MANILA: Room 206, JPD Building, CM Recto Avenue, Manila

CEBU: 4/F J. Martinez Bldg., Osmeña Blvd., Cebu City

Telephone Number: (02) 516 7559 (Manila) E-Mail: buksmarquez1 @yahoo.com
(032) 254-9967 (Cebu)

Refresher Module – Qualitative Methods for Transportation Engineering

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR CROSS SECTION DESIGN

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Built up areas: cross section consists of basically different types of traffic ways,
 Concepts of Transportation Engineering
parking spaces and medians. The set of traffic ways for vehicles is known as
Transportation Engineering – a branch of civil engineering that deals with the carriageway; the combination of carriageways, parking spaces and medians is a
application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, roadway
operation, and management of facilities for any mode of transportation to provide
for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods.

 Elements of Transportation Engineering

Highway & Traffic Engineering
Pavement Engineering
Railway Engineering Minimum Width of Median
Airport Engineering The minimum width of a median or center reserve, when necessary, can be
Water (Harbor Engineering) Transportation between 2m up and 30 m depending on the available right of way. The minimum
Pipeline Transportation desirable width depends on the purpose of the median.

 Highway Engineering A median may be designed for safety purposes in terms of (1) preventing accidents
Branch of transportation engineering dealing with the planning, location, design caused by crossover traffic, headlight glare distraction and traffic turning left from
construction and maintenance of highways and with the regulations and control through lanes, (2) provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the highway.
devices employed in highway traffic operations.

Elements include traffic loading, shape of road, travel way, shoulders, sidewalks, STRUCTURAL TYPE OF INTERSECTION
pavement surfacing, subgrade, pavement foundation, drainage, and ditch.
Intersection at Grade: two or more roads intersection or join at the same level,
 Highway Types/Classification of Roads (Political Classification) intersections in which all the exchanges between roads take place on the same
National Roads – form part of the main road trunkline system administered by the plane.
DPWH thru its regional and engg district offices, right of way of not less than 20m
allocation for improvements. Grade separated intersection: it is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at
Provincial Roads – connect one municipality to another, roads within provincial intersections by vertical separation of roadway in space.
boundaries, ROW <15m.
City Roads - it connects one city/town/municipality-roads within the urban area, GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
ROW of at least 15m.
Municipal roads – roads within town/municipalities, ROW of at least 10m.
Barangay roads – rural roads, ROW of at least 10m; roads outside the Poblacion
or municipality, feeder, or farm to market roads.

 Superelevation
Banking or superlevation is necessary to counteract the centrifugal force that is
acting on the vehicle
e = CF/W = v2 / gr
The value of maximum superelevation, e, may range from 6% to 12% depending
on the terrain of the area where the highway will traverse.

 Transition Curve
A transition curve is sometimes needed to improve the driver’s operation and
comfort and make steering easier and more accurate for a vehicle.
 Safety
This is necessary because the centrifugal force which acts on a vehicle as it enters Optimizing by linking geometric elements to design speed
a circular curve may result in a lateral jerk (rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration) which can cause a discomfort to the driver and passengers of the Design standards must consider the environmental road conditions, traffic
vehicle. characteristics and drivers’ behavior potential collision risk

It is used to produce a smoother appearing transition that is more accurate to the  Design Speed
character of the alignment. Design varies with different terrain

The most used type of transition curve is a spiral curve (clothoid) which is used to Provide appropriate consistency between geometric elements –
enable a gradual introduction of the centrifugal force (or slower rate of change of mountainous and rolling areas speed limits as low as 40 kph
lateral acceleration).
Review of design speed to ensure that they relate to current circumstance.
It shall be designed between circular curves or between straight alignment and
circle when radius of curvature is 750m or degree of curve > 1 to satisfy different
condition of optic condition and dynamic condition.

 Gradient or Grade

Gradient is the rate of rise and fall on any length of road with respect to the
horizontal.

The gradient and length of tangent depend generally on the terrain and the design
speed.

In general, maximum grade is 10-12% for a length of tangent of 150m.

 MANILA: Room 206, JPD Building, CM Recto Avenue, Manila
CEBU: 4/F J. Martinez Bldg., Osmeña Blvd., Cebu City
Telephone Number: (02) 516 7559 (Manila) E-Mail: buksmarquez1 @yahoo.com
(032) 254-9967 (Cebu)
Refresher Module – Qualitative Methods for Transportation Engineering

DESIGN SPEED AND DESIGN TRAFFIC CONCEPTS Public Transport

Public Transport refers to:
Posted speed = speed limit
Operating speed = free flow (spot speed) 1. Public utility jeepneys,
Running speed = length of highway section ÷ running time 2. buses,
Design speed = selected speed used to determine geometric design features 3. Taxis

Design speed is defined by the AASHTO as: ...the maximum safe speed that can  SIGHT DISTANCE
be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable
that the design features of the highway govern. The provision of safety sight distance depends on the characteristics of the:
1. Driver,
Design Speed should: 1) “…be consistent with the speed the driver is likely to 2. The vehicle and
expect.” and 2) “. . .fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all drivers.” 3. The environment:

Not posted speed and not operating speed (but ALWAYS higher than both) Sight Distance Elements

 Design Speed Considerations Each type of sight distance consists of three elements:
1. Driver Eye Height
Functional classification of the highway 2. Object Height
Character of the terrain 3. Sight Distance
Density and character of adjacent land uses
Traffic volumes expected to use the highway
Economic and environmental considerations

 Design Traffic

Volume
Number of vehicles, pedestrians, etc. passing a point during a specific period. For
vehicles, usually expressed as veh/hour (vph) or veh/hour/lane (vphpl)

Demand
Number of vehicles, pedestrians, etc. that desire to travel between locations during
a specific period.

Frequently higher than volume during certain peak times

Trips are diverted or not made when there are constraints in the system. Stopping Sight Distance

Capacity There are two components in stopping sight distance:

Maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point during a specific period.
Reaction Distance
 Characteristics of Traffic Flow 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝒗𝒕
- Highly variable
- Time of day Braking Distance
- Day of week
𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟗 𝒗𝟐
- Season
𝒂
- Road characteristics
- Direction The reaction time to be used for road safety design is 2.5 seconds.

DPWH HIGHWAY SAFETY AND DESIGN STANDARDS (Average reaction time of a person is ¾ second)

 ROAD DESIGN PARAMETERS

 VERTICAL GEOMETRY
Speed Management 1. Flat Topography
Road Capacity 2. Rolling Topography
Traffic Forecasts 3. Mountainous Topography

Speed Management Vertical Curves

K value
DESIGN SPEED It is the length of vertical curve in meters for 1% change in grade.
1. Function of the road
2. Anticipated operating speed Type of Vertical Curves
3. Anticipated speed limit 1. Crest Curves
4. Economics 2. Sag Curves

Road Capacity Cross Section

1. Traffic Lanes
The capacity of a route can be affected by: 2. Shoulder
1. Number of lanes 3. Curb and Gutter
2. Lane and shoulder width 4. Drainage
3. Terrain and road gradient 5. Pedestrian Facilities
4. Traffic composition 6. Auxiliary Lanes
5. Side friction
6. Intersection capacity
 MANILA: Room 206, JPD Building, CM Recto Avenue, Manila
CEBU: 4/F J. Martinez Bldg., Osmeña Blvd., Cebu City
Telephone Number: (02) 516 7559 (Manila) E-Mail: buksmarquez1 @yahoo.com
(032) 254-9967 (Cebu)
Refresher Module – Qualitative Methods for Transportation Engineering
Pavement Markings
1. Center line DEFINITION OF TERMS
2. Lane lines
3. Edge lines or tactile edge lines 1. A defined surface on an airport prepared or suitable for the landing or takeoff of
4. Other painted markings e.g. islands, hatching airplanes.
5. Reflective Pavement Studs (RPS) A. Landing C. Runway
6. Signs B. Pavement D. Wearing Course
7. Warning signs indicating curves etc.
8. Hazard markers 2. The rate of change in acceleration (or less often, deceleration).
9. Chevron signs for substandard curves A. Jerk C. Both A and B
10. Guide posts B. Jolt D. None of these
11. Reflective delineators
12. Lighting 3. Time elapsed between the front bumper of one vehicle and the front bumper of
13. Curb or other physical devices the following vehicle passing a given point.
A. Time Headway C. Bumper Distance
The types of intersections that generally exist on the road network are: B. Time Advanced D. Space Headway
1. Unflared and unchannelized intersections
2. Flared and unchannelized intersections; and, 4. Roadside markers used to guide drivers through turns, especially at night or at
3. Channelized intersections times of poor visibility.
A. Guide Signs C. Rumble Strips
B. Delineators D. Traffic Lights
Common types of intersection:
1. Cross intersections 5. The maximum speed at which vehicles can continuously travel safely under
2. T-intersections favorable conditions.
3. Y-intersections A. Maximum Speed C. Speed Limit
4. Other multi-legged junctions and roundabouts B. Design Speed D. Safe Speed

Traffic can be controlled at intersections by 6. Gravel used as the base below the track for rail.
1. Regulatory signs A. Base Course C. Aggregate
2. Traffic signals B. Subbase Course D. Ballast
3. Roundabouts
7. The layer of the pavement immediately below the binder course or wearing
A conflict point occurs where two travel paths interact or cross. course.
TYPES OF CONFLICT POINTS: A. Subgrade C. Base Course
1. Major conflict points B. Subbase Course D. Wearing Course
- Merging
- Crossing 8. The materials excavated and thrown away which is no longer necessary to form
2. Minor conflict points an embankment.
- Diverging A. Borrow C. Fill
B. Embankment D. Waste
SAFETY OF THE ROAD SIDE
The reasons that they might lose control are many, for example: 9. A dark brown to black cementitious material solid or semi-solid in consistency,
1. Excessive speed; in which the predominating constituent is bitumen which occur in nature as residue
2. Fatigue or inattention; in refining petroleum.
3. Alcohol or drugs; or A. Asphalt C. Cut Back
4. Road condition. B. Tack Coat D. Cement

Clear Zone 10. Is the determination of water depth at a certain fixed point.
The clear zone distance provides a balance between recovery area for every errant A. Stream Gaging C. 6/10th Method
vehicle, the cost of providing that area and the probability of an errant vehicle B. Hydrographic Survey D. Sounding
encountering a hazard.
The clear zone should be kept free of non-frangible hazards. 11. Is the art of making measurements of the flow of water in open channels.
A. Stream Gaging C. 6/10th Method
B. Hydrographic Survey D. Sounding

12. A current or steady flow of water running along the earth’s surface.
A. Stream C. Channel
B. Ocean D. Canal

13. This word is a plural name of a Greek word which is originally applied in
measuring distances for athletic contests.
A. Plumbus C. Stadus
B. Stadia D. Plumbub

14. The distance from the center of the instrument to the principal focus.
A. Stadia Constant C. Stadia Interval Factor
B. Stadia Intercept D. Stadia Distance

15. The ratio of the focal length of the lens to the spacing between stadia hairs.
A. Stadia Constant C. Stadia Interval Factor
B. Stadia Intercept D. Stadia Distance
 MANILA: Room 206, JPD Building, CM Recto Avenue, Manila
CEBU: 4/F J. Martinez Bldg., Osmeña Blvd., Cebu City
Telephone Number: (02) 516 7559 (Manila) E-Mail: buksmarquez1 @yahoo.com
(032) 254-9967 (Cebu)
Refresher Module – Qualitative Methods for Transportation Engineering

16. Is an extremely slow swing of the magnetic needle, periodic in nature, extending 27. The length of super elevation development from zero cross-slope to full design
over a very long period of time due to the shifting of the earth’s magnetic interior? super elevation in a circular curve alignment.
A. Magnetic Variation C. Magnetic Declination A. Superelevation Runout C. Tangent Run-off
B. Annual Variation D. Secular Variation B. Superelevation Run-off D. Tangent Runout

17. Difference in direction of a heavenly body as seen from the surface and from 28. Distance traveled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes until it will
the center of the earth. stop.
A. Magnetic Declination C. Lunar Eclipse A. Breaking Distance C. Collision Distance
B. Parallax D. Solar Eclipse B. Stopping Distance D. Braking Distance

18. It is the distance within which it is more economical to haul materials than to 29. The distance ahead that must be clear to permit safe passing
throw them as waste or beyond which it is more economical to borrow than to haul. A. Stopping Distance C. Passing Sight Distance
A. Overhaul Distance C. Length of Overhaul B. Passing Distance D. Stopping Sight Distance
B. Free haul Distance D. Limit of Economical Haul

19. The distance between the center of gravity of the mass of excavation beyond
the free haul mass and the center of gravity of the resulting embankment minus the 30. The ratio between parallel forces divided by the normal forces (in banking of
free haul distance. curves).
A. Overhaul Distance C. Length of Overhaul A. Skid Resistance C. Coefficient of Friction
B. Free haul Distance D. Limit of Economical Haul B. Both A and B D. None of these

20. The process of widening, enlarging, clearing, or deepening of channels in 31. The time taken for final action.
harbors, rivers and canals. A. Perception Time C. Emotion Time
A. Dredging C. Deepening B. Identification Time D. Volition Time
B. Quarrying D. Widening
32. The time elapsed during emotional sensations and disturbance such as fear,
21. Refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other anger, or any other feelings with reference to the situation.
bodies of water. A. Perception Time C. Emotion Time
A. Hydrologic Survey C. Hydraulic Survey B. Reaction Time D. Volition Time
B. Hydrographic Survey D. Water Analysis
33. The reaction time to be used for road safety design.
22. The maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a A. 2 sec C. 3 sec
period of 60 consecutive minutes. This volume is used for functional classification B. 2.5 sec D. 3.5 sec
of highways, geometric design standard selection, capacity analysis, development 34. The time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant
of operational programs, and development of parking regulations. the brakes are effectively applied.
A. Peak Hour Volume C. Peak Capacity A. Perception Time C. Emotion Time
B. Peak Volume D. 60-minute Volume B. Reaction Time D. Volition Time

23. The average of 24-hour traffic counts collected every day in the year. These 35. The time required for a driver to realize that brakes must be applied. It is the
counts are used to estimate highway user revenues, compute accident rates, and time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant
establish traffic volume trends. he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.
A. Average Annual Daily Traffic A. Perception Time C. Emotion Time
B. Average Daily Traffic B. Identification Time D. Volition Time
C. Annual Average Daily Traffic
D. Annual Daily Traffic 36. It is defined as the number of vehicles per unit distance occupying a section of
roadway at a given instant time and is usually measured in vehicles per mile of per
24. The average of 24-hour traffic counts collected over several days greater than km.
one but less than a year. These counts are used for planning of highway activities, A. Capacity C. Density
measuring current traffic demand and evaluating existing traffic flow. B. Volume D. Flow
A. Average Annual Daily Traffic
B. Average Daily Traffic 37. The number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given lane or
C. Annual Average Daily Traffic roadway that pass a given point during specified unit time and is usually expressed
D. Annual Daily Traffic as vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.
A. Traffic Volume C. Traffic Capacity
25. A measure of travel usage along a section of road. It is the product of the volume B. Traffic Density D. Jam Density
(ADT) and the length of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable. This
measure is used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and 38. Waves formed by moving ships or boats are called:
improvement of highways and to establish highway system usage trends. Wakes C. Ship Wave
A. Accident Per Million Entering Vehicles Ripple D. Sinusoidal
B. Length of Travel of Vehicles
C. Vehicle Miles of Travel 39. Waves formed by earthquake disturbances.
D. Braking Distance Seismic Wave C. Earthquake Cracks
Tsunami D. Tidal Wave
26. Minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way highway that will
permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver without colliding with an opposing 40. Waves formed by gravitational attraction between the moon and the sun:
vehicle and without cutting on the passed vehicle. Tides C. Seismic Wave
A. Stopping Distance C. Passing Sight Distance Tsunami D. Gravity Wave
B. Passing Distance D. Stopping Sight Distance