
 Workers may be suspicious because they do not
understand the statistical basis of work sampling
 Behavior of subjects may be influenced by the act
of observing them

Example
 A work sampling study is to be performed on the art department in a publishing
company. The department consists of 22 artists who work at computer graphics
workstations developing line drawings based on authors’ rough sketches. The
duration of the study is 15 days, seven hours per day. Line drawings are the main
activity performed by the artists, but not the only activity. The supervisor of the
department estimates that the proportion of time spent making line drawings is
75% of each artist’s day. (a) At the 95% confidence level, how many
observations are required if the lower and upper confidence limits are 0.72 and
0.78, respectively. (b) Regardless of your answer in preceding part (a), a total of
1000 observations were actually taken, and artists were making line drawings in
680 of those observations. Construct a 97.5% confidence interval for the true
proportion of time making line drawings. (c) Records for the period of the
study indicate that 5,240 line drawings were completed. Estimate the average
time per line drawing? (d) Determine the standard time for one line drawing,
given that the average performance rating for the artists was observed to be
90%, and the allowance for personal time, fatigue, and delays is 15%.

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Example

References
 R. Kesavan, C. Elanchezhian, B. Vijaya Ramnath,
‘Process planning and cost estimation’, New Age
International Publishers.
 Mikell P. Groover, ‘Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and Management of Work’, Pearson
International Edition.
 Andris Freivalds, ‘Niebel’s Methods, Standards, and
Work Design’, McGraw-Hill International Edition.
 Mehmet Tanyaş, ‘Endüstri Mühendisliğine Giriş’, İrfan
Yayımcılık.

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