INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. What are primary, secondary and tertiary measurements? Explain with examples.

Based upon the complexity of the measurement system the measurements are generally
grouped into three categories.

 Primary measurements
 Secondary measurements
 Tertiary measurements.

Primary Measurements. A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct

observation without involving any conversion (translation) of the measured quantity into length.
In this case, the change in the measured quantity stimulates a set of the observer’s nerve endings, so that
he can see or sense the change directly. The sought value of a physical parameter is determined by
comparing it directly with reference standards.

Typical examples of primary measurements are:

 The matching of two lengths, such as when determining the length of an object with a
meter rod,
 The matching of two colors, such as when judging the color of red hot metals.
Secondary Measurements: The indirect measurements involving one translation are called
secondary measurement. Involves only one translation.

Ex: The conversion of pressure into displacement by means of bellows. Conversion of force
into displacement by means of spring. Therefore, a secondary measurement requires an
instrument which translates pressure changes into length changes, and. A length scale or a
standard which is calibrated in length unit’s equivalent to known changes in pressure.
Therefore, in a pressure gauge, the primary signal (pressure) is transmitted to a translator and
the secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer's eye
When static pressure (input signal) is applied to bourdon tube, its free end deflects. The
deflection which constitutes the secondary signal is very small and needs to be made larger for
display and reading. This task is accomplished by arrangement of lever, quadrant, gear and
pointer. The amplified displacement constitutes the tertiary signal and it is indicated by the
movement of the pointer against graduated scale.

Example-3.forTertiarymeasurement:
⚫ Ex-
3.Measurementofspeedofarotatingshaftbymeansofanelectrictacho

Primarysignal Secondary
Tertiarysignal
voltage
Rotatings Firsttranslatio Secondtransl Observerseye
haft (Shaftspeed) n (Voltage) ation (Length)
Shaftspeed Voltage

isconverted converted

intoVoltage intolength

Fig:Tertiarymeasurement:Measurementofangularspeedbyelectrictachometer

⚫ The angular speed of rotating shaft is first translated into an electricalvoltage, which
is translated by a pair of wires to a volt meter. In voltmeter,the voltage move a
pointer on a scale. ie voltage is translated into lengthchange. The tertiary signal of
2. Explain the static performance characteristics of measuring instruments.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The characteristics which describe the performance of measuring instruments when subjected
to low frequency inputs or DC inputs are referred to as static characteristics In some of
applications the parameter of interest is more or less constant or varies very slowly with time.
Measurement of such applications are called static measurement

(i) Accuracy

(ii) Error

(iii) Reproducibility

(iv) Drift

(v) Sensitivity

(vi) Dead Zone

(vii) Precision

(viii) Linearity

(ix) Threshold

(x) Hysteresis

xi) Resolution

(xii) Stability

(xiii) Range and Span

i) Accuracy: Accuracy is de fined as the closeness with which the reading of the instrument
approaches true value. The term accuracy describes how close the measurement is to the true
measured quantity. It is defined as ratio of difference between the measured value and true
value to the true value. The accuracy of the measuring system is expressed as Percentage of
true value = [(Measured value – True Value)/True Value]*100

Percentage of full scale deflection = [( Measured value – True Value)/Maximum Scale value]

Ex- for accuracy: ± 1 % of accuracy of true value would mean that accuracy ± 1̊ C when
reading at 100̊ C and only ±0.25̊ C when reading 25̊ C on the instrument having scale range of
0 -100 ̊ C.
ii) Error: Errors are unavoidable in any instrument system. Attempts can be made to minimize
them by suitably designing the system by taking care of all sources of errors. The accuracy of
the instrument is measured in terms of its error.

Static error : is defined as the difference between the best measured value and the true value of
the quantity.

Static Error = Measured value – True value

iii) Reproducibility: Reproducibility represents the degree of closeness with which a given
value of a quantity (variable) may be repeatedly measured with in a close range.
Reproducibility is a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over and
over again.

The reproducibility of an instrument is the ability to produce the same value of output
(response) for equal inputs applied over a period of time.

iv) Drift:

It indicates the change in the output of the instrument (transducer ) for a zero input Drift causes
the measurement result to vary for given input quantity Drift can be carefully guarded wit care,
prevention, inspection and maintenance.

v) Sensitivity or static sensitivity:

It is the ratio of magnitude of the output to the magnitude of input signal being measured.

Sensitivity = Change in output signal / Change in input signal

K = qo/qi where K =sensitivity

qo = Value of output signal

qi = Value of input signal

Sensitivity can be re presented by slope of the calibration curve or input-output curve

vi) Dead zone: Dead zone (Dead band) can be defined as the largest variation in the value of
input for which the instrument cannot respond and produces no output. Dead zone is the largest
change in input quantity for which a noticeable change in the output is observed from zero
reading. It may occur due to friction in the instrument, which does not allow pointer to move
till sufficient driving force is developed to overcome the friction force. Dead zone is caused by
back lash and hystereresis in the instrument.

vii) Precision: The ability of the measuring system to reproduce the same output among
several independent measurements under specified conditions or within a given accuracy is
referred to as precision and is expressed in terms of deviation in measurement.
Let us consider an example in which an input of accurately known value is applied to the
transducer. With this known input if the measuring instrument produces its output which lies
between ± 1%, then the precision of the measuring instrument can be ± 1%.

viii) Linearity: Linearity can be defined as the closeness of actual calibration curve of the
instrument to he idealized straight line with in a given range of full scale output. Or It can be
stated as the deviation of output curve of measuring instrument from specified or idealized
straight line as shown in figure

vii) Threshold: Threshold of an instrument can be stated as the smallest quantity of input
below which the output will not be detected. It can be specified as percentage of maximum
scale deflection or an absolute value in terms of units of input.

viii) Hysteresis:

Hysteresis can be defined as maximum differences in output at any measured value within the
specified range when approaching the point with increasing and then decreasing input.
Hysteresis can be noticed when the input/output characteristics for an instrument are not the
same for the increasing values of inputs than for decreasing values of inputs. The magnitude of
input for a given input depend on the direction of the change in input, whether the input signal
is ascending (Loading) or descending (Unloading)

ix) Resolution

Resolution of a measurement can be stated as any smallest increment in the measured variable
that can be noticed or detected by that instrument with certainty. If an instrument has higher
resolution, then it can distinguish very small changes in the input quantity.

Stability:

It is the ability of the instrument to have the same standard of performance over a prolonged
period of time. The need for calibrating the instrument frequently is less for instrument having
high stability.
xi) Range and Span:

The region between which the instrument is to operate is called range.

Range = Lc to Hc

Where Lc = Lower calibration value, Hc = higher calibration value

Span is the difference between Upper and Lower limits of the instrument.

Sol: Range of the Instrument = 5000Cto 10000c.

Span: Span is the algebraic difference between the higher calibration value and lower
calibration value.

Span of the instrument = Hc - Lc = 10000c - 5000c = 5000c

3. Explain the dynamic performance characteristics of measuring instruments.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are as follows:

i) Speed of response

ii) Measurement Lag

iii) Fidelity

iv) Dynamic error

v) Dynamic range

vi) Bandwidth

vii) Setting time

viii) Time constant.

The dynamic behavior of an instrument can be determined by applying some form of known
and predetermined input to its primary element and study the output ie., movement of pointer)

Generally the behavior is judged for 3 types of inputs.

1. Step change: In this case the input having changed remains constant.

2. Linear change: In this case the input changes linearly with time.

3. Sinusoidal change: In this case the magnitude of the input changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude

i) Speed of response:

 It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to sudden changes in the measured
quantity.
 It is the quickness of an instrument with which it responds to sudden changes in
amplitude of the input signal.
 Speed of response can also be stated as the total time taken by the system to come
closer to steady state condition.
 Speed of response of a system can be evaluated by knowing the “measurement Lag” of
that system
ii) Lag (measurement lag):

It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured

quantity. The measuring Lag can be either of the retardation type in which case, the response
of the instrument begins immediately on change in measured variable or of the time delay type
called dead time in which case the response of the instrument is simply shifted along the
timescale.

It is the time delay in the response of the input signal to the changes in the input signal.

iii) Fidelity:

It is determined by the fact that how closely the instrument reading follows the measured
variable. ie, It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in measured variable
without dynamic error.

iv) Dynamic error:

It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time ie measured
variable and the instrument reading if no static error is assumed.

v) Dynamic range: The range of values of certain quantity ( for example temperature,
pressure, voltage,..... etc.) for which the measuring instrument can produce faithful response
under dynamic conditions is known as dynamic range of the instrument. Dynamic range is
represented as the ratio of the maximum value to minimum value for which the system can
respond effectively.

vi) Band width:

The range of frequencies with in which the dynamic sensitivity of the system lies within a
specified band ( for example ± 2% band) of static sensitivity of the system is known as ‘band
width’ of the system. The amplitude versus frequency characteristics of a system are flat with
in the band width of the system.

vii) Settling time:

The required by the response of the system (after the application of a step input to it), to reach
and stay within close range of the steady state output value is known as ‘Settling time’. The
settling time depicts the speed of response of the system. If the settling time is small it can be
inferred that the speed of response of the system is high.

viii) Time constant:

Time constant is defined as the time required for the output of the system to reach 63.2% of the
final output value. It is preferred to have a low time constant in order to have high speed of
response and Time constant depends on the parameters of the system

4. Draw the generalized scheme of a typical measurement system and explain about
various components of it.

Sensor: The function of sensor element is to sense the measurand ie physical parameter to be
measured.

Transducer: the transducer element accepts the output of sensor and converts in to an
electrical quantity without changing the actual signal (value of measurand).
Manipulator: Manipulator element is used to manipulate (modify) the output of variable
conversion element such that it can be accepted by other element. For example; electrical
amplifier which is a manipulator and it amplifies the signal applied to it. It increases its
electrical signal of low magnitude to high magnitude signal. It also operates like addition,
subtraction, integration, differentiation etc,.

Transmitter (Data Transmission element): the function of this element is to transmit the
measured signal from one place to other (ie from the field to control station).

Processor (Data processing element): It is an element that modifies the data before it is
displayed or finally recorded. Corrections to measured physical variables to compensate for
scaling,non-linearity, temperature error. Perform repeated calculations that involve addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division. Collect information regarding average, statistical and
algorithmic values. Convert the data into useful form (calculation of engine efficiency from
speed, power input & torque. Reducing error, generate information for display.

Controller: The controller element controls the parameter to be monitored within the
operational limits.

Indicator: the indicating element is to indicate the specific value with an indicating hand over
a suitably calibrated scale.

Recorder: this element produces a written continuous record of measurand with respect to
time.

The Stages (Phases) Of Generalized Measurement system

The most measurement system fall within the frame work of a general arrangement consists of
three phases or stages.

Stage-I: A detector –transducer stage ( sensor stage)

Stage-II: An intermediate stage (signal conditioning stage).

Stage-III: A terminating or Read out stage

Each stage consists of distinct components that form required and definite steps in the
measurement.

Stage-1: A detector-transducer stage or sensor stage: The prime function of the first stage is to
detect or to sense the measurand. At the same time , ideally it should be insensitive to every
other possible input. It detects the physical variable (input) and performs either a mechanical or
an electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.

Stage-2 : An intermediate stage (Signal conditioning stage) : The purpose of second stage is to
modify the transduced information, so that it is acceptable to the third or terminating stage. In
addition it may perform one or more basic operations such as selective filtering, integration,
differentiating, or telemetering as may be required. The common function of 2nd stage is to
increase either amplitude or power of signal or both, to the level required to drive the final
terminating stage. It must be designed for proper matching characteristics between first and
second and between second and third stages.

Stage-3: A final or terminating stage: The stage provides the information sought in a form
comprehensible to one of the human senses or to a controller. The output is presented as in one
of the following form. As a relative displacement such as movement of indicating hand,
displacement of oscilloscope trace or oscillograph light beam / in digital form as presented by a
counter, or digital meters ( volt meter, automobile odometer) digital or analog
In this example the spring serves as secondary transducer. It consists of a cylinder and piston, a
spring resisting piston movement, and stem with scale divisions. - As air pressure bears against
the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring until spring & air forces balance. The
calibrated system which remains in place after the spring returns the piston indicates the
applied pressure. The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force summing apparatus,
sensing and transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts the
force to a displacement. Finally the transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning
to the scale & index for readout.

5. State and explain various types of errors in measurements.

Error = Reading of standard value – measured value.

The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its design, the material used and
workmanship that goes into making the instrument. The choice of an instrument for a particular
application depends upon the accuracy desired. If only a fair degree of accuracy is desired, it is
not economical to use expensive meter and skill for the manufacture of the instruments. But an
instrument used for an application requiring a high degree of accuracy has to use expensive and
a highly skilled workmanship. No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is
important to find outwhat accuracy actually is and how different errors entered into the
measurement. Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as under.
1) GROSS ERRORS:

This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instrument recording and
calculating measurement results. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the
experimenter.

CAUSES FOR GROSS ERRORS

• The experimenter

• may grossly misread the scale, for example due to an over sight, he may read the temperature
as 31.50C while the actual reading may be21.50C

• He may transpose the reading while recording.

• For example , he may read 25.80C and record 28.50C instead.

• As long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will definitely be committed.

•Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible, one should try to
anticipate and correct them.

MEANS OF AVOIDING GROSS ERRORS:

1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

2. Two, three or even more readings should be taken for quantity under measurement.

3. These readings should taken preferably by different experimenters and the reading should be
taken at a different reading point to avoid re-reading with same error.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS:

Systematic errors are those which are repeated consistently with repetition of the experiment.
The systematic errors are as follows

2.1 Instrument Errors

2.2 Environmental errors

2.3 Observational errors

INSTRUMENT ERRORS:

These errors arise due to three main reasons.

i. Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments

ii Due to misuse of the instruments:

iii.Due to loading effects of instruments:

i. Due to inherent shortcomings in the instruments:

• These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may be
due to construction, operation of instruments

• These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high. For example: if the spring
of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the instrument will always read high.
Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear back lash.

Elimination & reduction

• The procedure of measurements must be carefully planned.

• Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.

• The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

ii. Misuse of instruments:

Too often the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator that of the
instrument. Using good instruments in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results.

Example: Failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, using a leads of too
high a resistance etc. Using the instrument contrary to manufacturer’s instructions and
specifications ( over loading, over heating may ultimately result in failure of the instrument).

Eliminate & reducing error: Ensuring above instructions carefully while usage of instruments it

Possible to eliminate or reduce errors

iii. Due to loading effects of instruments: One of the most common errors committed by
beginners is the improper use of an instrument for measurement work. For example, a well
calibrated voltmeter may give misleading voltage reading when connected across a high
resistance circuit. The same voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit may give a
more dependable reading. Therefore errors caused by loading effects of the meters can be
avoided by using them intelligently.

Eliminate & reducing error:

In planning any instrument, the loading effects of instrument should be considered and
corrections for these effects should be made.

ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS:

These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions in the
area surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations, and external magnetic or electronic fields. Corrective measures to eliminate &
reducing error:

 Arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible.

Ex: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in temperature controlled
enclosure.

 Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For ex: variations in resistance with
temperature can be minimized by using resistance materials which have very low
resistance temperature coefficient.
 Employing techniques which eliminate the effect of this disturbance.
Ex: effect of humidity, dust etc. can be entirely eliminated by hermetically sealing equipment.

 In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electro static fields can affect
the readings of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.

 Applying the computed corrections.

OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS

There are many sources of observational error.

For an example: the pointer of a voltmeter slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error
on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above
the pointer. To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirror
scales.

Eliminate & reducing error:

• Using the meters provided with mirror scales.

• Using instruments having digital display of output

RANDOMERRORS

• Random errors are those which are accidental and whose magnitude and sign cannot be
predicted from knowledge of measuring system & conditions of measurement.

• It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation from one reading to
another; even after all systematic errors have been accounted for. These errors are due to a
multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another and are
due surely to chance. We are aware of and account for some of the factors influencing the
measurement, but about the rest lie are unaware.
• The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped to get her and called
Random or Residual error.

6. What are the different sources of errors in measurements and measuring instruments
explain them brief.

Noise: it is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information. The

noise or signal disturbances contribute to the uncertainty of measurement.

• Noise may originate either at the primary sensing device.

• In a communication channel.

• In the indicating element of the system.

Noise can be reduced to a maximum level through filtering, careful selection of components,
shielding and isolation of the entire measuring system.

i) Response time: measuring system cannot immediately indicate the input signal applied to it.
This factor contributes to uncertainty. ( mercury thermometer)

ii) Design limitations: In the design of instruments there are certain inevitable factors which
lead to uncertainty of measurement.

iv) Effects of friction in the instrument movement:

v) Effect of resolving power: the ability of observer to distinguish between nearly equal
divisions.

vi) Energy exchanged by interaction: when ever energy required for operating the measuring
system is extracted from the measurand, the value of latter is altered to a greater or lesser
extent.

vii) Transmission: In the transmission of information from primary sensing element to

Indicator.

viii) Deterioration of measuring system: it is due to physical or chemical deterioration or other

alterations in characteristics measuring elements.

ix) Ambient influences on measuring system:

The changes in atmospheric temperature may alter the elastic constant of a spring, changes in
resistance. Other factors like humidity, pressure.

x) Errors of observation and interpretation: mistakes in observing, interpreting recording the

data. (Parallax errors)

7. What are the desired, modifying and interfering inputs for a measurement system or
(general input-output configuration of measurement system)
The general configuration of measuring instruments has three types of inputs. They are

i. Desired inputs

ii. Interfering inputs

iii Modifying inputs

i) Desired inputs: The input quantities for which the measurement system is designed to
measurand produce output are known as desired inputs.

If the transfer function of the system is G and the applied input is ‘r’ the Output will be C= G.r

Let the desired input is represented as rD

According to the input-output relationship of mathematical model, the output (CD) produced
due to the desired input rD is given as

CD= GD . rD where GD = Transfer function

i.e., it is a mathematical operation required to get the output from desired input. From this we
can understand that the transfer function is a constant, and it will be multiplied with input rD to

produce output CD= GD. rD. It is because to get an amplified output in linear systems. In non-
linear systems, the transfer function will be represented by using algebraic or Transcendental
function. If the inputs applied to the system are dynamic in nature, then its input-output
relationship will be represented by differential function.

ii) Interfering Inputs:

Interfering input quantities are those which make the measurement system or instrument
unintentionally sensitive. The measurement system or instruments respond to the interfering
inputs and produces an output through they are not desired to respond. This occurs because of
its design, operating principle and some other factors like environments in which they are
placed. The interfering input is represented by rI and transfer function is GI is similar to
producing output using desired input rD and transfer function GD

iii) Modifying inputs:

The inputs which causes a change in the input-output relationship of a measurement system for
both desired and interfering inputs or any one of the inputs alone. Modifying input is
represented by rM which modifies both G G D I or any one of these ( ie GD or GI).The manner

in which rM affects GD is represented by G MD And the manner in which rM affects GI is

represented by GMI. The interpretation of these GMD and GMI is same as GD and Gr.
The instantaneous output due to desired, modifying and interfering inputs is given to summer
or summing point which produces the sum of the instantaneous values. The measurement
system or instrument produces several output, if it is subjected to several inputs of each of
these three types.

Output: It is the final response ( or result of measuring process).

Example-1. Differential pressure measurement of a gas using U-tube manometer.

From the figure, we know that P1, P2 are input pressures applied at the two ends of the
monometer The differential pressure of manometer is explained as P diff = P1 – P2 = ( ƿm - ƿf )
gh Where g = gravitational constant H= scale reading

ƿm = density of mercury ƿf = density of gas as the density of gas is very small compared to the
density of the mercury, ƿf can be neglected therefore P diff = P1 – P2= ƿmgh. When the both
pressures are equal ie P1 = P2 Then Pdiff= P1 – P2 = P1-P1 = 0

In this case the mercury levels in the two limbs of the manometer become equal and hence the
scale reading ‘h’ will be zero. In some cases, the scale readings does equal to zero, though both
pressures are equal.

This is due to

a) The improper position or angle of tilt of manometer

b) The presence of acceleration, vibrations near the manometers

Any variation in the atmospheric conditions such as ambient temperature causes change in the
length of the calibrated scale and also density of mercury. Due to this the proportionality factor
relating the pressures and scale reading may gets modified or changed in this example.

i) Desired inputs are input pressures P1 andP2

ii) Modifying inputs are ambient temperature, gravitational force.

iii) Interfering inputs are improper position or angle of tilt of manometer, the presence of
acceleration, vibrations near the manometers

iv) Output is scale reading ‘h’.

Example-2. Measurement of Strain using strain gauge- Wheatstone bridge arrangement. A

strain gauge mounted on a cantilever beam is connected in one of the four arms of the
Wheatstone bridge. The other three arms of the bridge contains a resistor of same resistance
values (ie R2 = R3 = R4 = R ). When no strain is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge R1
– R and the bridge becomes balanced and hence, no voltage is produced at the output. When
force or strain is applied to the cantilever beam, the strain gauge element senses the strain due
to which the length and hence, the resistance of the gauge changes. When the resistance of
gauge changes, the balanced condition of the bridge is disturbed. (ie the bridge becomes
unbalanced) and voltage is produced at its output. The resistance of the gauge element changes
and voltage is generated at the output even though no force is applied to the cantilever. This is
due to following

 Change in temperature of environment in which strain gauge is located.

 Electromagnetic field of 50HZ frequency of nearby circuits or power lines.
The voltage supplied to the bridge circuit through a battery modifies proportionality factor
relating the force and voltage or temperature and voltage. 1) Desired input is force

2) Modifying input is battery voltage (ei)

3) Interfering inputs are Change in temperature of environment n which strain gauge is located.
Electromagnetic fields of 50HZ frequency of nearby circuits or power lines.

9. Classify Measuring Instruments.

Measuring instruments are classified as follows

i) Mechanical instruments

ii) Electrical instruments

iii) Electronic Instruments

iv) Deflection and null type instruments

v) Analog and digital type instruments

vi) Self generating and power operated instruments

vii) Automatic and manually operated instruments

viii) Contacting and non-contacting instruments

ix) Remote indicating measuring instruments

x) Intelligent indicating measuring instruments

i) Mechanical instruments: Ex- Screw gauge

 simple in construction
 do not require external power
 Do not respond quickly to dynamic and transient conditions.
 Causes noise pollution.
 Do not give accurate results.
ii) Electrical instruments: Example – Ammeters, voltmeters

 The output indicated by these is quick in comparison to mechanical instruments

 For indicating records, mechanical devises are used.
iii) Electronic Instruments: Example- Cathode ray Oscilloscope
  These instruments respond quickly to dynamic and transient conditions.
 Light in weight Very compact
 Consume less power
 High sensitivity and flexibility
 Remote indication is possible
iv) Deflection and null type instruments:

Deflection type instruments: example- Spring balance

Measured quantity generates an effect that is ultimately related by the deflection of a pointer.
Null type instruments: Example- Beam balance In null type instruments, the physical effect
caused by the quantity being measured is nullified deflection maintained at zero) by generating
an equivalent opposing effect.

v) Analog and digital instruments:

Analog instruments: The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take an
infinite number of values in a given range.

Ex- Wrist watch, ammeters, volt meters

Digital instruments: example:- Digital voltmeters, digital Ammeters

A signal is said to be digital if it changes in a discrete manner it takes finite number of values
in any specified range.

vi) Self generating and power operated instruments:

Self generating instruments: Example: The motive power in mercury- in-glass thermometer.
The output energy is supplied entirely by the input signal. It do not require any external power
source .Energy is met from input signal.

Power operated instrument: Example: Multimeter

It require external power source such as compressed air, hydraulic supply etc. for their
operation

vii) Contacting and non-contacting instruments:

Contacting instruments: Example; Thermometer, thermocouple instrument comes in contact

with measured medium.

Non-contacting instruments: ex: optical pyrometers for temperature measurement. The

instrument does not come in contact with medium.

viii) Intelligent instruments: A microprocessor will be present along with basic element. It will
enable pre-programmed signal processing and application of data-manipulation algorithms to
the measured variable.

10. With a neat sketch explain the working of LVDT to measure linear displacement
VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCER (Example: Linear variable Differential Transformer–LVDT)

LVDT is one of the most useful of the variable inductance transducer which is as shown in
figure. The device converts linear motion to a voltage signal. It consists of a primary winding
(PW) and two identical secondary windings (SW1, SW2) and a soft iron core which is
connected by means of an arm to the moving component and moves with it.The core is so
positioned that normally, the voltage output from each secondary winding is the same. The
secondary windings are symmetrically placed, are identical and are connected in phase
opposition so that the emf induced in them is opposite to each other.

When the core is placed centrally, equal but opposite emf are induced in the secondary
windings and zero output is recorded. This is termed as the balanced point or null position. A
variation in the position of the core from its null position produces an unbalance in the
resistance of the secondary windings to the primary windings, thus upon displacement of the
core, the result will be a voltage rise in one secondary and a decrease in the other. The
asymmetry in the core position thus produces a differential voltage ( Eo ) which varies linearly
with change in the core position. Within the range limits on either side of the null position core
displacement results in proportional output.
MERITS OF LVDT:

1. It produces linear output voltage

2. It can measure displacement of very high range from 1.25 mm to250mm

3. It has high sensitivity

4. Since it produces high output. it does not require amplification device.

5. It is simple and rugged in construction, ie it can with stand high degree of shock and
vibration.

6. It has no sliding contacts,. Therefore there is no Problem of friction.

7. It has low hysteresis

8. It consumes less power (about <1w)

DEMERITS OF LVDT

1. It is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

2. The performance of LVDT is affected by variations in temperature.

3. It has limited dynamic response.

4. To provide high differential output, it requires large displacements.

5. It provides AC output. Therefore it requires a demodulator circuit.

11. Describe the construction and working of capacitive transducer and state it
advantages.

A capacitive transducer is a passive transducer that works on the principle of variable

capacitances. It is used to measure physical quantities such as displacement, pressure, etc.

Construction of capacitive transducer

A capacitive transducer contains two conducting parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric
medium.

Working Principle of capacitive transducer

The capacitance between these two plates can be expressed as

Where ϵ is the permittivity of the medium, A is the area of the plates and d is the distance
between two plates. The capacitance of the transducer is measured using the bridge circuit. The
output impedance of the transducer is given by

Where C is the capacitance and f is the frequency of excitation. So a capacitive transducer can
be used to measure the mechanical vibrations. The capacitance between two plates can be
varied by any of the following methods.

 By changing the distance between two plates (d)

 By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium (ϵ)
 By changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)
By changing the distance between two plates

The capacitance can be varied by changing the distance between two plates. From the equation
for C, we can observe that C and d are inversely proportional to each other. That is, the
capacitance value will decrease with increasing distance and vice-versa. This principle can be
used in a transducer by making the left plate fixed and the right plate movable by the
displacement that is to be measured as shown in the figure.
The change in distance between two plates will vary the capacitance of the transducer. Change in
capacitance can be calibrated in terms of the measurand. These types of transducers are used to
measure extremely small displacements. The distance capacitance curve is shown in the figure.

By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium

Another method to change the capacitance value is by changing the permittivity of the dielectric
material (ϵ). The permittivity and capacitance value are directly proportional to each other.
In this arrangement, a dielectric material is filled into the space between the two fixed plates. It can
be moved using the arm. This causes a variation in dielectric constant in the region. The change in
dielectric constant will vary the capacitance of the transducer.

By changing the area of overlapping of plates

The capacitance can also be changed by varying the area of overlapping of plates.

As shown in the figure, one plate is kept fixed and the other movable. When the plate is moved, the
area of overlapping of plate’s changes and the capacitance also changes. The capacitance value and
area are directly proportional to each other. These types of transducers are used to measure
relatively large displacements. The distance-capacitance curve is shown in the figure.
Advantages of capacitive transducer
 Sensitivity is high.
 Requires small power to operate.
 Loading effect is low because of high input impedance.
 Good frequency response.
12. Describe the principle of operation of a piezo-electric transducer.

A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the
piezoelectric effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force
by converting this energy into an electrical charge.
A transducer can be anything that converts one form of energy to another. The piezoelectric
material is one kind of transducers. When we squeeze this piezoelectric material or apply any
force or pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This voltage is a function of
the force or pressure applied to it. The electric voltage produced by a piezoelectric transducer
can be easily measured by the voltage measuring instruments. Since this voltage will be a
function of the force or pressure applied to it, we can infer what the force/pressure was by the
voltage reading. In this way, physical quantities like mechanical stress or force can be
measured directly by using a piezoelectric transducer.
A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating unit) of all crystal
is symmetrical but in piezoelectric quartz crystal, it is not. Piezoelectric crystals are electrically
neutral.
The atoms inside them may not be symmetrically arranged but their electrical charges are
balanced means positive charges cancel out negative charge. The quartz crystal has the unique
property of generating electrical polarity when mechanical stress applied to it along a certain
plane. Basically, there are two types of stress. One is compressive stress and the other is tensile
stress.

One of the unique characteristics of the piezoelectric effect is that it is reversible means when
voltage is applied to them, they tend to change dimension along with certain plane i.e quartz
crystal structure is placed into an electric field, it will deform quartz crystal by an amount
proportional to the strength of the electric field. If the same structure is placed into an electric
field with the direction of field reversed, the deformation will be the opposite. Quartz crystal
becomes longer due to the electric field applied.

Piezoelectric Transducer Advantages

The advantages of piezoelectric transducers are:

1. No need for an external force

2. Easy to handle and use as it has small dimensions
3. High-frequency response it means the parameters change very rapidly

Piezoelectric Transducer Disadvantages

The disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers are:

1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition

2. It is affected by temperatures
3. The output is low so some external circuit is attached to it
4. It is very difficult to give the desired shape to this material and also desired strength

13. Explain the working of ionization transducer for the measurement of displacement.

The operating principle of Ionization transducer is that when two electrodes are placed in an
ionized gas, they produce potential difference. The magnitude of this potential difference
depends on the following factors.

i) Electrode spacing ii) State of balance.

The gas is enclosed inside a glass tube under reduced pressure. In the above arrangement the

External electrodes are connected to a RF generator which produces an electric field. When the
glass tube is subjected to this electric field, the potential difference is developed across the
internal electrode. Therefore the gas inside the glass tube gets ionized. The potential difference
is zero, when the electrode spacing is at null position. The potential difference is varied with
the displacement of glass tube, since it is relative to the external electrodes.

15. Explain different types of photo electric transducers with neat sketch.

TYPES OF PHOTO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

i) Photo-emissive (photo tube ) transducer

ii) Photo conductive transducer

iii) Photo-Voltaic transducer

i) PHOTO-EMISIVETRANSDUCER

The operating principle of photo-emissive transducer is that when a light beam exposed on to
special combination of materials, electrons are emitted. Therefore, a current flow is produced
in the circuit. (Since the emitted electrons attracted towards anode). The arrangement consists
of a glass tube in which anode and cathode are enclosed. This glass tube is usually filled with
an inert gas. The current produced in the circuit is proportional to the intensity of radiation.
The cathode of photo-emissive transducer is made with an oxidized silver base and is covered
with a thin film cesiam. One of the most frequently used photo-emissive transducer is
photomultiplier.
PHOTO MULTIPLIER: Most frequently used photo-emissive transducer is The electrons
emitted from the cathode of photomultiplier are not immediately drawn to the anode. But they
are attached to another electrode called dynode D1. When the incident electrons strike D1, it
emits secondary electrons. The electrons from D1 are attached to the dynode D2 and at the end
all are collected by anode, producing current (I)

PHOTO-CONDUCTIVE CELL /TRANSDUCER

 These are variable resistance transducers. They operate on the principle of photo-
conductive effect, ie some special type of semi conductor materials change their
resistance when exposed to light. Light informationresistance information. It consists
of a thin layer of material such as silenium or metallic sulphide of germanium is coated
between electrodes on a glass plate.
iii) PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL (SOLAR CELL)

 In the photo voltaic cell there is a coating of certain oxide on a metal surface.
 When Light strikes the coating and generates an electrical potential directly
proportional to intensity of light.
 Generally used in photo-graphic exposure meter.