TRANSMUTATION,

NUCLEAR FISSION
AND NUCLEAR FUSION
TRANSMUTATION

General Chemistry
TRANSMUTATION
Two types of nuclear transmutation:
a. Natural transmutation by stellar nucleosynthesis in the past
created most of the heavier chemical elements in the known
existing universe, and continues to take place to this day,
creating the vast majority of the most common elements in the
universe, including He, O and C.
In the present, natural transmutation occurs when certain
radioactive elements present in nature spontaneously decay by a
process that causes transmutation, such as alpha or beta decay.

General Chemistry
TRANSMUTATION
Two types of nuclear transmutation:
b. Artificial transmutation – when stable nuclei is bombarded with
a particle and forced to become unstable and result in
transmutation.
It may occur in machinery that has enough energy to cause
changes in the nuclear structure of the elements. Such machines
include particle accelerators.

General Chemistry
TRANSMUTATION
Particle accelerators made it possible to synthesize the so-called
transuranium elements (elements with atomic numbers greater
than 92). It uses electric and magnetic fields to increase the kinetic
energy of charged species so that a reaction will occur.

General Chemistry
TRANSMUTATION

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus (mass
number > 200) divides to form smaller nuclei of intermediate
mass and one or more neutrons.
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which releases energy.
During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom
and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of
heat and radiation.
This process releases a large amount of energy because the
heavy nucleus is less stable than its products.

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FISSION
The first nuclear fission reaction to be studied was that of
uranium-235 bombarded with slow neutrons, whose speed is
comparable to that of air molecules at room temperature.

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear
fission reactions.
The neutrons generated during the initial stages of fission can
induce fission in other uranium-235 nuclei, which in turn produce
more neutrons, and so on.
In less than a second, the reaction can become uncontrollable,
liberating a tremendous amount of heat to the surroundings. For
a chain reaction to occur, enough uranium-235 must be present
in the sample to capture the neutrons.

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear reactor - number of fissionable nuclei available is
carefully controlled to prevent a “runaway” chain reaction.
Atomic bomb – a very rapid growth in the number of fissions
is sought.
Fission weapons are normally made with materials having
high concentrations of the fissile isotopes uranium-235,
plutonium-239.

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion - the combining
of small nuclei into larger ones, is
largely exempt from the waste
disposal problem.
For the lightest elements, nuclear
stability increases with increasing
mass number. If two light nuclei
combine or fuse together to form
a larger, more stable nucleus, an
appreciable amount of energy
will be released in the process.
General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion occurs constantly in the sun. The sun is made up
mostly of hydrogen and helium. Because fusion reactions take
place only at very high temperatures, they are often called
thermonuclear reactions.
In contrast to the fission process, nuclear fusion looks like a very
promising energy source.

General Chemistry
NUCLEAR FUSION
Although thermal pollution would be a problem, fusion has the
following advantages:
(1) The fuels are cheap and almost inexhaustible and
(2) The process produces little radioactive waste.
If a fusion machine were turned off, it would shut down completely
and instantly, without any danger of a meltdown.

General Chemistry
MATTER AND
ENERGY FUELS
OVERVIEW
• Fuels and combustion
• Characteristics & classification of a good fuel
• Calorific values

Differential Equations
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
A fuel is any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that may be
combusted (burned) to produce heat or work.
• Coal in power plants to generate electricity
• Gasoline to run our cars
• Natural gas or heating oil to warm our homes
• Propane, charcoal, or wood to cook our food at a summer
barbecue
• Candle wax to provide light for a candlelit dinner

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
In each of these cases, using fuel means burning them. This
process of combustion causes a difference in energy between the
reactants and products of combustion, and that energy is released
as light and heat (flame).

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
A fuel is considered valuable:
• If it ignites at a low temperature and produces a large quantity
of heat during its combustion
• Should be inexpensively isolated and have properties that allow
for their safe and efficient storage or transport.
• Should leave little residue behind after being burned and
produce by-products that are not harmful to human health or the
environment

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
No fuel satisfies all of these conditions. Humans currently use coal,
petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, diesel, propane, etc.), and
natural gas as our primary source of fuel.
Contrary to popular belief, these so-called fossil fuels are not the
prehistoric remains of dinosaurs. In fact, most of the fossil fuels we
use today were formed from decaying plant life that flourished
millions of years before the first dinosaurs appeared.

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Burning fossil fuels for energy fails to meet the criteria of
sustainability in two ways. First, the fuels themselves are non-
renewable. Once gone, they cannot be replaced at least within a
useful timescale. Second, the waste products of combustion have
adverse effects on our environment, both today and in the future.

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
There are three necessary requirements to generate a fire:
• Source of heat
• Fuel
• Oxidizer
Chemical reaction takes place that releases a variety of by-
products and significant amount of heat. Once a fire is generated,
the heat of ignition source is no longer needed. The fire will
continue to burn until either the oxygen or fuel is removed.

General Chemistry
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
For instance, fire blankets are used to extinguish a fire by
preventing available oxygen from reacting with the fuel source.
Regardless of the specific source of fuel or oxidizing agent, the
general chemical reaction is the same.

∆
Fuel + Oxidizer → Products

Combustion – another name for burning

Fuel is burned and reacts with oxygen to release energy.
Video: https://youtu.be/xd1alir07q4
General Chemistry
CHARACTERISTICS &
CLASSIFICATION
OF A GOOD FUEL
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL
A good fuel should satisfy the following requirements:
• It should have a high calorific value i.e., it should evolve a large
amount of heat when it is burnt.
• Its moisture content should be low so that its heating value
should be high.
• An ideal fuel should have moderate ignition temperature.
• It should not produce harmful products like CO2, SO2, H2S, and
other poisonous gases on burning since they pollute the
atmosphere.

General Chemistry
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL
A good fuel should satisfy the following requirements:
• A fuel should have low content of non-combustible matter in the
form of ash or clinker since the presence of non-combustible
matter will enhance the cost of storage, handling, and disposal
of waste.
• The combustion of fuel should be controllable so that it can be
started or stopped.
• It should not give any offensive odor.
• It should have moderate velocity of combustion.

General Chemistry
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
• Physical state in which they exist in nature (solid, liquid, and
gaseous)
• Mode of their procurement (natural and manufactured)

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NATURAL FUELS
• Found in the Earth’s crust and contain carbon and hydrogen,
which can be burned for energy
• Formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms

SOLID FUELS LIQUID FUELS GASEOUS FUELS

Wood Petroleum Natural gas
Coal
Oil shale

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MANUFACTURED FUELS
• Synthetic fuel gases
• Consisted of gasification of combustible materials

SOLID FUELS LIQUID FUELS GASEOUS FUELS

Tanbark Oils from distillation of petroleum Coal gas
Bagasse Coal tar Producer gas
Straw Shale-oil Water gas
Charcoal Alcohols Hydrogen
Coke Acetylene
Briquettes Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
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MANUFACTURED FUELS

General Chemistry
SOLID FUELS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easy to transport Ash content is high
Convenient to store without any Large proportion of heat is
risk of spontaneous explosion wasted
Cost of production is low Burn with clinker formation
Possess moderate ignition Combustion operation
temperature cannot be controlled easily
Cost of handling is high

General Chemistry
 LIQUID FUELS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Possess higher calorific vale per unit mass Cost of liquid fuel is relatively much
than solid fuels higher as compared to solid fuel
Burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc. Costly special storage tanks are
required for storing liquid fuels
Firing is easier and also fire can be Greater risk of fire hazards,
extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel particularly, in case of highly
supply inflammable and volatile liquid fuels
Easy to transport through pipes Give bad odor
Can be stored indefinitely without any loss Specially constructed burners and
spraying apparatus are required for
efficient burning of liquid fuels
General Chemistry
PETROLEUM
• Basic natural fuel
• Dark greenish brown, viscous mineral oil, found deep in earth’s
crust
• Mainly composed of various hydrocarbons (like straight
paraffins, cycloparaffins or naphthenes, olefins, and aromatics)
together with small amount of organic compounds containing
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
• Average composition of crude petroleum is: C = 79.5 to 87.1%;
H = 11.5 to 14.8%; S = 0.1 to 3.5%, N and O = 0.1 to 0.5%

General Chemistry
PETROLEUM

General Chemistry
PETROLEUM
Graded according to the following physicochemical properties:
• Specific gravity – ratio between the density of an object, and a
reference substance
• Calorific value – heating value of a substance; amount of heat
released during the combustion
• Flash point or ignition point – lowest temperature of a fuel to ignite
• Viscosity
• Sulphur contents
• Moisture and sediment content, and
• Specific heat and coefficient of expansion
General Chemistry
 GASEOUS FUELS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Can be conveyed easily through pipelines Highly inflammable, so chances of
to the actual place of need, thereby fire hazards are high in their use
eliminating manual labor in transportation
Can be lighted at ease Very large storage tank needed
Have high heat contents and hence help us More costly as compared with solid
in having higher temperatures and liquid fuels
Can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste
gases, thereby affecting economy in heat
Combustion can readily be controlled for
change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
General Chemistry
NATURAL GAS
• Generally associated with petroleum deposits
• Obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions
• Approximate composition:
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%

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CALORIFIC
VALUES
CALORIFIC VALUE
• Energy content / heat of combustion
• Can be calculated from thermodynamical values, or measured in
a suitable apparatus
• Refers to the amount of heat produced by unit volume of a
substance by complete combustion
• The efficiency of fuel mainly depends on the calorific value.

General Chemistry
CALORIFIC VALUE
Measured either as:
• Gross calorific value (GCV) – assumes all vapor produced
during the combustion process is fully condensed
• Net calorific value (NCV) – assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed

The difference being the latent heat of condensation of the water

vapor produced during the combustion process.
Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.
General Chemistry
CALORIFIC VALUE

General Chemistry