By

Abraham M.
Lecturer Civil Eng. Dept.
Ambo University
1
GENERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Our code, EBCS-2,1995 recommends four analysis
methods:
 Linear analysis (elastic)
 Linear analysis followed by plastic moment
redistribution
 Plastic analysis
 Non-linear analysis – material non-linearity
– Geometric non-linearity
Plastic Method of Analysis
i) Upper bound theorem
E.g. Yield line method- gives upper bound value

ii) Lower bound theorem

E.g. Strip method-gives lower bound value, equilibrium
method.
Yield line method:
 Since it is upper bound analysis, if in error will be on the
unsafe side.
 A tool for analysis but requires iteration for design.
Strip method:
 It gives result on the safe side.
 It satisfies – Equilibrium
– Boundary condition
– Yield moment capacity is not exceeded
everywhere.
Professor Arne Hillerborg (Sweden, 1956)
Forces acting on small slab element:
surface and shear forces
 Forces acting on small slab element:
flexural and twisting moments

 mx
2
2my 2mxy
 2 2  w
x 2
y xy
Plate equation
 2m x  m y  2 m xy
2

 2  w
x 2
y 2
xy
It is possible to solve the above differential equation in
such a way that:
 Equilibrium equation is satisfied.
 Boundary conditions are satisfied.
 The yield criterion is not being exceeded.
 The starting point of Hillerborg’s strip theory!
 HILLERBORG’S STRIP METHOD
 Hillerborg chooses as his solution the condition Mxy =
0 and carries the load entirely by criterion.
 no load is assumed to be resisted by the twisting
strength of the slab
 The equilibrium equation then reduces to:

 2m x  2m y
  w
x 2
y 2

 Hence the slab can be considered as a system of x-

direction and y-direction strips only, i.e. using
independent torsion free strips criss-crossing each
other.
Strip Method for Slabs
 By the strip method, a moment field is first
determined that fulfills equilibrium requirements,
after which the reinforcements of the slab at each
point is designed for this moment field
 If a distribution of moments can be found that
satisfies both equilibrium and boundary conditions for
a given external loading, and if the yield moment
capacity of the slab is nowhere exceeded, then the
given external loading will represent a lower bound of
the true carrying capacity

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Strip Method for Slabs
 Advantages:
 The strip method gives results on the safe side, which
is certainly preferable in practice
 The strip method is a design method, by which the
needed reinforcement can be calculated

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 The equilibrium equation then reduces to:
 2m x  2m y  Where the proportion of load
   w
x 2 y 2 taken by the strips is k in the
x-direction and (1-k) in the y-
• This equation can be split direction (concept of load
conveniently into 2 parts, dispersion)
representing twist less  In many regions in slabs, the
beam strip action. value k will be either 0 or 1,
i.e., load is dispersed by
 2m x strips in x or in y direction
  kw
x 2
 In other regions, it may be
 2m y reasonable to assume that the
   (1  k ) w load is divided equally in the
y 2
two directions, i.e. k=0.5 12
 Strip Method for Slabs
Choice of load distribution
 Theoretically, the load w can be divided arbitrarily b/n x
and y directions.
 Different divisions will, of course, lead to different patterns
of reinforcement, and all will not be equally appropriate.
 The desired goal is to arrive at an arrangement of steel that
is safe and economical and will avoid problems at service
load level associated with excessive cracking or deflections.
 In general, the designer may be guided by his knowledge of
the general distribution of elastic moments.

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 To see an example of the strip
method and to illustrate the
choices open to the designer,
consider the square, simply
supported slab shown below, A A
with side length a and a
uniformly distributed
factored load w per unit area.
 The simplest load
distribution is obtained by
setting k=0.5 over the entire
slab, as shown in Figure 2.

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Strip Method for Slabs
 The load on all strips in each direction is thus w/2 ( with
k=0.5), as illustrated by the load dispersion arrows
 This gives maximum design moments mx = my = wa2/16,
implying a constant curvature for all strips in the x-
direction at mid-span corresponding to a constant
moment wa2/16 across the width of the slab (see fig. 2)
 The same applies for y-direction strips
 It is recognized however that the curvatures in the strips
(say x-direction strips) near the supports, for such a slab,
are less than near mid-span.
 If the slab were reinforced according to this solution,
extensive redistribution of moments would be required,
certainly accompanied by much cracking in the highly
stressed regions near the middle of the slab
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 So what we need is a
type of load
distribution
(dispersion) which can
give a moment
distribution that gives
rise to greater
curvatures in strips
near the middle of the
slab and less near the
ends
 Try the alternative,
more reasonable
distribution shown in
Figure 3 next slide.
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Here the regions of different load dispersion separated
by the dash-doted discontinuity lines follow the
diagonals, and all of the load on any region is carried
in the direction giving the shortest distance to the
nearest support.
 k=0 or 1 in the different regions
 The lateral distribution of moments shown in Fig (3)
would theoretically require a continuously variable bar
spacing  impractical
 A practical solution would be to reinforce for the
average moment over a certain width, approximating
the actual lateral variation in Fig. (4) in a stepwise
manner.

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Strip Method for Slabs
 A third alternative is with discontinuity lines
parallel to the edges.
 Here again the division is made so that the
load is carried to the nearest support, as
before, but load near the diagonals is divided
with one-half taken in each direction.
 Thus k is given the values 0 or 1 along the
middle edges and 0.5 in the corners and
center of the slab

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Strip Method for Slabs

Figure 4
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Two different strip loadings are now identified, strip along
A-A and along B-B.
 This design leads to practical arrangement, one with
constant spacing through the center strip of width a/2 and a
wider spacing through the outer strips, where the elastic
curvatures and moments are known to be less.
 The averaging of moments necessitated in the second
solution is avoided here, and the 3rd (Fig. 4) solution is fully
consistent with the equilibrium theory.
 The three examples also illustrate the simple way in which
moments in the slab can be found by strip method, based
on familiar beam analysis.
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 It is important to note too that
the load on the supporting
beams is easily found because it
can be computed from the end
reactions of the slab-beam
strips in all cases.
Rectangular slabs with Figure 5
simple support
 Discontinuity lines parallel to
the edges as shown in the figure
 In the x-direction:
 Side strips: mx = w/2×b/4×b/8 =
wb2/64
 Middle strips: mx = w×b/4×b/8
= wb2/32
 In the y-direction
 Side strips: my = wb2/64
 Middle strips: my = wb2/8 21
Figure 6
 Strip Method for Slabs
Fixed Edges and Continuity
 Up to now we have dealt with positive moments in strips,
where a large amount of flexibility in assigning loads to the
various regions of the slab was provided
 This same flexibility extends to the assignment of moments
b/n negative and positive bending sections of slabs that are
fixed or continuous over their supported edges
 Some attention should be paid to elastic moment ratios to
avoid problems with cracking and deflection at service
loads
 Figure 7 (next slide) shows a uniformly loaded rectangular
slab having two adjacent edges fixed and the other two
edges simply supported
 Let us consider slab strips with one end fixed and one end
simply supported as shown in Fig. 7 22
 Strip Method for Slabs
 In designing by strip method, slab strips carrying loads
only near supports and unloaded in the central region
are encountered
 It is convenient if the unloaded region is subject to a
constant moment (and zero shear) because this
simplifies the selection of positive reinforcement
 The discontinuity lines are shifted to account for the
greater stiffness of the strips with fixed ends (i.e.
bigger reaction at the fixed support)
 Their location is defined by a coefficient , with a
value less than 0.5, so that the edge strips have widths
greater and less than b/4 at the fixed and simple end
respectively

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 Strip Method for Slabs
y (1-)b/2 b/2
a - b/2 2wb2/2
B
w/2 w/2

b/2
w/2 b
w/2

A A
b

b/2
(1-)b/2
x
B wb2/2
(a) Plan a (d) wy and my along B-B

(b) wx and mx along A-A

2
(1-2)wb /8
2wb2/8
Figure 7 24
 Strip Method for Slabs
For a BMD for x-direction middle strips (section A-A)

 Moment in the x-
direction edge strips: Observing, the absolute of the negative
• are one half of those in moment at a support plus the span
the middle strips moment = the “cantilever” moment.
because load is half as
great.
 Cont’d
For a BMD for y-direction middle strips (section B-B)
 Cont’d
 Moment in the y-direction edge strips:
wb
wb  b  w b b wb
2
4
b/2
myf    
w/2 2 2 2 2 2 16 Cantilever moment
2
b/2 myf m  1   .1    
w b b 2 wb
ys
2 2 4 16
w/2 1  b
2 2 2
2
mys  1 2 wb
  2 wb
 1 2 
wb
16 16 16
 Hillerborg notes that as a One-eighth of those in y- direction middle strip
general rule for fixed
edges, the support Ratio of Support to Span Moment
moment should be about
1.5 to 2.5 times the span
moment in the same strip.

 And for 0.350.39, the corresponding ratios of Negative

to positive moment ranges 2.45 to 1.45
 Example
 Figure below shows a typical
interior panel of a slab floor in
which support is provided by
beans on all column lines. Hence
the slab can be considered fully
restrained on all sides. The floor
must carry a live load of 6 kN/m2
with C25 grade concrete and steel
having f yk = 420 MPa. The
dimensions of the slab panel are
shown in the figure. Find the
moments at all critical sections
and determine the required slab
thickness and reinforcement.
 Strip Method for Slabs
Unsupported Edges
 The real power of the strip method becomes evident when
dealing with nonstandard problems, such as with
unsupported edge, slabs with holes, or slabs with reentrant
corners (L-shaped)
 For a slab with one edge unsupported, a reasonable basis for
analysis by the simple strip method is that a strip along the
unsupported edge takes a greater load per unit area than the
actual load acting, i.e., that the strip along the unsupported
edge acts as a support for the strips at right angles.

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Such strips have been referred to as “strong bands”.
 A strong band is, in effect, an integral beam, usually having
the same total depth as the remainder of the slab but
containing a concentration of reinforcement.
 The strip may be made deeper than the rest of the slab to
increase its carrying capacity, but this will not usually be
necessary
 Consider the rectangular slab carrying a uniformly
distributed ultimate load w with fixed edges along
three side and no support along one short side, shown
in Figure 8.

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Figure 8

(b) wx and mx along A-A

 Strip Method for Slabs
 M about the left end (with moments +ve clockwise and with the
unknown support moment mxs acting clockwise) 

  k will be known once mxs is selected

 Selection of mxs will depend on the shape of the slab.
 If a is large relative to b, the strong band in the y-direction at the
edge will be relatively stiff, and the moment at the left support of
the x-direction strips will approach the elastic value for a
propped cantilever
 If the slab is nearly square, the deflection of the strong band
would tend to increase the support moment; a value about half
the free cantilever moment might be selected
 With mxs selected and k calculated from the above equation, the
max span moment is determined
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Once mxs is selected and k value is known, it is easily shown
that the maximum span moment occurs when

 Determine moments in the x direction edge strips  They

are one-half those in middle strip
 In the y direction (C-C ) middle strip, the cantilever moment
is wb2/8
 Adopting a ratio of support to span moment of 2 results in
support and span moments, respectively, of

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Determine moments in y-direction strip adjacent to the
fixed edge
  It is one-eighth the middle strip values (check)
 In the y-dir strip along the free edge, moments can, with
slight conservatism, be made equal to (1+k) times y-dir
middle strip values

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Slab with free edge in long span direction

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 Strip Method for Slabs
 Moment equilibrium equation for Y direction strip C-C

Having the value of k1 selected, k2 can be found.

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 Example
Rectangular slab with long edge unsupported
 The 3.65 m x 5.8 m slab shown
in the figure with three fixed
edges and one long edge
unsupported must carry a
uniformly distributed service
live load of 6 kN/m2. Consider
concrete grade to be used as
C30 and steel to be used has
fyk = 420 MPa. Select an
appropriate slab thickness,
determine all factored
moments in the slab, and
select reinforcing bars and
spacing for the slab.
 Strip Method for Slabs
Slabs with Holes
 Slabs with small openings can usually be designed as if
there were no openings, replacing the interrupted steel
with bands of rebar of equivalent area on either side of the
opening in each direction.
 Smaller dimensions are those needed to accommodate
heating, plumbing and ventilating risers, etc.
 Larger size holes are required by stairways and elevator shafts
 Slabs with larger openings must be treated more rigorously
 The strip method offers a rational and safe basis for design in
such cases. Integral load-carrying beams (strong bands) are
provided along the edges of the opening, usually having the
same depth as the remainder of the slab but with extra
reinforcement, t pick up the load from the affected regions and
transmit it to the supports
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 Strip Method for Slabs
 In general, these integral beams should be chosen so as to
carry the loads most directly to the supported edges of the
slab.
 The width of the strong bands should be selected so that
the steel ratios are at or below the maximum for beams

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 Slabs with holes
 Example:
 A rectangular slab, 5 m x 8 m with fixed supports at all the
four sides has a central opening of 1.2 m x 2.4 m. Slab
thickness is Calculated to be of 200mm. The slab is to
carry a uniformly distributed factored load of 15 kN/m2
including its self weight. Device an appropriate system of
strong bands to reinforce the opening and determine
moments to be resisted at all critical sections of the slab.
 Because of the hole, certain strips lack support at one end.
To support them 0.3m wide strong bands will be provided
in the X direction at the long edges of the hole and 0.6m
wide strong bands in the Y direction at the short edges of
the hole.
 Strip E-E
 The strong bands in the Y direction (the strips
along section E-E) carry the directly applied load of 15
kN/m2 plus the 2.66 kN/m2 load from strip B-B, the
1.33 kN/m2 load from the strip C-C, and the 31.25
kN/m2 end reaction from strip D-D.