INTRODUCTION TO LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Lifespan development is the study of how individuals grow, change, and develop
throughout their entire lives. It encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional, and
social changes that occur from conception to death. Development refers to the
pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan.
Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by
ageing and dying. Life span originates from the point of conception until the time
when life ends. E.g., life begins as an infant, then as a child, and as an adolescent
etc.

Erik Erikson defines lifespan development as "The process of human development

throughout the entire life span, from conception to death, as characterised by the
various psychological, biological, and social tasks that individuals must master at
different ages."

Daniel Levinson characterised lifespan development as "The continuous process of

individual growth and maturation throughout life, involving a shifting balance
between the person's need to be connected to others and the need for autonomy."

Child development is an interdisciplinary field, known as developmental

science, which includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan (Lerner,
2006) .Lifespan development encompasses a wide array of changes in physical,
cognitive, emotional, and social domains across different stages of life. Each stage
presents unique challenges and opportunities for growth, and understanding these
developmental milestones can help individuals and professionals better navigate the
various life transitions and experiences that occur over a lifespan.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT :

1. Development Is Lifelong: Human development is a continuous and ongoing

process that occurs throughout an individual's entire life, from birth to death. There
is no predetermined endpoint to development. It continues beyond childhood and
adolescence into adulthood, middle age, and old age. Lifelong development
includes multiple stages or phases, each characterised by unique challenges,
opportunities, and developmental tasks. Lifelong learning is a key aspect of this
perspective. It also emphasises that individuals can acquire knowledge, skills, and
experiences at any age.

2. Development Is Multidimensional: It means that human development is not

limited to a single aspect but involves multiple dimensions or domains of growth
and change. It focuses on the fact that growth and change occur in various aspects
of an individual's life and that these dimensions are interconnected, influencing one
another as people progress through different stages of life. Development consists of
biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. Even within a dimension,
there are many components for example, attention, memory, abstract thinking etc.

3. Development Is Multidirectional: Human development is not a linear process

of continuous improvement in all aspects. Instead, it acknowledges that
development can involve both growth and decline in different areas and at different
times throughout a person's life. Human development is dynamic and complex,
involving a combination of growth, stability, and decline in various aspects of life,
and that these changes are influenced by a range of internal and external factors.
E.g A child's cognitive abilities, such as language development and
problem-solving skills, typically experience significant growth during early
childhood and adolescence.
4. Development Is Plastic: It refers to the remarkable capacity of individuals to
adapt, learn, and change in response to various circumstances and experiences. It
emphasises the potential for growth and development across the lifespan,
underlining the importance of supportive environments, interventions, and personal
efforts in facilitating positive developmental outcomes. E.g., A person who faces
significant emotional challenges, such as anxiety or depression, can learn and apply
strategies through therapy to manage their emotions and develop more effective
coping mechanisms.

5. Developmental Science Is Multidisciplinary: It draws on insights, theories, and

research from a wide range of scientific disciplines to study human development
across the lifespan. The interdisciplinary approach allows researchers and
practitioners to address complex questions. E.g Psychologists, sociologists,
anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in
unlocking the mysteries of development through the lifespan.

6. Development Is Contextual: Human development occurs within specific

contexts or environments, and these contexts play a crucial role in shaping an
individual's growth and experiences. For example, a supportive and nurturing
family environment can contribute to healthy emotional and social development in
children. Contextual factors encompass a wide range of influences, including
family, culture, society etc.
7. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss:
Human development is a multifaceted process that encompasses not only the
acquisition of new skills and abilities but also the preservation and adjustment of
existing functions and the acceptance or management of losses or declines in
certain areas. As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the maintenance
and regulation of loss in their capacities takes centre stage away from growth.

8. Development Is a Co-Construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual:

Human development is the result of complex interactions between biological
factors, cultural influences, and the unique characteristics of the individual. This
perspective recognizes that these three dimensions are interrelated and shape an
individual's growth and experiences.

NATURE OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT:

A complex combination of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes

occurs throughout life. These processes are linked and impact one another as people
grow and evolve throughout their lifetime. It is the result of biological, cognitive,
and socioemotional processes, that is why the pattern is complicated.
Biological processes:

Biological processes include the physical changes that occur throughout a person's
life. This involves changes in the structure of the body, sensory abilities, motor
skills, and overall health. Prenatal development, which happens before birth, is an
important biological process that lays the groundwork for subsequent development.
Puberty, a biological milestone in adolescence, is associated with considerable
physical changes, including the development of secondary sexual traits. Another
important biological process is ageing, which involves changes in physical health,
sensory perception, and cognitive performance. These changes can have an impact
on a person's general well-being and quality of life.

Cognitive processes:

Cognitive processes are mental activities and processes that involve thinking,
learning, memory, problem solving, and decision making. According to Jean Piaget,
cognitive development encompasses various stages in which individuals acquire
new cognitive skills and capacities as they age. Changes in cognitive capacities and
problem-solving techniques occur throughout the lifespan, with changes occurring
in childhood, adolescence, and maturity.

Socio-emotional processes:

The emotional and social components of development are encompassed by

socioemotional processes. This includes emotional growth, social relationships, and
identity formation. Understanding, expressing, and controlling emotions are all part
of emotional growth. Infants begin to understand and respond to emotions, and as
they grow, their emotional skills become more complicated. Relationships with
family members, peers, and romantic partners are all elements of social growth. It
also covers

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT:

A developmental period is a definite and observable phase or stage in a person's life

during which they go through distinctive changes and reach significant
developmental milestones in their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social
development. These time frames offer a foundation for comprehending how human
development and maturation take place overtime.

Prenatal period: It is the time from conception to birth. It encompasses the

development of the embryo and foetus within the mother's womb.

Infancy: It is the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months. It is

characterised by rapid physical and sensory development, including motor skills,
vision, and language acquisition. Attachment to caregivers is a critical component
of this stage.

Early childhood: It is the developmental period from the end of infancy to age 5 or
6. During this stage, children continue to refine their motor skills and language
abilities. They also engage in imaginative play and begin to develop basic social
and emotional skills.

Middle and late childhood: It is the developmental period from about 6 to 11

years of age, approximately corresponding to the elementary school years. During
this period, the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered.
The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.

Adolescence: It is the developmental period entered at approximately 10 to 12

years of age and ending at 18 to 21 years of age. This stage is marked by significant
physical changes associated with puberty, as well as cognitive development,
including abstract thinking and identity formation. Adolescents seek independence
and develop a stronger sense of personal identity.
Early adulthood: It is the developmental period that begins in the early 20s and
lasts through the 30s. This is a period of exploration, including career, relationships,
and personal values.

Middle adulthood: It is the developmental period from approximately 40 years of

age to about 60. This stage is marked by increased responsibilities in career and
family life.

Late adulthood: It is the developmental period that begins in the 60s or 70s and
lasts until death. It is a time of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social
roles involving decreasing strength and health.

Four Ages:

Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult development and aging

increasingly describe life-span development in terms of four ages which are:

First age: Childhood and adolescence

Second age: Prime adulthood, 20s through 50s

Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age

Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older.

It is a way to understand and study human development across adulthood and

ageing. This four-age framework helps researchers and professionals understand the
unique developmental tasks and challenges that individuals face at different points
in their adult lives, facilitating the design of appropriate interventions and support
systems to promote healthy ageing and well-being.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE:

Age is a critical and central concept in the study of lifespan development. There
are significant variations in the capabilities of individuals of the same age. As we
know that human development is a complex and multifaceted process influenced by
a wide range of factors, including genetics, environment, upbringing, education,
and life experiences. These factors can lead to considerable differences in the
physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development of individuals, even if they
are the same age. Moreover, as people age, the rate and nature of changes can vary
widely from one person to another. While there are general trends and milestones
associated with different stages of life, such as childhood, adolescence, adulthood,
and old age, individuals may experience these stages differently. Some individuals
may exhibit more changes or face challenges related to ageing, while others may
maintain a high level of functioning and adaptability. E.g., a group of individuals
who are all 65 years old. While they share the same chronological age, their
physical and cognitive abilities may vary as well. Some individuals may remain
sharp and mentally agile well into their 60s, while others might experience
cognitive decline or one individual at 65 may be actively engaged in a thriving
business, while another may have retired years ago etc.

AGE AND HAPPINESS:

Research indicates that age does not necessarily dictate happiness changes, but
certain general patterns and factors can influence this relationship. Research
suggests a U-shaped pattern of happiness across lifespan, with less happiness in
early adulthood and midlife, increasing as age increases, peaking in later life across
different cultures. Life events and transitions, such as uncertainty, career
challenges, and financial pressures in young adulthood, and increased stability,
financial security, and social connections in ageing, can significantly influence
happiness. Age and happiness are not universally shared, and cultural, societal, and
personal factors significantly influence their intersection, making age just one
factor in an individual's well-being. Studies show that happiness increases with age,
with some showing no differences or a U-shaped result. However, a recent
large-scale U.S. study found that happiness increased with age, with 33% of adults
being very happy at 88 years old. Older adults report more happiness and life
satisfaction due to better relationships, less pressure, and more time for leisurely
pursuits. Baby boomers reported being less happy than earlier generations, possibly
because they are not lowering their aspirations as they age.

CONCEPTION OF AGE:

Life-span experts in developmental psychology argue that chronological age alone

is insufficient for understanding psychological development, emphasising the need
for considering multiple dimensions and factors.

BIOLOGICAL AGE: Biological age, influenced by physical health, genetics, and

ageing-related changes, can vary significantly between individuals of the same
chronological age.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE: Psychological age refers to an individual's cognitive,

emotional, and psychological development, recognizing that individuals can differ
significantly in maturity, coping abilities, and emotional intelligence despite sharing
the same chronological age.

SOCIAL AGE: Social age considers an individual's roles, responsibilities, and

social expectations in society. For example, someone who takes on significant adult
responsibilities early in life may have a social age that is older than their
chronological age.

MAJOR ISSUES OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT:

Developmental science is a relatively recent endeavour. Studies of children did not

begin until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Investigations into
adult development, ageing, and change over the life course emerged only in the
1960s and 1970s (Elder & Shanahan, 2006). Within the field of developmental
science, many theories exist, offering very different ideas about what people are
like and how they change. The study of development provides no ultimate truth
because investigators do not always agree on the meaning of what they see. Also,
humans are complex beings; they change physically, mentally, emotionally, and
socially.

1. NATURE VS NURTURE:

The nature-nurture debate concerns the extent to which nature and nurture influence
development. Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance, whereas nurture
relates to its environmental experiences. Nature is the hereditary information we
receive from our parents at the moment of conception. Nurture, means the complex
forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and
psychological experiences before and after birth. According to those who
emphasise nature's role, just as a sunflower grows in an organised manner—unless
hampered by an unpleasant environment—so, too, does the human grow in an
orderly manner. Commonalities in growth and development are produced by an
evolutionary and genetic base (Brooker, 2011; Raven, 2011). Thus, the
nature-nurture issue debates whether development is primarily influenced by
biological inheritance or environmental experiences, with proponents arguing that
nature is more significant.

2. STABILITY AND CHANGE:

The stability-change issue refers to the degree to which we become older versions
of our early experiences, or whether we develop differently from our initial point of
development. Developmentalists who emphasise stability argue that it is a result of
heredity and early experiences, while those who emphasise change believe later
experiences can produce change, as plasticity exists throughout the life span. Baltes
(2003) argues that with increasing age and on average older adults often show less
capacity for change in the sense of learning new things than younger adults.
However, many older adults continue to be good at practising what they have
learned in earlier times.

CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY:

The focus is on the degree to which development involves gradual, cumulative
change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). The continuity-discontinuity
issue focuses on the degree to which development involves either gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). In terms of
continuity, as the oak grows from seedling to giant oak, it becomes more of an
oak—its development is continuous Similarly, a child’s first word, though
seemingly an abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually the result of weeks and
months of growth and practice. Puberty might seem abrupt, but it is a gradual
process that occurs over several years. In terms of discontinuity, as an insect grows
from a caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly y, it passes through a sequence of
stages in which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively different.
Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about
the world to being able to. This is a qualitative, discontinuous change in
development rather than a quantitative, continuous change.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT :

1. OBSERVATION METHOD:

Scientific observation requires an important set of skills (McBurney & White,

2010). For observations to be effective, they have to be systematic. We have to have
some idea of what we are looking for. We have to know who we are observing,
when and where we will observe, how the observations will be made, and how they
will be recorded. Observing scientifically requires controlling certain factors that
determine behaviour, which is why some research in life-span development is
conducted in a laboratory setting. This allows for more control over the factors
observed, such as aggression and treatment, allowing for more accurate
interpretation of observations. Laboratory research has advantages over home or
school observations. While as, Naturalistic observation offers insights beyond
laboratory settings, observing behaviour in real-world settings without
manipulation. Life-span researchers conduct naturalistic observations in sporting
events, childcare centres, work settings, and malls.

2. SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS:

The best and quickest way to get information about people is to ask them for it. One
technique is to interview them directly. A related method is the survey (sometimes
referred to as a questionnaire), which is especially useful when information from
many people is needed (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009). A standard set of questions
is used to obtain peoples’ self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.
In a good survey, the questions are clear and unbiased, allowing respondents to
answer unambiguously. Surveys and interviews can be used to study a wide range
of topics from religious beliefs to sexual habits to attitudes about gun control to
beliefs about how to improve schools. Surveys and interviews may be conducted in
person, over the telephone, and over the Internet. One problem with surveys and
interviews is the tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that they
think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than to say what they truly think or
feel (Creswell, 2008). For example, on a survey or in an interview some individuals
might say that they do not take drugs even though they do.

3. STANDARDIZED TESTS:

A standardised test is a method used to measure a person's performance and provide

information about individual differences. It has uniform procedures for
administration and scoring, allowing individuals to compare their performance with
others. An example is the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, which shows how a
person's performance compares with thousands of others. However, standardised
tests assume consistent behaviour, as personality and intelligence can vary
depending on the situation. For instance, a person may perform poorly on a
standardised intelligence test in an office setting but score higher at home due to
less anxiety.

4. CASE STUDY:

A case study is a detailed examination of a single individual, often conducted by

mental health professionals when the unique aspects of an individual's life cannot
be replicated or tested in others. These studies provide information about the
subject's experiences, thoughts, and behaviours, often gathered from interviews and
medical records. Examples include Michael Rehbein, who had his left side of his
brain removed at age 7 to end severe seizures. However, case studies should be
cautious when generalising due to the subject's unique genetic makeup and personal
history. Additionally, case studies involve judgments of unknown reliability, and
researchers often do not check for the agreement of other professionals with their
observations or findings.

5. PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES:

Researchers are increasingly using physiological measures to study development at

various life stages. For instance, as puberty progresses, researchers analyse blood
samples from adolescent volunteers to understand hormonal changes.
Neuroimaging, particularly functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), is
another method used to study brain tissue and biochemical activity using
electromagnetic waves. E.g.,

1. Clinical Assessments: These assessments are used to diagnose and assess

mental health disorders. Examples include the Structured Clinical Interview
for DSM-5 (SCID), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Hamilton
Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D).
2. Personality Assessments: These measures are used to evaluate an
individual's personality traits, characteristics, and styles. Popular tools
include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and the Big Five Personality Traits
Inventory.
3. Cognitive Assessments: These assessments evaluate cognitive abilities such
as intelligence, memory, attention, and problem-solving. The Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC), and Raven's Progressive Matrices.

DESIGNS USED IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT:

1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

Descriptive research is a type of research design used in the field of social sciences
and other disciplines to observe, describe, and analyse phenomena without
manipulating variables. Its primary purpose is to provide a detailed and accurate
account of what is happening or has happened in a particular situation or context.
Descriptive research is often the first step in the research process and is valuable for
generating hypotheses, gaining a better understanding of a subject, and providing a
foundation for further research. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what
causes some phenomena, but it can reveal important information about people’s
behaviour (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010; Stake, 2010).

2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:

Correlational research is a method that goes beyond describing phenomena to

predict people's behaviour. It aims to describe the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics. The stronger the correlation, the
more effectively we can predict one event from the other (Kiess & Green, 2010).
The goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events
or characteristics. Correlational research is a non-experimental research design that
investigates the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating
any variables. Its primary objective is to determine if there is a statistically
significant relationship between variables and to describe the nature and strength of
that relationship. Correlational research involves identifying and measuring two or
more variables, such as characteristics or factors, to study their relationship. The
strength and direction of the relationship are expressed using the correlation
coefficient, which quantifies the degree of association between variables.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:

Experimental research is a method used by researchers to study causality, where

one or more factors influencing a behaviour are manipulated while all other factors
remain constant. If the behaviour changes when a manipulated factor is present, it is
considered a cause and effect. Non-experimental research methods, such as
descriptive and correlational research, cannot establish cause and effect as they do
not involve controlled manipulation of factors. Experiments include two types of
changeable factors, or variables: independent and dependent. An independent
variable is a manipulated, influential, experimental factor. It is a potential cause.
The label “independent” is used because this variable can be manipulated
independently of other factors to determine its effect. An experiment may include
one independent variable or several of them. A dependent variable is a factor that
can change in an experiment, in response to changes in the independent variable.
As researchers manipulate the independent variable, they measure the dependent
variable for any resulting effect. Experiments can involve one or more experimental
groups and one or more control groups. An experimental group is a group whose
experience is manipulated. A control group is a comparison group that is as much
like the experimental group as possible and that is treated in every way like the
experimental group except for the manipulated factor (independent variable). The
control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated
condition can be compared.

THEORIES OF LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT:

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES :

1. Freud’s Theory

2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Psychoanalytic theories view development as unconscious and heavily influenced

by emotion, emphasising that behaviour is a surface characteristic and
understanding requires analysing its symbolic meanings and deep inner workings.
Early experiences with parents significantly shape development, as highlighted in
Sigmund Freud's main psychoanalytic theory that describes development as
primarily unconscious and heavily coloured by emotion. Freud believed that early
life experiences led to problems in children, who shift their focus from the mouth to
the anus and genitals. This leads to five stages of psychosexual development: oral,
anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Our adult personality is determined by how we
resolve conflicts between pleasure sources and reality demands.

However, Freud's theory has been significantly revised by psychoanalytic theorists,

who now emphasise cultural experiences over sexual instincts. Unconscious
thought remains central, but thought play This theory posits that human behaviour
and mental processes are profoundly influenced by unconscious desires, conflicts,
and motivations. Freud divided the mind into three parts: the id (driven by primal
instincts and immediate gratification), the ego (responsible for mediating between
the id and external reality), and the superego (representing societal norms and
moral values). According to Freud, unresolved conflicts and unconscious urges
from early childhood experiences can shape an individual's personality and
behaviours.

Freud proposed a theory of psychosexual development that consists of five stages,

each associated with a specific erogenous zone and a primary source of pleasure.
These stages represent the evolution of a child's sexual and psychological
development from infancy to adolescence. These stages are:

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

Anal Stage (18 months-3 years)

Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

Latency Stage (6-12 years)

Genital Stage (12+ years)

ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES:

Erikson however believed that we develop in psychosocial stages, rather than

psychosexual stages, and that our primary motivation for behaviour is social rather
than sexual. Erikson also argued that developmental change occurs throughout our
lives, not just in the first few years of life. This contrasted with Freud's view that
early experiences are more important than later ones, and Erikson's emphasis on
both early and later experiences.

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development consists of eight stages that span
an individual's entire lifespan. These stages are characterised by unique
psychosocial crises that must be resolved to foster healthy psychological
development.

Infancy is the first stage, where infants develop trust or mistrust based on
caregivers' reliability and responsiveness to their needs. Early childhood is when
toddlers assert their independence and autonomy by exploring their environment.
Encouraging and supporting their choices fosters autonomy, while overcontrol or
criticism can lead to shame and doubt.

Preschool years are marked by initiative and purpose, as children engage in creative
play and take on responsibilities. In elementary school, children develop a sense of
industry by mastering academic and social tasks, leading to feelings of competence
and industry.

Identity vs. Role Confusion occurs in adolescence, where adolescents grapple with
questions of identity and self-discovery. Intimacy vs. Isolation occurs in young
adults, who seek to establish deep, meaningful relationships and connections with
others. Middle adulthood focuses on contributing to society through work,
parenting, or other forms of productivity, leading to generativity and fulfilment.
In late adulthood, individuals reflect on their lives and evaluate their
accomplishments and experiences. Achieving a sense of integrity involves coming
to terms with life's successes and failures, leading to wisdom and acceptance, while
failure can result in despair and regret. Erikson's psychosocial stages provide
valuable insights into human development and are widely used in fields like
psychology, education, and counselling to understand the challenges individuals
face at different life stages.

Evaluating psychoanalytic theories, particularly those developed by Sigmund

Freud, involves considering both their strengths and weaknesses. While these
theories have had a significant impact on the field of psychology and have
influenced our understanding of human behaviour and personality, they also face
criticism and limitations. Freud's work laid the foundation for modern psychology
and psychotherapy. His pioneering ideas on the unconscious mind, defence
mechanisms, and the importance of early childhood experiences were
ground-breaking in their time. Although many aspects of psychoanalytic theory are
difficult to test empirically, making them challenging to validate or refute through
scientific research. Critics argue that the lack of empirical support weakens the
theory's scientific credibility.

COGNITIVE THEORIES:

1. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

2. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Piaget's theory posits that children go through four stages of cognitive

development, each involving organisation and adaptation. These stages help
children make sense of the world by organising their experiences, separating
important ideas from less important ones, and connecting them. They also adapt to
new environmental demands. Each stage is age-related and consists of a distinct
way of thinking, resulting in a qualitatively different child's cognition in one stage
compared to another. Piaget's theory highlights the importance of understanding the
world through organised and adaptive processes.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): In the sensorimotor stage, infants and
toddlers explore the world through their senses and motor activities. They learn
about object permanence (the understanding that objects continue to exist even
when they are out of sight) and develop basic problem-solving skills. This stage
marks the transition from reflexive actions to purposeful actions.

Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): During the preoperational stage, children

begin to develop symbolic thinking and language skills. They engage in pretend
play and use symbols to represent objects and ideas. However, they often exhibit
egocentrism, meaning they struggle to understand that others may have different
perspectives or thoughts.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): In the concrete operational stage,

children become more logical and can perform mental operations on concrete
objects and events. They develop the ability to understand conservation (the notion
that the quantity of a substance remains the same despite changes in appearance)
and can think more systematically about problems. However, abstract and
hypothetical thinking remains challenging.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older): The formal operational stage is
characterised by the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Adolescents and
adults in this stage can engage in deductive reasoning, problem-solving, and
planning for the future. They can also think about complex moral and ethical issues.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory:

Vygotsky, a Russian developmentalist, believed that children actively construct

their knowledge, but emphasised the importance of social interaction and culture in
cognitive development. Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasises the role of
social and cultural factors in shaping cognitive development, emphasising the
importance of interaction, language, and cultural context. His sociocultural
cognitive theory posits that children's development is inseparable from social and
cultural activities, requiring them to learn to use societal inventions like language,
mathematical systems, and memory strategies. Vygotsky believed that children's
social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable for their
cognitive development, as they learn to adapt and be successful in their culture
through the use of tools. This theory highlights the interconnectedness of culture
and social interaction in shaping cognitive development.

Vygotsky emphasised the importance of social interaction in cognitive

development, arguing that learning is a social process where children acquire
knowledge and skills through interactions with knowledgeable individuals.
Language plays a central role in cognitive development, reflecting and actively
contributing to it, as it allows children to internalise knowledge and engage in
private speech for self-regulation. Vygotsky also highlighted the significance of
cultural and societal influences on cognitive development, as different cultures
provide different tools and practices that shape individuals' perception and
understanding of the world.

Cognitive theories offer a positive view of development and active understanding

construction, but face criticism for scepticism about Piaget's stages and insufficient
attention to individual variations. Cognitive theories use rigorous methods to study
mental processes, despite some assuming rational decision-making. However,
research in behavioural economics and psychology shows individuals often deviate
from rationality.

BEHAVIOURAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES:

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning :

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning theory suggests that a behaviour's

consequences can change its likelihood of recurrence. A rewarding stimulus
increases the likelihood of a behaviour recurrence, while a punishing stimulus
decreases it. For instance, a child's engagement in a behaviour increases when an
adult smiles at them, compared to a child's disapproval. Skinner's (1938) view
emphasises that development is shaped by rewards and punishments, rather than
thoughts and feelings. He believes that development is a pattern of behavioural
changes resulting from rewards and punishments. For instance, shy individuals may
learn to be shy due to childhood experiences, and environmental modifications can
help them become more socially oriented.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory :

Social cognitive theory, developed by psychologist Albert Bandura, posits that
development is learned and heavily influenced by environmental interactions.
Bandura's research focuses on observational learning, or imitation or modelling,
which occurs through observing others' behaviour. Social cognitive theorists stress
that people acquire a wide range of behaviours, thoughts, and feelings through these
observations, which form an important part of life-span development. Bandura's
view of cognitive learning is that people cognitively represent the behaviour of
others and sometimes adopt this behaviour themselves. His most recent model of
learning and development includes three elements: behaviour, person/cognition,
and environment. An individual's confidence in their ability to control their success
is an example of a person factor, while strategies are an example of a cognitive
factor.

Ethological Theory:

Ethology stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to

evolution, and is characterised by critical or sensitive periods. Ethological theory,
pioneered by Konrad Lorenz explores the evolutionary basis of behaviour,
particularly in animals. It emphasises the role of innate behaviours and critical
periods in development, as well as the influence of genetics and the environment.
John Bowlby (1969, 1989) illustrated an important application of ethological theory
to human development. Bowlby stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the
first year of life has important consequences throughout the lifespan.
PRACTICAL 1

THE PRESENCE OF CONSERVATION OF MASS, VOLUME & NUMBER

ACCORDING TO PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.

Aim : To study the presence of conservation of mass, volume, and number,

according to Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development.

Hypothesis : The presence of conservation of mass, volume, and number will be

higher in the child of the Concrete operational stage.

Basic concepts :

Cognition : Cognition encompasses mental processes like perception, attention,

memory, language, problem-solving, decision-making, and reasoning, which are
essential for human behaviour as they shape how individuals understand and
interact with their environment, ensuring efficient information acquisition,
processing, and storage. Piaget, a pioneer in cognitive development in children,
proposed a theory focusing on active exploration and interaction with their
environment, encompassing stages such as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages. Cognitive components include
perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving.

Thinking : Thinking is a multifaceted cognitive process that involves processing

information, understanding the world, solving problems, making judgments, and
generating ideas. It involves manipulating and transforming information in
memory. We think in order to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and
make decisions.

Attention: Attention is the focus of mental resources. Individuals can allocate their
attention in different ways (Columbo, Brez, & Curtendale, 2013; Fisher & others,
2013; Rueda & Posner, 2013). Psychologists have labelled these types of allocation
as :
1.Selective attention is a cognitive process that involves focusing on a specific
stimulus or aspect of the environment, filtering out other distractions while
maintaining focus.

2.Sustained attention, also known as vigilance or focused attention, is the capacity

to maintain concentration on a task or stimulus over an extended period without
becoming easily distracted.

3.Divided attention is the ability to simultaneously process multiple stimuli or

tasks, involving the division of one's attention between multiple tasks or stimuli.

4.Executive attention involves setting goals, prioritising tasks, and monitoring

progress, while also determining where to allocate cognitive resources.

Memory: Memory is the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving

information over time, a fundamental part of human cognition, crucial for learning,
adaptation, and interaction with the world. It is a complex interplay of cognitive
functions, influenced by factors like attention, rehearsal, organisation, emotional
significance, and processing depth. Psychologists have developed various models
and theories to explain memory and improve it, including the Atkinson-Shiffrin
model, working memory model, levels of processing theory, dual-process model,
and information processing model.
Encoding is the initial stage of memory, where sensory input is transformed into a
format for storage in memory. This process involves acquiring and registering
information from the external environment, and after encoding, the encoded
information is stored for later retrieval. Retrieval is the act of bringing previously
encoded and stored information back into conscious awareness, involving the
search and recall of such information.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :

Cognitive development is the gradual and systematic growth of an individual's

mental abilities and processes throughout their lifespan, encompassing various
cognitive functions like perception, attention, memory, problem-solving, reasoning,
and language. It is a crucial aspect of human development, shaping an individual's
intellectual and adaptive capabilities.Cognitive development involves achieving
milestones such as language acquisition, understanding cause-and-effect
relationships, object permanence, and mastering complex problem-solving skills,
demonstrating the progression of cognitive development.

THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development :

Piaget’s theory is a general, unifying story of how biology and experience sculpt
cognitive development. Piaget thought that, just as our physical bodies have
structures that enable us to adapt to the world, we build mental structures that help
us adapt to the world. biology. Central to his theory is the biological concept of
adaptation (Piaget, 1971). Just as structures of the body are adapted to fit with the
environment, so structures of the mind develop to better fit with, or represent, the
external world. He proposed this theory dividing cognitive development in children
from infancy to adolescence into four stages, each marked by distinct milestones
and thought processes.
The sensorimotor stage is the first of Jean Piaget's four stages of cognitive
development, occurs from birth to around two years old and is marked by
significant cognitive and sensory-motor growth.
The Preoperational Stage involves children using language and symbols to
represent objects and ideas, struggling with egocentrism and animism, and
exhibiting centration and lack of conservation in their thinking, despite changes in
appearance.
The Concrete Operational Stage involves children developing logical, operational
thinking, mastering conservation, reducing egocentricity, and incorporating
real-world experiences into their thinking.
The formal operational stage involves adolescents and adults developing abstract
and hypothetical thinking, deductive reasoning, hypothesis testing, and flexibility,
highlighting the highest level of cognitive development.

Processes of development :
Schemas: As the infant or child seeks to construct an understanding of the world,
said Piaget (1954), the developing brain creates schemes. These are actions or
mental representations that organise knowledge. In Piaget’s theory, behavioural
schemes (physical activities) characterise infancy and mental schemes (cognitive
activities) develop in childhood (Lamb, Bornstein, & Teti, 2002)

Assimilation and accommodation: To explain how children use and adapt their
schemes, Piaget offered two concepts: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with new
information or experiences. Accommodation occurs when children adjust their
schemes to take account of new information and experiences.
Organization :
-Organization in Piaget’s theory is the grouping of isolated behaviours and thoughts
into a higher-order system. Continual refinement of this organisation is an inherent
part of development. A child who has only a vague idea about how to use a hammer
may also have a vague idea about how to use other tools. After learning how to use
each one, the child relates these uses, organising his knowledge.

1.SENSORIMOTOR STAGE :
The sensorimotor stage lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. In this stage, infants
construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such
as seeing and hearing) with physical, and motoric actions. Piaget divided the
sensorimotor stage into six substages:
1. simple reflexes
2. first habits and primary circular reactions
3. secondary circular reactions
4. coordination of secondary circular reactions
5. tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
6. internalisation of schemes
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and
permanent. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object
permanence is one of the infant’s most important accomplishments.
Infants in the sensorimotor stage learn about the world through their senses,
including sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. They develop motor skills, starting
with simple reflexive movements and progressing to control body movements like
reaching, grasping, crawling, and walking. One significant cognitive achievement is
the development of object permanence, which allows infants to understand that
objects continue to exist even when not directly perceived. This understanding
allows them to search for hidden objects and realise that people and objects
continue to exist even when out of sight.

2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE : The preoperational stage, the second of Jean

Piaget's four cognitive stages, occurs in early childhood, spanning from ages 2 to 7.
It is characterised by significant cognitive development, including the use of
language and symbolic thinking. During this stage, children can use symbols to
represent objects, actions, and concepts, enabling them to engage in pretend play
and understand abstract ideas. However, they often exhibit egocentrism, struggling
to understand and consider others' perspectives. They may also engage in animistic
thinking, attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects or natural phenomena,
such as the sun being "happy" or stuffed animals having feelings.These are two
major drawbacks of this stage.

EGOCENTRISM :
Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and
someone else’s perspective. Piaget and Barbel Inhelder (1969) initially studied
young children’s egocentrism by devising the three mountains task (see Figure 6.5).
The child walks around the model of the mountains and becomes familiar with
what the mountains look like from different perspectives and can see that there are
different objects on the mountains. The child is then seated on one side of the table
on which the mountains are placed. The experimenter moves a doll to different
locations around the table, at each location asking the child to select from a series
of photos the one photo that most accurately reflects the view that the doll is seeing.
Children in the preoperational stage often pick their own view rather than the doll’s
view.

ANIMISM :
Animism, another limitation of preoperational thought, is the belief that inanimate
objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action (Gelman & Opfer, 2004). A
young child who uses animism fails to distinguish the appropriate occasions for
using human and nonhuman perspectives (Opfer & Gelman, 2011). Possibly
because young children are not very concerned about reality, their drawings are
fanciful and inventive. Suns are blue, skies are yellow, and cars float on clouds in
their symbolic, imaginative world.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL:

Piaget proposed that the concrete operational stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11
years of age. In this stage, children can perform concrete operations, and they can
reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete
examples. Remember that operations are mental actions that are reversible, and
concrete operations are operations that are applied to real, concrete objects. When a
child adds two apples together with four apples and concludes that there are now
six apples, she is performing a concrete operation. The conservation tasks described
earlier indicate whether children are capable of concrete operations. Concrete
operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than to focus on
a single property of an object.
In the clay example, the preoperational child is likely to focus on height or width.
The concrete operational stage is characterised by the understanding of
conservation, which refers to the belief that physical properties of objects, such as
quantity, volume, and number, remain constant even when their appearance or
arrangement changes. This understanding is crucial for children to comprehend
how to pour liquid from different glasses.Children progress through the concrete
operational stage, which involves classifying objects based on common attributes
and organising them logically. They also understand transitive relationships and can
infer that A is greater than C. Despite this significant cognitive development,
children still struggle with abstract or hypothetical reasoning, which becomes more
prominent in the formal operational stage. This stage is crucial for the development
of logical and operational thinking abilities, as children's thinking is tied to
concrete, observable phenomena.

4.FORMAL OPERATIONAL:

The formal operational stage, which appears between 11 and 15 years of age, is the
fourth and final Piagetian stage. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete
experiences and think in abstract and more logical ways. As part of thinking more
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. They might think
about what an ideal parent is like and compare their parents to their ideal standards.
They begin to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they
can become. In solving problems, formal operational thinkers are more systematic
and use logical reasoning. In the formal operational stage, children develop abstract
thinking, considering concepts unrelated to concrete objects or events. They can
engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning, formulate hypotheses, and test
them to arrive at logical conclusions. They can solve complex problems through a
series of steps and become skilled in logical reasoning, including understanding
syllogisms and propositional logic.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory:

Estimates of Children’s Competence Researchers have found that some cognitive
abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought (Baillargeon, 2014; Bauer, 2013;
Diamond, 2013; Johnson, 2012, 2013). Some understanding of the conservation of
numbers has been demonstrated as early as age 3, although Piaget did not think it
emerged until 7. Other cognitive abilities also can emerge later than Piaget thought
(Kuhn, 2009, 2011).
Many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to
master formal operations. Even many adults are not formal operational thinkers. In
sum, recent theoretical revisions highlight more cognitive competencies of infants
and young children and more cognitive shortcomings of adolescents and adults
(Johnson, 2012, 2013)

VYGOTSKY : Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed the sociocultural

theory of cognitive development, emphasising the significant role of social
interaction and cultural context in cognitive processes and mental functions. In
Vygotsky’s theory, children are more often described as social creatures than in
Piaget’s theory. They develop their ways of thinking and understanding primarily
through social interaction (Mahn & John-Steiner, 2013). Their cognitive
development depends on the tools provided by society, and their minds are shaped
by the cultural context in which they live (Gauvain, 2013).

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) :

It is a crucial concept in Vygotsky's theory, referring to tasks that a learner cannot
perform independently but can complete with the guidance of a knowledgeable
person, such as a teacher, mentor, or peer. The ZPD represents the gap between a
learner's actual developmental level and what they can achieve with assistance.
Vygotsky's belief in the importance of social influences, particularly instruction, in
children's cognitive development is reflected in his concept of the ZPD. The lower
limit of the ZPD represents the level of skill a child can achieve independently,
while the upper limit represents the level of additional responsibility they can
accept with the help of an able instructor.
Scaffolding :
It is a teaching approach where a knowledgeable person provides support and
guidance to a learner within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This
support can take various forms, such as verbal instruction, modeling, or breaking
complex tasks into manageable steps. As the learner becomes more capable, the
scaffolding can be gradually reduced until the learner can perform the task
independently. Scaffolding is closely linked to the concept of ZPD, as it involves
adjusting the level of support to fit the child's current performance.

Language and thought :

Language plays a crucial role in a child's development, as Vygotsky argued.
Children use speech for social communication, task solving, and self-regulation,
known as private speech. Language and thought develop independently, merging
after a social origin. Vygotsky emphasised that all mental functions have external
origins, and children must use language to communicate with others before they
can focus on their own thoughts. This highlights the importance of language in a
child's development.Vygotsky held that children who use a lot of private speech are
more socially competent than those who don’t. He argued that private speech
represents an early transition in becoming more socially communicative.

Criticism :
Vygotsky was not specific enough about age-related changes.
1. He did not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities
contribute to cognitive development (Goncu & Gauvain, 2012).
2. He overemphasised the role of language in thinking.
3. His emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls.
4. Limited Focus on Later Stages of Development.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

1. A study titled "Feedback and Performance of Piagetian Conservation Tasks

in a Developing Country" by Onyehalu (1983) explored the usefulness of a
feedback strategy (knowledge-of-results) in posttest conservation of
substance and quantity. Individual interviews were used to acquire data
from 247 Nigerian individuals. Statistical evaluations utilising t-tests
revealed that the feedback individuals performed considerably better (p.05)
than the no-feedback controls. The theoretical implications of the findings,
particularly as they relate to Nigerian cultural practice, were highlighted.
2. McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) conducted a study titled "Conservation
Accidents" in which eighty children aged 4 years 2 months to 6 years 3
months were tested on length and number conservation, both when the
transformation occurred due to direct action by the experimenter and when
it occurred 'accidentally' as a by-product of another activity. Fifty children
were saved when the change was "accidental," while only 13 were saved
when it was "intentional." These findings are interpreted as evidence that
aspects of the experimenter's behaviour, particularly his actions toward the
task materials, can influence children's interpretation of utterances by
implying that the experimenter is thinking about something other than the
one specified linguistically. It has been proposed that standard approaches
may undervalue children's cognitive capacity.

3. In the study titled "Social Learning and Cognitive Development: Modelling

Effects on Children's Understanding of Conservation" by John P. Murray,
the effects of modeling children's understanding of conservation are
examined. In 120 youngsters, the cognitive constraints of social learning
were investigated. Children were classified as conservers, partly conservers,
or nonconservers based on a pre-test of substance conservation. Following
that, each kid saw a videotape of either a conserving, mixed, or
non-conserving model performing a basic Piagetian conservation activity. A
post-test was then administered. The extent of post-modeling behaviour
modification was shown to be proportional to the child's starting
developmental level. Children who witnessed a non-conserving model did
not regress in their conservation comprehension. These findings imply that
the favourable impacts of modeling are predictable based on the initial
cognitive level.

4. The study "Embodied Action Improves Cognition in Children: Evidence

from a Study Based on Piagetian Conservation Tasks" by Lozada and Karro
(2016) investigated whether embodied action (enaction) increases cognitive
 understanding in children. The study analysed quantity conservation
conceptualization in children who were active participants in the
transformation process using Piagetian conservation tasks in 6-7-year-olds
and compared these results to those of children who were mere observers of
an adult's demonstration (as is traditionally done). The investigation
involved 105 first-graders. Half of the youngsters were shown conservation
chores, while the other half actively participated in matter transformation.
Our findings revealed that active manipulation of the material helped
children recognize quantity invariance in a greater proportion than simply
watching the demonstration. That is, their active experience allowed them to
understand conservation phenomena more easily than passive observers.
Thus, the findings of this study highlight how active participation promotes
cognitive processes in learning environments, fostering autonomy and
agency during childhood.

DESIGN OF THE STUDY :

The design of the study used in the study is “experimental research design” in
which the manipulated or the independent variable is- “task and age”, while the
dependent variable on which the effect is observed is “conservation”. In this
controlled research framework, the choice of "task" and "age" as independent
variables allows for the systematic examination of their potential impact on the
child’s ability to conserve.

PLAN OF THE STUDY :

In the conservation of the mass, the first 2 equal balls of clay were shown and the
participants were asked if they were equal. Then the ball on the right-hand side was
flattened and the participants were asked again if they were equal or not. The
answer was recorded. In the conservation of volume, coloured water was poured
into two same transparent glasses from a large container and the participants were
asked to stop the experimenter when the water was equal, the water from the right
glass was poured into a taller glass and the participants were asked whether the
water was more in any one glass or were they equal. In the conservation of
numbers, two rows of five coins were made and the participants were asked if the
number of coins were equal or not. Then the second row of coins was made longer
by putting more space between them and the question was asked if the number of
coins were equal or not.

SAMPLE: The study consisted of two samples Child A & Child B. The age of
Child A was 5 years which means he belonged to the preoperational stage and
Child B was 8 years old belonging to the concrete-operational stage.

Preliminary Information: name, age & stage.

ADMINISTRATION:

Informed consent from the guardians of the participants was taken and they were
debriefed about the experiment. Material for the experiment was prepared before
the participant was brought to the laboratory. The seating arrangement was made in
the manner that the participant and the experimenter were facing each other.
Rapport was formed with the participants before the start of the experiment. At the
end of the experiment, it was made sure that the participants were not
uncomfortable in any manner and escorted back to the guardian.
Precautions:

1. Informed consent was taken from the child's parents.

2. Good rapport was formed before starting with the tasks.
3. No external noise was there to disturb the participants.
4. All The coins were of the same size and number in the task of number.
5. In the conservation of liquid task transparent glasses were used.
6. It was made sure that coloured playdough was used.
7. It was made sure that the participant was not uneasy after the experiment.
 Child A Child B
Task
Case 1 Case 2 Response Case Case 2 Response
(Conservation) 1 (Conservation)

Mass YES NO The crushed YES YES It has more

item contains
additional clay clay
because it because it
seems large. feels heavy
and big

Volume YES NO The small YES NO The small

one has one is
more water almost full
because it and has
is almost more water.
full

Number YES NO The second YES YES The second

line is filled line is big
with more
coins and is
big

Error 0 3 - 0 1 -

Error 0 100% - 0 33.3% -

Percentage

DISCUSSION:
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development explains how children acquire
cognitive abilities and progress through various stages. Piaget identified four
major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational. Each stage is characterised by specific cognitive processes, abilities,
and challenges, and children progress sequentially, building upon the previous one.
Piaget emphasised the crucial role of children in their cognitive development,
stating that they construct their understanding of the world through their
interactions with their environment through active exploration and experimentation.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development focuses on the concept of conservation,

which refers to the ability to recognize that certain properties of objects, such as
mass, volume, or number, remain constant despite changes in their appearance. This
concept is a key cognitive milestone identified in Piaget's theory, which highlights
the development of cognitive abilities in young children. Key cognitive milestones
include conservation, which demonstrates that certain properties of objects remain
constant despite changes in appearance, and object permanence, which
demonstrates that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. eg,
(conservation of number) A child is shown two rows of candies, with equal
numbers in each. They are then shown one candy moved to the other row, causing
one row to have more spaced out candies. In the preoperational stage, children may
perceive longer rows as simpler, but by age 7-11, they understand that moving
candies doesn't alter the total number.

This study investigates the conservation of mass, volume, and number in children,
aligning with Piaget's cognitive development theory. The study used an
experimental research design to examine the impact of task and age on the
dependent variable, conservation, and how these factors affect children's ability to
recognize the conservation of fundamental properties of objects.The experimental
research design investigates how different conservation tasks and age affect
children's recognition of object conservation properties, providing insights into the
developmental progression of conservation abilities in children by manipulating
task type and age.

The experiment involved two children, child A aged 5 and child B aged 8, who
were divided into pre-operational and concrete-operational stages. Both children
were given conservation tasks based on mass, number, and volume.The experiment
involved children comparing two identical quantities of clay, one rolled into a
compact ball and the other flattened into a thin pancake shape. They were asked if
the clay had the same amount or more. The volume was measured by pouring water
into a smaller container and comparing the volume. The number was measured by
comparing two rows of coins with equal numbers in each row. The spread-out row
was then extended to appear longer. The error percentage of both children was
calculated after the experiment.

The study aimed to investigate the conservation of mass, volume, and number in
children aged 8 and above. The results showed that the conservation was higher in
the 8-year-old child compared to the 5-year-old child, with a 33.3% error
percentage. However, child B, in his concrete-operational stage, made an error in
the conservation of volume. The findings support the hypothesis that the
conservation of these elements is more effective in older children.

A study by Mix, Huttenlocher, and Levine (2002) examined the development of

number conservation in preschool-aged children. It investigates how children's
understanding of conservation evolves between the ages of 3 and 5 years. The study
aimed to investigate the comprehension of number conservation in children aged 3
to 5 years, focusing on their understanding of the constant quantity of objects
despite changes in appearance. Researchers conducted tasks involving changing
object spatial arrangement, such as showing children a row of objects and then
spreading them out into a longer row, and a control condition where the
arrangement remained constant.

The study revealed that 3-year-old children often struggle with understanding
number conservation, often believing the quantity has changed due to changes in
spatial arrangement. However, by age 4, they began to recognize that the quantity
of objects remains constant despite changes in spatial arrangement. By age 5, most
children consistently demonstrated understanding of number conservation,
distinguishing between changes in spatial arrangement and changes in quantity.
Between ages 3 and 5, children develop significant cognitive skills, such as
recognizing constant object numbers despite spatial changes. This research
contributes to understanding developmental milestones in numerical cognition in
preschool-aged children, aligning with Piaget's theories, particularly in
preoperational and concrete operational stages. The study provides valuable
insights into the cognitive abilities of children at different developmental stages, but
its limitations include a small sample size of two children, which limits
generalizability.

LIMITATIONS :

1. It is done on a small sample size, focusing solely on conservation in terms of

mass, volume, and number, not accounting for cultural and socioeconomic factors.
2. It is not considering external factors like educational experiences and familial
influences.
3. It does not focus on the socioeconomic factors that can influence cognitive
development.

SCOPE :

1. This research aims to understand how cognitive abilities related to conservation

evolve in children through different developmental stages.
2. It compares a 5-year-old child in the pre-operational stage to an 8-year-old in the
concrete-operational stage, revealing specific cognitive advancements.
3. The research extends beyond theoretical considerations, examining the practical
implications of Piaget's theory.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, this study explores the concept of conservation in children,

specifically in the domains of mass, volume, and number, as part of Jean Piaget's
cognitive development theory, a key focus of developmental psychology research.
The research aims to provide a foundational understanding of how children acquire
cognitive abilities and navigate developmental stages.This study enhances our
comprehension of preschool-aged children's developmental milestones in numerical
cognition, aligning with Piaget's cognitive theories, especially in preoperational and
operational stages. Piaget's theory suggests that children's ability to conserve
fundamental properties develops as they progress through cognitive stages. Young
children may lack this understanding, but they gradually acquire conservation skills
as they transition from pre operational to operational stages. Conservation tasks are
widely used to study and validate Piaget's theory.

REFERENCES :

Berk, L. E. (2010). Child Development (9th Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall.
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Feldman, R.S., Babu, N. (2011). Discovering the life-span. New-Delhi: Pearson.

Lozada, P., Karro, S. (2016). Embodied action improves cognition in children: Evidence
from a study based on Piagetian conservation tasks.

.McGarrigle, D., Donaldson, R. (1974). Conservation Accidents.

Murray, P. J. (1965). Social Learning and Cognitive Development: Modeling effects on

children's understanding of conservation.

Onyehalu, S. (1983). Feedback and performance of Piagetian Conservation Task in a

developing country.

Santrock, J.W. (2012). A topical approach to life-span development. New-Delhi:Tata

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